Elastic Stress-Strain

Relationships

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 1

 Engineers are primarily concerned with the
development and design of machines, structures
etc.

 These products are often subjected to forces/

deformations, resulting in stresses/strains, the
properties of materials under the action of forces
and deformations becomes an important
engineering consideration.

 The properties of materials when subjected to

stresses and strains are called “mechanical
properties”. In other words the properties that
determine the behavior of engineering mats under
applied forces are called “mechanical properties”.
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 2
 Stress and Strain
 Stress: Intensity of the internal force,
measured by force per unit area
 Normal Stress: 
 Shear Stress: //
 Strain:
 Normal Strain: Elongation per unit length
 Shear Strain: Change in angel from the right angle 
 Nominal Stress: Force divided by the original
cross sectional area
 True Stress: Force divided by the actual cross
sectional area
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 3
 The response of a material to applied forces
depends on the type and nature of the bond
and the structural arrangement of atoms,
molecules or ions.

 Basic deformation types for load carrying

materials are:
1. Elastic deformation (deformations are
instantaneously recoverable)
2. Plastic deformation (non-recoverable)
3. Viscous deformation (time dependent
deformation)
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 4
 More Definitions
 Stress vs. Strain Diagrams: Plot of
stress vs. strain for a given material.
 Linear (Elastic) Range: Range of stress-
strain diagram in which stress is (generally)
proportional to strain.
 Nonlinear (Plastic) Range: Range of
stress-strain diagram in which stress is NOT
proportional to strain.

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 5

 Formulas for Stress and Strain
Tension
For an axially loaded member: P
Nominal (or Engineering) Stress
P

Ao A0
True Stress
P

A A
Where  = stress, psi or pascal P
P = magnitude of the applied force, lb or N
Ao = original cross sectional area, in2 or m2
A = cross sectional area at the moment the stress is
calculated, in2 or m2

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 6

 “Linear” and “Elastic”
 Linear
 Linear and
Stress is
proportional Elastic
to strain.
0 

Stress is
 Elastic proportional
to strain, &
after unloading,
After unloading,
no permanent
no permanent deformation.
deformation.
0 
0 
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 7
The Linear (Elastic) Range
The slope of the line in
the linear (elastic) range
is the elastic modulus, E,
and is the constant of
proportionality between
the stress and the strain.

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 8

 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial shape
d
F
F Linear-
Return to the original shape elastic
when the applied load is Non-Linear-
removed. elastic
Elastic means reversible!
d
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 9
 Hooke’s Law and
Poission’s Ratio
 Hooke’s Law: 
Stress is proportional
to strain σ ~ ε

 Poission’s Ratio: 

Ratio of lateral strain (caused by

longitudinal strain) to the longitudinal
strain

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 10

 Mathematical Relationships for
Strain and Poisson’s Ratio

Longitudinal Strain:
x x1  x0
 
x

x x0
Lateral Strain:
 y y1  y 0  z z1  z 0
y  z 
y y0 z z0
Poission’s Ratio:
 y  z Either transverse strain or
 yx   zx 
 x x longitudional strain is
For Isotropic Materials: y = z =  negative,   is positive
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 11
 Virtually all common materials undergo a
transverse contraction when stretched in one
direction and a transverse expansion when
compressed.
 In an isotropic material the allowable (theoretical)
range of Poisson's ratio is from -1.0 to +0.5,
based on the theory of elasticity.
metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics:  ~ 0.25
polymers:  ~ 0.40

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 12

 Modulus of Elasticity
 Constant of proportionality (slope of a line)
in elastic range.

E
 Unit: Pa=N/m2
 It is also called as Young’s Modulus.
 For a linear material, the relationship between
stress and strain:
and 
  E 
E

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 13

Slope of stress strain plot (which is
proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal

E=

Adapted from Fig. 6.7,

Callister 7e.

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 14

 Modulus of Elasticity :

• High in covalent compounds such as diamond

• Lower in metallic and ionic crystals
• Lowest in molecular amorphous solids such
as plastics and rubber.

