HISTORY

The word shell is an old one and is commonly used to describe the hard covering of eggs,

Crustacea

Derived from the word scalus, as in fish scale.

The development of masonry domes and vaults in the Middle Ages made possible the construction

of more spacious buildings. In more recent times the availability of reinforced concrete has

stimulated interest in the use of shells for roofing purposes.

Introduction:

A compression -compressive force will cause a member of structure to be squashed.

A tension - tensile force cause a member of structure to be stretched.

A Bending force is a complex force state associated with the bowing of a member such as beam. it

causes fiber on one face of the member to elongate and hence be in tension and fibers on the

opposite face to compress

A torsion- torsional force cause a member to be twisted.

A shear force cause a member to slide/tilt to a side.

The action of External Forces on a structure:

THE SHELL SYSTEM DEFINITION:

They are light weight constructions using shell elements.

Shell structures achieve the most pure synthesis of architectural and structural forms.

Also known as ‘surface structures’, shells resist and transfer loads within their minimal

thicknesses. They rely upon their three-dimensional curved geometry and correct orientation and

placement of supports for their adequate structural performance.

Continuity & Curvature:

The essential ingredients of a shell structure in all of the foregoing examples are continuity and

curvature.

Shells are structurally continuous in the sense that they can transmit forces in a number of

different directions in the surface of the shell, as required.

Shell structures have quite a different mode of action from skeletal structures, of which simple

examples are trusses, frameworks, and trees because other structures are only capable of

transmitting forces along their discrete structural.

Closed and Open Shells:

Anyone who has built children’s toys from thick paper or thin cardboard will be familiar with the

fact that a closed box is rigid, whereas an open box is easily deformable (. The same sort of thing

applies in shell structure:

Close surfaces are rigid.

In practice it is not usually possible to make completely closed structural boxes.

For shell with openings, reinforce the edge of the hole in such a way as to compensate, to a certain

extent, for the presence of the hole.

The amount of reinforcement required depends on the size of the hole, and to what extent the

presence of the whole makes the structure an open one.

Large openings are essential in some forms of construction, like in shell roof.

A main objective in the design of shell roofs is to eliminate those aspects of behavior that spring

from the open nature of the shell.

TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION

SHELL STRUCTURES TYPES:

Folded plate shells: The peculiar feature of the folded plate is the ease in forming plane surfaces.

a folded plate may be formed for about the same cost as a horizontal slab and has much less steel

and concrete for the same spans. The principle components in a folded plate structure consist of :

THE INCLINED PLATES: Edge plates which must be used to stiffen the wide .

Stiffeners to carry the loads to the supports and to hold the plates in line.

Columns to support the structure in the air.

CYLINDRICAL BARREL VAULTS: Barrel Vaults are perhaps the most useful of the shell

structures because they can span up to 150 feet with a minimum of material. they are very efficient

structures because the use the arch form to reduce stresses and thicknesses in the transverse

direction.

DOMES OF REVOLUTION: A dome is a space structure covering a more or less square or

circular area. the best known example is the dome of revolution, and it is one of the earliest of the

shell structures. excellent examples are still in existence that were built in roman times. they are

formed by a surface generated by a curve of any form revolving about a vertical line. this surface

has double curvature and the resulting structure is much stiffer and stronger than a single curved

surface, such as a cylindrical shell.

Shell System Materials : Shell structures can be made of such materials as:

1. Reinforced thin-shell concrete.

2. Glass.

3. Steel.

4. Glass & Steel.

5. Plastic.

REINFORCED THIN-SHELL CONCRETE: The material most suited for construction of shell

structure is concrete because it is a highly plastic material when first mixed with water that can

take up any shape on centering or inside formwork. Small sections of reinforcing bars can readily

be bent to follow the curvature of shells. Once the cement has set and the concrete has hardened

the R.C.C membrane or slab acts as a strong, rigid shell which serves as both structure and

covering to the building.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

The barrel vault is the most straight forward single curvature shell construction. it is the part of a

cylinder or barrel with same curvature along its length. any number of continuous barrels or

continuous spans are possible except that eventually provision is made for the expansion of the

joints in a large structures. the barrel vaults are used as parking, market place, assembly hall ,etc.

Types of barrel vaults:

1. Short span barrel vaults.

2. long span barrel vaults.

SHORT SPAN BARREL VAULT : Short span barrel vaults are those in which span is shorter

than its width. It is used for the width of the arch ribs between which the barrel vault span.
LONG SPAN BARREL VAULT : Long span barrel vaults are those in which span is larger than

its width. Strength of the structure lies at the right angles to the curvature to that span is linear to

the curvature. * Usual span of the linear barrel vault is from 12-30 m with its width being about

1/2 the span and rise is 1/5 of the width. To cover larger areas multibuy ,multi span roofs can be

used where the roof is extended across the width of the vault as a multibuy .

STIFFENING BEAMS AND ARCHES: Under local loads the thin shell of the barrel vault will

tend to distort and lose shape and even collapse if the resultant stresses were more. To strengthen

the shell against this possibility, stiffening beams or arches are cast integrally with the shell. The

common practice is to provide a stiffening member between the column supporting the shell.