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 15

Example:
Uniaxial Loading of a Prismatic Specimen
P=1000 kgf

9.9 cm
10 cm
Determine
10.4 cm
E and 
10 cm

10 cm 9.9 cm

Before After

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 16

 P=1000 kgf 1000
P=1000kgf → σ= = 10kgf/cm2
Δd/2=0.05cm 10*10
Δl/2=0.2cm
σ 10
E= = = 250 kgf/cm2
ε 0.04
10cm
Δl 0.4
εlong= = =0.04
l0 10

10cm Δd -0.1
εlat= = = -0.01
d0 10
1000 kgf

-0.01
 =- = 0.25
0.04
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 17
Typical Stress-Strain Curves for
Materials

(a) Mild Steel (b) Iron

(c) Rubber
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 18
Various Moduli for Non-linear
Materials

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 19

 Three Various Moduli
(1) Initial Tangent Modulus: The slope of a
line tangent to the stress-strain curve at the
origin (E).
(2) Secant Modulus: The slope of a line
intersecting the origin and a selected point
on the stress-strain curve (Es).
(3) Tangent Modulus: The slope of a tangent
line at a selected point on the stress-strain
curve (ET).

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 20

 ELASTIC CONSTANTS IN
ISOTROPIC MATERIALS
1. Elasticity Modulus (E)
2. Poisson’s Ratio (n)
3. Shear Modulus (G)
4. Bulk Modulus (K)

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 21

3. Shear Modulus, G M

t simple
torsion
G test

t=Gg
g

Units:
G: [GPa]

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 22

 4. Bulk Modulus, K
P
Initial Volume = V0
Volume Change = V P
P
V
avg = K
Vo avg

σavg is the average of V

three stresses applied
Vo Units:
along three principal K
directions. K: [GPa]
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 23
 Elastic Constants
= E  Normal
t= G g Shear
V
avg = K Volumetric
Vo
Stresses Strains

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 24

 RELATION B/W K & E
 Consider a cube with a unit volume
σ
σ causes an elongation in the direction
D
1 CD and contraction in the directions AB
& BC.
C
1 The new dimensions of the cube is :
A B • CD direction is 1+ε
1
σ
• BC direction is 1-νε

• AB direction is 1-νε

Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 25

 V0 = 1
 Final volume Vf of the cube is now:
(1+ε) (1-νε) (1-νε) = (1+ε) (1-2νε+μ2ε2)
= 1 - 2νε + μ2ε2 + ε-2νε2 + μ2ε3
= 1 + ε - 2νε - 2νε2 + μ2ε2 + μ2ε3

ε is small, ε2 & ε3 are smaller and can be neglected.

 Vf = 1+ ε - 2νε → ΔV = Vf - V0 = ε (1-2ν)
 If equal tensile stresses are applied to each
of the other two pairs of faces of the cube
than the total change in volume will be :
ΔV = 3ε (1-2ν)
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 26
 σ
σ

σ σ
Ξ + +

σ
σ
SΔV = 3ε (1-2ν) = ε (1-2ν) + ε (1-2ν) + ε (1-2ν)

avg (σ+σ+σ)/3 σ E
K= = = =
V/V0 3ε (1-2ν) 3ε (1-2ν) 3 (1-2ν)

E
K=
3 (1-2ν)
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 27
  The relation between E
K=
K and E is : 3 (1-2ν)

 Moreover the relation

between G and E is : E
G=
2 (1+ν)

 The relation between

1 1 1
G, E and K is : = +
E 9K 3G

Therefore, out of the four elastic

constants only two of them are
independent. Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 28
 For very soft materials such as pastes, gels,
putties, K is very large

 Note that as K → ∞ → ν → 0.5 & E ≈ 3G

 If K is very large → ΔV/V0 ≈ 0 *No volume

change

 For materials like metals, fibers & certain

plastics K must be considered.
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 29
 Elastic Constants of Some Materials
E(psi)x106 (GPa) G(psi)x106 (GPa) ν (-)
Cast Iron 16 110 7.4 50 0.17
Steel 30 205 11.8 80 0.26
Aluminum 10 70 3.6 25 0.33
Concrete 1.5-5.5 10-40 0.62-2.30 4-15 0.2
Wood Long 1.81 12 0.11 0.7
?
Tang 0.10 0.7 0.03 0.2
Elastic Stress-Strain Relationships 30