Down stand stiffening R.C.C beam is most efficient because of its depth, but this interrupts the

line of soffit of vaults, for this upstand stiffening beam is used. The disadvantage of upstand beam

is that it breaks up the line of roof and need protections against weather.

EDGE AND VALLEY BEAMS: Due to self weight and imposed load the thin shell will tend to

spread and its curvature flatten out. To resist this R.C.C edge beams are cast between columns.

Edge beams may be cast as dropped beams or upstand beams or partially as both. In hot climate

the dropped beam is used whereas in temperate climate upstand beam is used to form drainage

channel for rain water. In multi-bay structures, spreading of the vaults is largely transmitted to the

adjacent shells, so down stand and feather valley beam is used.

EXPANSION JOINTS: The change in temperature causes the Expansion and contraction in

concrete Structures, which causes the structures to Deform or collapse (To limit this continuous

expansion joints are Formed at the interval of about 30m, along the Span and across the width of

the multi-bay and Multi-span barrel vault roofs. Linear Expansion joints are formed in a up stand

Valley.

ROOF LIGHTS:
• Top light can be provided by deck light formed in the crown of vault or by dome light. The deck

light can be continuous or formed as individual lights. Roof lights are fixed to an upstand curb cast

integrally with the shell.

• Advantage of the shell is that its concave soffit reflects and helps to disperse light over area

below.

• Disadvantage is that top light may cause over heating and glare. Roof covering:

• Shells may be covered with non-steel or metal sheet metal, asphalt, bitumen felt, a plastic

membrane or a liquid rubber base coating. Roof insulation:

• The thin shell offers poor resistance to transfer of heat. The need to add some form of insulating

lining adds considerably to cost of shell.

• The most satisfactory method of insulation is to spread a light weight screed over the shell.

Difficulties of providing insulation and maintaining the elegance of curved shape makes these

structures largely unsuited to heated buildings in temperate climate.

REINFORCED CONCRETE BARREL VAULT

Advantage

1. Allowing wide areas to be spanned without the use of internal supports, giving an open,

unobstructed interior.

2. No bending moment in shell structures.

3. Shell structures are suited to carrying distributed loads not concentrated loads.

4. Loads applied to shell surfaces are carried to the ground by the tensile, shear, compressive

forces 5. Span thickness ratio of 400-500

Ex: 8cm Thickness.....30-38m Span

6. Very light form of construction. to span 30.0 m shell thickness required is 60mm

7. Dead load can be reduced economizing foundation and supporting system

8. They further take advantage of the fact that arch shapes can span longer

9. Flat shapes by choosing certain arched shapes

10.Esthetically it looks good over other forms of construction

Disadvantages

1. Shuttering problem

2. Greater accuracy in formwork is required

3. Good labor and supervision necessary

4. Rise of roof may be a disadvantage

USES

 Shells use all the modes of structural action available to beams, struts, arches, cables

and plates, plus another mode that we might call ‘shell action’, which we will now try

and pin down.

 Structural elements that approximate to lines (beams, arches and cables) or to

surfaces (plates and shells) all share the same property: they are much easier to bend

than to stretch. We use the word ‘stretch’ to mean change in length, possibly getting

shorter, a ‘negative stretch’. Clearly a cable will stretch when we apply a tension to it.

A column will undergo a negative stretch when we apply a compression to it.

 But if we apply more load it will buckle and it will get shorter through bending, rather

than axial strain. A parabolic arch or cable can carry a uniform vertical load per unit

horizontal length using only axial compression or tension. T

 he component of load perpendicular to the cable is balanced by the axial force

multiplied by the curvature. Thus load in KN/m is balanced by a force in KN

multiplied by the curvature in 1/metres. Note that curvature is defined as 1/(radius of

curvature). Other loads will cause bending moment in the arch or deflection of the

cable. The arch bending moment is the product of the thrust and its eccentricity from

the axis.
 Shell roofs are made from structural ‘skins’ where the shell material is thin

in section relative to the other dimensions of the roof and undergoes relatively little

deformation under load.

 They are commonly used where a building interior needs to be free from

intermediate walls or columns that might support a more conventional flat or pitched

roof, such as; libraries, theatres, leisure centres, airport and railway terminals, and so

on.

 Shell roofs can be ‘flat’, but are typically curved, assuming a cylindrical, domed,

paraboloid or ellipsoid shape. The curvature of shell structures benefits from the same

structural efficiency as arches, which are pure compression forms with no tensile

stresses. Because of their structural efficiency less material is generally needed

compared to more traditional roofs.

GEODESIC DOMES

HISTORY

GEODESIC DOMES- The only structure system that can be attributed to one man R. Buckminster

Fuller.

Geodesic domes are giant bubbles created from metal rods arranged into triangles. Domes offered

advantages never available before in architecture.

Very light weight in relation to size and amazingly strong

Suspension structure is mostly associated with bridges. Developed in 19th century.

Weight of the structure is suspended from steel cables that are attached to vertical pylons driven

into the ground.

Reinforced Concrete

Concrete: mixture of cement gravel and water, dating back to Roman Times.

Brittle and low tensile strength. Often seen in sidewalks and patios.This problem was fixed in the

19th century when a method was developed for reinforcing the concrete by putting metal rods in

the concrete.
Not only used as skeletons, but can be used as shell and form structures that are self sustaining.

Reinforced concrete is the sort of material that allows the builder to experiment and try new

techniques.

The first dome that could be called "geodesic" in every respect was designed after World War

I by Walther Bauersfeld,[1] chief engineer of the Carl Zeiss optical company, for a planetarium to

house his planetarium projector. A first, small dome was patented, constructed by the firm of

Dykerhoff and Wydmann on the roof of the Zeiss plant in Jena, Germany.

A larger dome, called "The Wonder of Jena", opened to the public in July 1926.[2] Some 20 years

later, R. Buckminster Fuller named the dome "geodesic" from field experiments with

artist Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain College in 1948 and 1949. Although Fuller was not the

original inventor, he is credited with the U.S. popularization of the idea for which he received U.S.

patent 2,682,235 [3] 29 June 1954.

RAW MATERIALS

Geodesic domes range in size from the 460-ft (143-m) Poliedro de Caracas sports arena in

Venezuela to temporary shelters that are 15 ft (5 m) or less in diameter. Consequently,

construction materials vary widely. Simple, movable structures may be built of polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) pipe or galvanized steel conduit frames covered with plastic sheeting

orparachute canopies. Large, permanent structures like arenas and factories have been built

from materials like aluminum and steel frame struts covered with aluminum, copper,

structural gypsum, acrylic, or Plexiglas panels.

Most residential dome kit manufacturers use wood components, primarily kiln-dried Douglas

fir struts covered with 0.5-in (1.3-cm) exterior-or structural-grade plywood. Such kits include

various designs of connectors to securely fasten the wood struts together in the proper

configuration; high-strength aluminum, or steel coated with zinc, epoxy, or industrial primer

are commonly used for connectors. Zinc-plated steel bolts secure the connectors and paneling

is nailed on.
A few kit manufacturers use altemative materials to make prefabricated panels that combine

the frame and exterior covering. One, for example, makes molded fiberglass panels. Another

supplies reinforced concrete panels; steel mesh extending from the panel edges is overlapped

with mesh from the adjoining panel, and the joint is sealed with concrete.

Most dome kits are built atop concrete foundation slabs. Often, these slabs are recessed into

the ground to provide a basement level. Foundation walls and riser walls.

DESIGN

Although dome homes are built from manufactured kits, designs are flexible. As many as half

of the triangles in the dome's lowest row can be removed without weakening the structure, so

door and window openings can be plentiful. Vertical-walled extensions can be built out from

such openings to increase the floor space. The dome can sit directly on ground-level footings

(short walls recessed into the ground to bear the building's weight), or it can be erected atop a

riser wall up to 8 ft (2.5 m) tall.

Space must be provided between the interior and exterior walls to accommodate insulation.

Some manufacturers create this space by making the struts from wood that is 4-8 in (10-20

cm) thick. Others make this space 14.5-21 in (37-53 cm) thick by using compound struts

consisting of two strips of lumber joined with plywood gussets.

THE SUBSTRUCTURE

 After clearing and leveling the home site, a trench is dug for the foundation footing,

following detailed drawings supplied by the kit manufacturer. The base of the dome

is not circular; rather, it is outlined by five short walls alternating with five long walls

(twice the length of the short walls). Forms are placed for the footings; many builders

like to use permanent Styrofoam forms that need not be removed. Concrete is then

poured in the footing forms.

  2 A layer of sand may be used to further level the surface and provide a base for the

foundation slab. Reinforcing steel bars are tied together in a grid, and concrete is

poured to form the foundation.

 3 Foundation walls are built atop the footings, up to approximately ground level. If

desired, riser walls (which are provided as part of the kit) are installed atop the

foundation walls and bolted to one another.

 4 Floor joists are installed by standing wooden 2x12 (1.5x1.5 in [3.8x29.2]) boards 16

in (40 cm) apart above the foundation. The joists are nailed to a perimeter wooden

frame and a wooden crossbeam. Three-quarter-inch (1.9-cm) thick plywood sheets

are laid across the joists and nailed in place.

THE SUPERSTRUCTURE

The superstructure typically consists of 60 triangular panels. Depending on the desired size of

the dome, the panels are usually 6-10 ft (1.8-3 m) on a side. They may be prefabricated with

the exterior panels installed, or they may constructed on site from precut lumber and metal

connectors.

If dome panels were supplied with the kit, they are set atop the foundation or riser walls and

connected to one another in a sequence prescribed by the manufacturer. Until enough panels

are connected to support themselves, they must be braced with poles radiating out from a

block in the center of the floor. The following steps describe the more common case of frame

erection followed by exterior panel installation:

 5 Base plates are installed atop the foundation or riser walls. These precisely beveled

4x6-in (lOx15-cm) wood strips provide a transition between the horizontal top edge

of the walls and the slightly tilted triangles of the dome's bottom strip of panels.

 6 Matching the color coding on the kit's wooden struts and metal connectors, a

triangle is formed and secured with bolts. The triangle is lifted into position and
 bolted to the wall and/or to the adjacent triangles. Successive rows of triangular

elements are placed until the dome is completely formed. Because of their light

weight, the triangles do not need supplementary bracing to hold them in place during

construction.

 7 Wooden studs are nailed inside each triangle. Running perpendicular to one side of

the triangle, they are placed about 16 in (40 cm) apart. If an odd number of studs is

used, the center one is secured against a per-pendicular block near the triangle's

vertex, rather than extending to the vertex.

 8 Matching color-coded edges, the plywood panels are lifted into position on the

exterior of each triangle and nailed into place. By working downward from the top of

the dome, the worker can stand on the open framework below while attaching each

panel.

 9 Vertical walls and roofs are framed for any desired extensions that will project

outward from the dome. Plywood panels are nailed to the exterior faces of the

extensions. Dormer extensions can also be erected for second-story windows.

Finishing

 10 Windows, skylights, and exterior doors are installed.

 11 The roof is covered with rubber sheeting, and conventional roofing material (such

as shingles or tiles) is applied.

 12 Conventional siding material (such as stucco or vinyl siding) is applied to the

exterior of the riser walls.

 13 Insulation is placed between the struts and studs inside the dome and extension

walls.

 14 Walls are framed to divide the interior into rooms. Conventional drywall sheets

are cut according to patterns included in the kit, and they are nailed to the interior

walls and the inside surfaces of the dome and riser walls. Because of the many angles
 between triangular sections of the dome, amateur builders often hire a professional to

tape the drywall joints.

Advantages

Sustainability: The life expectancy of the home.

Energy Efficiency: Utilities; Convenience Vs. Conservation.

Eco-Friendly: Minimal carbon footprint.

Stronger Structure: Integrity & Support are synonymous.

Cost Effective: More space and less surface area equals

Natural Structure Design: The Standard of the Cosmos.

Weather Resistant: Aerodynamics reduce destruction.

Aesthetically Pleasing: Invariably the most eye catching.

Highly Acoustic: Sound flows naturally in a sphere.

Higher R-Value : Thermal Resistance is a high gain.

Disadvantages

Unusable Space

Doors and Windows-either make or special order has to be given

Permits-Building the home may also be a challenge as drainage and fire escapes that meet code

are made more difficult by the design of the home.

Financing and Resale

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

All triangles have two faces (one viewed from inside the dome and one

viewed from outside the dome), three edges, and three vertex. In the

definition of an angle, the vertex is the corner where two rays meet.

There can be many different lengths in edges and angles of vertex in a

triangle. All flat triangles have vertex that add up to 180 degrees.

Triangles drawn on spheres or other shapes do not have vertex that add

up to 180 degrees, but all the triangles in this model are flat.

If you've been out of school for too long, you might want to brush up

on the types of triangles. One kind of triangle is an equilateral triangle,

which has three edges of identical length and three vertex of identical

angle. There are no equilateral triangles in a geodesic dome, although

the differences in the edges and vertex are not always immediately

visible.

1. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

2. Planning the construction:  Designing the dome is the first step to start with. The

size and amount of triangles and their calculations to form the dome is needed.

For example, the basic dome has equilateral 20 triangle, which then further

divided into smaller triangles to form the sphere. More triangles results in bigger

and more complex domes.  Struts: these are the framework for the dome which

are made up of rods. Normal geodesic domes have same length of struts where

as complex ones have struts of different sizes.  Material selection should be

made as different materials create different kinds of dome.  Finalizing the

structure: several things should be kept in mind while putting all the pieces

together, such as, the struts and their dimensions, their edges flattened so that
 they fall on the same plane when attached, and to make sure the flattened edges

bend slightly (found by calculation).  The calculation differs by class of the

dome, like 2V, 3V, 4V, etc.

3. Calculation sample

4. Strut preparation 1. Cutting the struts as per calculations 2. Flattening the edges

3. Drilling holes for joints 4. Bending the flattened edges 5. Sealing and painting

the struts

5. Dome assembly method  The assembly should be planned according to the

class and complexity of the dome constructed.  It also depend on what

arrangement will the triangles be, for example pentagon, hexagon.  It is better

to start the assembly from top pieces and gradually coming downwards.

6. Assembly sample

7. Materials used in construction • There are options when building the geodesic

dome, you can choose to cover the triangular panels with either plastic, wood,

drywall or plastic, you get to decide the material according to the different

categories of geodesic domes. But the most common material used to build a

geodesic dome is steel as they connect the network of the beams/struts together.

USES

It is believed that there are more than 300,000 geodesic domes around the world today. They

can be constructed in a variety of sizes, with the largest being 216 m in diameter (the

Fukuoka Dome, a baseball stadium in Japan) making them suitable for a wide range of uses:

 Sports stadiums.

 Theatres.

 Greenhouses.
 Exhibition halls.

 Children’s playgrounds.

 Emergency shelters.

 Military shelters.

 Radomes.

Green Housess

Residential Homes

Warehouses

Water Reservoirs

Entertainment Spots

TENSILE STRUCTURE 

HISTORY
A tensile structure is a construction of elements carrying only tension and

no compression or bending. The term tensile should not be confused with tensegrity, which is a

structural form with both tension and compression elements. Tensile structures are the most

common type of thin-shell structures.

Most tensile structures are supported by some form of compression or bending elements, such as

masts compression rings or beams.

A tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof, as they can economically and

attractively span large distances. Tensile membrane structures may also be used as complete

buildings, with a few common applications being sports facilities, warehousing and storage

buildings, and exhibition venues.

This form of construction has only become more rigorously analyzed and widespread in large

structures in the latter part of the twentieth century. Tensile structures have long been used

in tents, where the guy ropes and tent poles provide pre-tension to the fabric and allow it to

withstand loads.

Russian engineer Vladimir Shukhov was one of the first to develop practical calculations of

stresses and deformations of tensile structures, shells and membranes. Shukhov designed eight

tensile structures and thin-shell structures exhibition pavilions for the Nizhny Novgorod Fair of

1896, covering the area of 27,000 square meters. A more recent large-scale use of a membrane-

covered tensile structure is the Sidney Myer Music Bowl, constructed in 1958.

Antonio Gaudi used the concept in reverse to create a compression-only structure for the Colonia

Guell Church. He created a hanging tensile model of the church to calculate the compression

forces and to experimentally determine the column and vault geometries.

The concept was later championed by German architect and engineer Frei Otto, whose first use of

the idea was in the construction of the West German pavilion at Expo 67 in Montreal. Otto next

used the idea for the roof of the Olympic Stadium for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich.

Since the 1960s, tensile structures have been promoted by designers and engineers such as Ove

Arup, Buro Happold, Walter Bird of Birdair, Inc., Frei Otto, Mahmoud Bodo Rasch, Eero

Saarinen, Horst Berger, Matthew Nowicki, Jörg Schlaich, the duo of Nicholas Goldsmith & Todd

Dalland at FTL Design & Engineering Studio and David Geiger.

TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION
Saddle roof

Four or more point system when the fabric is stretched between a set of alternating high

and low points Saddle Roof The roof plan, taken directly from the structural engineering

working drawings, illustrates the roof configuration and its components. The saddle-

shaped roof of the stage cover nestles under the auditorium roof of the project.The

leaningA-frames and the stay cables which hold them back are clearly visible, along with

the radial cables which shape the tent units.The corner tripods, each consisting of a

vertical mast and two sloping cables, are connected to concrete anchors rising from the

water. Section through the project showing the stage roof tucked under the auditorium

roof.

Mast supported

Tent-like in appearance, mast supported structures typically have one or sometimes

several peaks that are supported by either interior or perimeter masts. •The fabric is

attached to the interior mast by special connections, usually a bale ring or cable loop.

•Mast-supported structures can also be supported by adjacent buildings. The peaks of a

mast supported structure are determined by the design and how the fabric is attached.

•Openings are typically ovoid or elliptical. The fabric that extends from the top of the

opening is seamed and can necessitate patterning. •Mast supported systems are suitable

for long span roofs. Mast Supported `

Arch supported

Curved compression members are used as the main supporting elements and cross

arches are used for lateral stability. •In a plane arch, large differences between the thrust

lines and the main geometry will produce large bending moments that in turn produce

large changes in shape and high stresses in the arch chord section. One method to

significantly reduce these effects is to tie or restrain points along the arch chord to reduce
the initial large deformations of the chord •The buckling length of the arch chord can also

be reduced by discretely or continuously supporting the chord with tension elements or

systems comprised of cables or membranes. Arch Supported Roof Typical arch shapes

defined by physical and ergonomic constraints.

Types of structure with significant tension members

Linear structures

 Suspension bridges

 Draped cables

 Cable-stayed beams or trusses

 Cable trusses

 Straight tensioned cables

Three-dimensional structures

 Bicycle wheel (can be used as a roof in a horizontal orientation)

 3D cable trusses

 Tensegrity structures
Surface-stressed structures

 Prestressed membranes

 Pneumatically stressed membranes

 Gridshell

 Fabric structure

Membrane materials

Common materials for doubly curved fabric structures are PTFE-coated fiberglass and PVC-

coated polyester. These are woven materials with different strengths in different directions.

The warp fibers (those fibers which are originally straight—equivalent to the starting fibers on a

loom) can carry greater load than the weft or fill fibers, which are woven between the warp fibers.

Other structures make use of ETFE film, either as single layer or in cushion form (which can be

inflated, to provide good insulation properties or for aesthetic effect—as on the Allianz

Arena in Munich). ETFE cushions can also be etched with patterns in order to let different levels

of light through when inflated to different levels.

In daylight, fabric membrane translucency offers soft diffused naturally lit spaces, while at night,

artificial lighting can be used to create an ambient exterior luminescence. They are most often

supported by a structural frame as they cannot derive their strength from double curvature.

Cables can be of mild steel, high strength steel (drawn carbon steel), stainless

steel, polyester or aramid fibres. Structural cables are made of a series of small strands twisted or

bound together to form a much larger cable. Steel cables are either spiral strand, where circular

rods are twisted together and "glued" using a polymer, or locked coil strand, where individual

interlocking steel strands form the cable (often with a spiral strand core).

Spiral strand is slightly weaker than locked coil strand. Steel spiral strand cables have a Young's

modulus, E of 150±10 kN/mm² (or 150±10 GPa) and come in sizes from 3 to 90 mm diameter.
[citation needed]
 Spiral strand suffers from construction stretch, where the strands compact when the cable

is loaded. This is normally removed by pre-stretching the cable and cycling the load up and down

to 45% of the ultimate tensile load.

Locked coil strand typically has a Young's Modulus of 160±10 kN/mm² and comes in sizes from

20 mm to 160 mm diameter.

The properties of the individuals strands of different materials are shown in the table below, where

UTS is ultimate tensile strength, or the breaking load:

Structural forms

Air-supported structures are a form of tensile structures where the fabric envelope is supported by

pressurised air only.

The majority of fabric structures derive their strength from their doubly curved shape. By forcing

the fabric to take on double-curvature the fabric gains sufficient stiffness to withstand the loads it

is subjected to (for example wind and snow loads). In order to induce an adequately doubly curved

form it is most often necessary to pretension or prestress the fabric or its supporting structure.

Form-finding

The behaviour of structures which depend upon prestress to attain their strength is non-linear, so

anything other than a very simple cable has, until the 1990s, been very difficult to design. The

most common way to design doubly curved fabric structures was to construct scale models of the

final buildings in order to understand their behaviour and to conduct form-finding exercises. Such

scale models often employed stocking material or tights, or soap film, as they behave in a very

similar way to structural fabrics (they cannot carry shear).

Soap films have uniform stress in every direction and require a closed boundary to form. They

naturally form a minimal surface—the form with minimal area and embodying minimal energy.

They are however very difficult to measure. For a large film, its weight can seriously affect its

form.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

Tensile is a special construction method.

It’s different from what we might call ‘traditional

construction’, which uses bricks and mortar, because

tensile uses steel and membrane instead.

(Which actually gives tensile a lot of benefits over

traditional construction, but we’ll come back to that later.)

Prefabrication

First, a modular lattice framework is built out of steel

components.

Usually, these steel components have been made in a

factory away from the construction site: a process known

as ‘prefabrication’.

Being prefabricated, once the components reach the

construction site they can be assembled into the building

frame relatively fast:

Cranes are used to lift the structure at it’s desired position and height

The crew then carefully bolt the pieces or the joints together in order to make it more stable.
Lastly, The Fabric and High-strength cable is installed for added support and the fabric for

it’s shading.

USES OF TENSILE STRUCTURES:

USE AS PENUMATIC SHADE IN STATIDUMS.

ANTICLASTIC STRUCTURES ARE VERY FREQUENT IN RESORTS PAVILION.

IN SHADE OF CAR PARKING.

IN SHADE OF OPEN THEATRE.

IN SHADE OF SWMING POOL.

IN PATIO AWRIGE.
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

Membrane structures are spatial structures made out of tensioned membranes. The

structural use of membranes can be divided into pneumatic structures, tensile membrane

structures, and cable domes. In these three kinds of structure, membranes work together

with cables, columns and other construction members to find a form. Membranes are

also used as non-structural cladding, as at the Beijing National Stadium where the

spaces between the massive steel structural members are infilled with PTFE coated

glass fiber fabric and ETFE foil. The other major building on the site, built for the 2008

Summer Olympics, is the Beijing National Aquatics Center, also known as the Water

Cube. It is entirely clad in 100,000 square metres of inflated ETFE foil cushions arranged

as an apparently random cellular structure.

The common membranes used in membrane structures include:

 PVC coated polyester fabric

 Translucent Polyethylene fabric

 PVC coated glass fiber fabric

 PTFE coated glass fiber fabric; foils like

 ETFE foil

 PVC foil.

TYPES

FRAME MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

This type of membrane structure is composed by a steel frame or other types of frame structure

covered with membrane to form roofs or exterior walls.

Since it is structurally stable and the openings can be formed flexibly, this type of membrane

structure is highly economic and widely used for multiple applications, regardless of the sizes.

SUSPENSION MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

This type of membrane structure is formed mainly by the membrane material, and the basic form is

the suspension structure.

It is abundant in rise and fall on the surface, so it has superior designability which takes advantage

of the uniqueness of the curved surfaces. It contributes to build an aesthetic architectural

structure that has a strong impact.

AIR-SUPPORTED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

This type of membrane structure uses the air pressure that is blown continuously into inside of the

roofs and/or walls made of membrane materials to inflate the membrane until becoming stiff to

support its self weight and all other surface loads.

It is highly economic and represents excellent workability in creating a wide open space inside a

dome-shape structure that is supported by air pressure, without using columns and beams.

USES

Most commonly used as roofing in football stadiums and race track,

Some cases the membrane structure was used in a Hotel as a roofing in their garden.

Also used in Arenas

The geodesic dome appealed to Fuller because it was extremely strong for its weight, its

"omnitriangulated" surface provided an inherently stable structure, and because a sphere encloses

the greatest volume for the least surface area.

The dome was successfully adopted for specialized uses, such as the 21 Distant Early Warning

Line domes built in Canada in 1956,[5] the 1958 Union Tank Car Company dome near Baton

Rouge, Louisiana, designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. and specialty buildings

such as the Kaiser Aluminum domes (constructed in numerous locations across the US,

e.g., Virginia Beach, Virginia), auditoriums, weather observatories, and storage facilities. The

dome was soon breaking records for covered surface, enclosed volume, and construction speed.

Beginning in 1954, the U.S. Marines experimented with helicopter-deliverable geodesic domes. A

30-foot wood and plastic geodesic dome was lifted and carried by helicopter at 50 knots without

damage, leading to the manufacture of a standard magnesium dome by Magnesium Products of

Milwaukee. Tests included assembly practices in which previously untrained Marines were able to

assemble a 30-foot magnesium dome in 135 minutes, helicopter lifts off aircraft carriers, and a

durability test in which an anchored dome successfully withstood without damage, a day-long

120 mph (190 km/h) propeller blast from the twin 3,000 horsepower engines of an anchored

airplane.

The dome was introduced to a wider audience as a pavilion for the 1964 World's Fair in New

York City designed by Thomas C. Howard of Synergetics, Inc. This dome is now used as

an aviary by the Queens Zoo in Flushing Meadows Corona Park after it was redesigned by TC

Howard of Synergetics, Inc.

Another dome is from Expo 67 at the Montreal World's Fair, where it was part of the American

Pavilion. The structure's covering later burned, but the structure itself still stands and, under the

name Biosphère, currently houses an interpretive museum about the Saint Lawrence River.

In the 1970s, Zomeworks licensed plans for structures based on other geometric solids, such as

the Johnson solids, Archimedean solids, and Catalan solids.[7] These structures may have some

faces that are not triangular, being squares or other polygons.

In 1975, a dome was constructed at the South Pole, where its resistance to snow and wind loads is

important.

On October 1, 1982, one of the most famous geodesic domes, Spaceship Earth at Epcot in Walt

Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, just outside of Orlando, Florida, opened. The building

and the ride inside of it are named with one of Buckminster Fuller's famous terms, Spaceship

Earth, a world view expressing concern over the use of limited resources available on Earth and

encouraging everyone on it to act as a harmonious crew working toward the greater good. The

building is Epcot's icon, and is also included in the park's logo.

In 2000, the world's first fully sustainable geodesic dome hotel, EcoCamp Patagonia, was built

in Chilean Patagonia[8], opening the following year in 2001. The hotel's dome design is key to

resisting the region's strong winds and is based on the dwellings of the indigenous Kaweskar

people.

Wooden domes have a hole drilled in the width of a strut. A stainless steel band locks the strut's

hole to a steel pipe. With this method, the struts may be cut to the exact length needed. Triangles

of exterior plywood are then nailed to the struts. The dome is wrapped from the bottom to the top

with several stapled layers of tar paper, to shed water, and finished with shingles. This type of

dome is often called a hub-and-strut dome because of the use of steel hubs to tie the struts

together.

Panelized domes are constructed of separately framed timbers covered in plywood. The three

members comprising the triangular frame are often cut at compound angles to provide for a flat

fitting of the various triangles. Holes are drilled through the members at precise locations and steel

bolts then connect the triangles to form the dome. These members are often 2x4s or 2x6s, which

allow for more insulation to fit within the triangle. The panelized technique allows the builder to

attach the plywood skin to the triangles while safely working on the ground or in a comfortable

shop out of the weather. This method does not require expensive steel hubs.

Temporary greenhouse domes have been constructed by stapling plastic sheeting onto a dome

constructed from one-inch square beams. The result is warm, movable by hand in sizes less than

20 feet, and cheap. It should be staked to the ground to prevent it being moved by wind.
Steel framework can be easily constructed of electrical conduit. One flattens the end of a strut and

drills bolt holes at the needed length. A single bolt secures a vertex of struts. The nuts are usually

set with removable locking compound, or if the dome is portable, have a castellated nut with

a cotter pin. This is the standard way to construct domes for jungle gyms.

Domes can also be constructed with a lightweight aluminium framework which can either be

bolted or welded together or can be connected with a more flexible nodel point/hub connection.

These domes are usually clad with glass which is held in place with a PVC coping. The coping

can be sealed with silicone to make it water tight. Some designs also allow for double glazing or

insulated panels to be fixed in the framework. This allows a fully habitable building to be formed.

Concrete and foam-plastic domes generally start with a steel framework dome, wrapped with

chicken wire and wire screen for reinforcement. The chicken wire and screen are tied to the

framework with wire ties. A coat of material is then sprayed or molded onto the frame. Tests

should be performed with small squares to achieve the correct consistency of concrete or plastic.

Generally, several coats are necessary on the inside and outside. The last step is to saturate

concrete or polyester domes with a thin layer of epoxy compound to shed water.

Some concrete domes have been constructed from prefabricated, prestressed, steel-reinforced

concrete panels that can be bolted into place. The bolts are within raised receptacles covered with

little concrete caps to shed water. The triangles overlap to shed water. The triangles in this method

can be molded in forms patterned in sand with wooden patterns, but the concrete triangles are

usually so heavy that they must be placed with a crane. This construction is well-suited to domes

because no place allows water to pool on the concrete and leak through. The metal fasteners,

joints, and internal steel frames remain dry, preventing frost and corrosion damage. The concrete

resists sun and weathering. Some form of internal flashing or caulking must be placed over the

joints to prevent drafts. The 1963 Cinerama Dome was built from precast concrete hexagons and

pentagons.

Given the complicated geometry of the geodesic dome, dome builders rely on tables of strut

lengths, or "chord factors". In Geodesic Math and How to Use It, Hugh Kenner writes, "Tables of

chord factors, containing as they do the essential design information for spherical systems, were

for many years guarded like military secrets. As late as 1966, some 3ν icosa figures from Popular
Science Monthly were all anyone outside the circle of Fuller licensees had to go on." (page 57,

1976 edition). Other tables became available with publication of Lloyd Kahn's Domebook 1

Dome homes

Fuller hoped that the geodesic dome would help address the postwar housing crisis. This was

consistent with his prior hopes for both versions of the Dymaxion House.

Residential geodesic domes have been less successful than those used for working and/or

entertainment, largely because of their complexity and consequent greater construction costs.

Professional experienced dome contractors, while hard to find, do exist, and can eliminate much

of the cost overruns associated with false starts and incorrect estimates. Fuller himself lived in a

geodesic dome in Carbondale, Illinois, at the corner of Forest Ave and Cherry St.[9] Fuller thought

of residential domes as air-deliverable products manufactured by an aerospace-like industry.

Fuller's own dome home still exists, the R. Buckminster Fuller and Anne Hewlett Dome Home,

and a group called RBF Dome NFP is attempting to restore the dome and have it registered as

a National Historic Landmark. It is on the National Register of Historic Places.

In 1986, a patent for a dome construction technique involving polystyrene triangles laminated to

reinforced concrete on the outside, and wallboard on the inside was awarded to American

Ingenuity of Rockledge, Florida. The construction technique allows the domes to be prefabricated

in kit form and erected by a homeowner. This method makes the seams into the strongest part of

the structure, where the seams and especially the hubs in most wooden-framed domes are the

weakest point in the structure. It also has the advantage of being watertight.

Habitable aluminium-frame geodesic dome homes are emerging in Norway and Austria. In 2012,

an aluminium and glass dome was used as a dome cover to an eco home in Norway [10] and in 2013

a glass and wood clad dome home was built in Austria.[11]

In Chile, examples of geodesic domes are being readily adopted for hotel accommodations either

as tented style geodesic domes or glass-covered domes. Examples: EcoCamp Patagonia, Chile;

 and Elqui Domos, Chile.[13]

[12]

Although dome homes enjoyed a wave of popularity in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as a

housing system, the dome has many disadvantages and problems. A former proponent of dome
homes, Lloyd Kahn, who wrote two books about them (Domebook 1 and Domebook 2) and

founded Shelter Publications, became disillusioned with them, calling them "smart but not wise".

He noted the following disadvantages, which he has listed on his company's website: Off-the-shelf

building materials (e.g., plywood, strand board) normally come in rectangular shapes, therefore

some material may have to be scrapped after cutting rectangles down to triangles, increasing the

cost of construction. Fire escapes are problematic; codes require them for larger structures, and

they are expensive. Windows conforming to code can cost anywhere from five to 15 times as

much as windows in conventional houses. Professional electrical wiring costs more because of

increased labor time. Even owner-wired situations are costly, because more of certain materials

are required for dome construction. Expansion and partitioning is also difficult. Kahn notes that

domes are difficult if not impossible to build with natural materials, generally requiring plastics,

etc., which are polluting and deteriorate in sunlight.

Air stratification and moisture distribution within a dome are unusual. The conditions tend to

quickly degrade wooden framing or interior paneling. A company called New Age Construction in

Alabama claims that an addition of a cupola eliminates the moisture condensation that is common

in domes.

Privacy is difficult to guarantee because a dome is difficult to partition satisfactorily. Sounds,

smells, and even reflected light tend to be conveyed through the entire structure (but in some cases

this can be used to advantage).

As with any curved shape, the dome produces wall areas that can be difficult to use and leaves

some peripheral floor area with restricted use due to lack of headroom. Circular plan shapes lack

the simple modularity provided by rectangles. Furnishers and fitters design with flat surfaces in

mind. Placing a standard sofa against an exterior wall (for example) results in a crescent behind

the sofa being wasted.

Dome builders using cut-board sheathing material (common in the 1960s and 1970s) find it hard

to seal domes against rain, because of their many seams. Also, these seams may be stressed

because ordinary solar heat flexes the entire structure each day as the sun moves across the sky.

Subsequent addition of straps and interior flexible drywall finishes has virtually eliminated this

movement being noticed in the interior finishes.

The most effective waterproofing method with a wooden dome is to shingle the dome. Peaked

caps at the top of the dome, or to modify the dome shapes are used where slope is insufficient for

ice barrier. One-piece reinforced concrete or plastic domes are also in use, and some domes have

been constructed from plastic or waxed cardboard triangles that are overlapped in such a way as to

shed water.

Buckminster Fuller's former student J. Baldwin insists that no reason exists for a properly

designed, well-constructed dome to leak, and that some designs 'cannot' leak.