INTRODUCTION TO CONCRETE TESTING

Concrete – a solid, hard material produced by combining

in proper proportions portland cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water. The chemical reaction between
cement and water produces heat and hardening of the
mass.

Portland cement is a fine, pulverized material consisting

of compounds of lime, iron, silica and alumina.

Water – cement ratio

– the ratio by weight between the water and cement used
to make the paste.
- Has the greatest influence on the strength of concrete

1
 TESTS FOR FRESH CONCRETE:
1. Slump
2. Unit weight
3. Air content
4. Temperature

TESTS FOR HARDENED CONCRETE:

1. Compressive Strength
2. Splitting Tensile Strength
3. Flexural Strength
4. Unit weight
5. Durability tests

1. Slump test
- Follow ASTM C143

2
 2. Unit weight test – involves weighing a properly
consolidated specimen in a calibrated container
following ASTM C138

3. Air content test

- The pressure method requires the sample be placed
in a pressure air meter and subjected to an applied
pressure.

3
4. Temperature test
-Thermometers are placed into fresh concrete.

5. Compressive strength test

Preparation of concrete cylinders

4
5. Compressive strength test

Concrete cylinder under compressive load

6. Flexural strength test

- Determines the bending strength of concrete.
- The concrete is formed in a mold in the shape of a beam

5
7. Splitting tensile test on concrete cylinders

8. Unit weight of hardened concrete

Electronic
Balance

Specific
Gravity
Frame

Bucket

6
Durability Tests on Concrete

Salt Ponding Tests

Durability Tests on Concrete

Chloride Migration Test

7
Durability Tests on Concrete

Rapid Migration Test

Durability Tests on Concrete

DC Resistivity Test

8
Durability Tests on Concrete

Wenner Array Probe

Durability Tests on Concrete

Lab Sorptivity Technique

9
Concrete Basics
Portland cement, water, fine and
coarse aggregates are proportioned
and mixed to produce concrete.
Definitions

Cement Powder

Cement + Water Cement Paste

Cement Paste + Fine Aggregate (FA) Mortar

Mortar + Coarse Aggregate (CA) Concrete


Concrete is initially plastic, thus can be mold
into the desired shape

Chemical reaction (hydration) and setting of

paste produces the strength and stiffness of
concrete
Cement is a pulverized material that develops
binding forces due to reaction with water

Hydraulic Cement – stable under water

Non-hydraulic cement – Products of hydration

are not water resistant (i.e. limestone)
Portland Cement

- Is a hydraulic cement capable of setting and

hardening.

-Remains stable under water

-Composed of calcium silicates and small

amount of gypsum
Cement Chemistry

- Oxides and clinker compounds are expressed

by abbreviations

- C (CaO, calcium oxide)

- A (Al2O3, alumina)
- S (SiO2, silica)
- S (SO3, sulfate)
- H (H2O), water
Cement Chemistry

- C3S (tricalcium silicate)

- C2S (dicalcium silicate)
- C3A (tricalcium aluminate)
- CSH2 (gypsum)
- C4AF (tetra-calcium alumino ferrite)
 CHAPTER 2a:
Components of a Concrete
(Cement)

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
2a.1 Introduction
2a.2 Manufacturing Process of Cement
2a.3 Types of Cement
2a.4 Cement Chemistry
2a.5 Hydration of Cement
2a.6 Physical Properties of Cement
 3

2a.1 INTRODUCTION

 Components are proportioned and mixed to produce

concrete suited to a particular intent
 4

2a.1 INTRODUCTION
Definitions:
CEMENT Powder

WATER Cement Paste

FINE Mortar
AGGREGATES (FA)

COARSE CONCRETE
AGGREGATES (CA)
 5

2a.1 INTRODUCTION
Cement
 Pulverized material that binds
with other materials due to reaction with water

 Initially plastic and allows one to mold into

desired shape

 Chemical reaction (Hydration) and paste set

concrete – producing concrete strength and
stiffness
 6

2a.1 INTRODUCTION
Cement
 Can be classified into two:
 Hydraulic Cement
- hardens under water (hydration)
i.e. Portland Cement (PC)

 Nonhydraulic Cement
- Should be kept dry to attain strength
i.e. Slaked Lime
 7

2a.2 MANUFACTURING
Extraction of FiringPROCESS
of Raw
Raw Materials Materials

Packaging and
Shipment

Grinding and Storage of

Raw Materials

Storage and Grinding

of Cement

Source: http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process
 8

Extraction of
1
Raw Materials

Raw Materials are Calcium & Silica

Calcium: Limestone and chalk
Silica: Clays and Shales

Source: http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process
 9

Grinding and Storage

2 of Raw Materials

Grinding Plant: initial milling before reducing to fine

powder

“Raw mix” - Raw materials (2/3 Calcium, 1/3 Clay)

are stored in pre-homogenization pile

Source: http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process
 10

3 Firing of Raw Materials

Rotary Kiln: heating to a Clinker: hard granules

temperature of 1400˚C -
1500˚C formed from the fired
Combustion causes materials and contains
decarbonation Hydraulic Calcium Silicates
Source: http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process
 11

Storage and Grinding

4 of Cement
Other materials can be
added such as Fly Ash
and Blast Furnace Slag
to produce a specific
property of the cement
Mixture is finely grinded
to a size of 75 microns
(sieve no. 200)

After re-cooling, clinker is stored in the silos

Gypsum is added to clinker
Source: http://www.lafarge-na.com/wps/portal/na/en/2_2_1-Manufacturing_process
 12

2a.3 TYPES OF CEMENT

ASTM C150
(Standard Specification for Portland Cement)

 TYPE I
- General purpose
- special properties are not required

 TYPE II
- General purpose
- Moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of
hydration is desired
 13

2a.3 TYPES OF CEMENT

 TYPE III
- High early strength is desired
- C3A content is limited to 15%

 TYPE IV
- Low heat of hydration is desired

 TYPE V
- High sulfate resistance is desired
- C3A content is limited to 5%
 14

2a.4 CEMENT CHEMISTRY

 Oxides and clinker compounds are expressed by their
abbreviations
 Short Hand Notation
 C (CaO, calcium oxide)  S ( SO3, sulfate)
 A (Al2O3, alumina)  H (H2O, water)
 S (SiO2, silica)

 Reactive Compounds
 C3S (tricalcium silicate)
 C2S (dicalcium silicate)
 C3A (tricalcium aluminate)
S  C H2 (gypsum)
 C4AF (tetra-calcium alumino ferrite)
 15

2a.4 CEMENT CHEMISTRY

 Properties of Reactive Compounds

C3S Tricalcium Silicate Hydrates and hardens rapidly

(Alite) Responsible for initial set and early strength
development

C2S Dicalcium Silicate Hydrates and hardens slowly

(Belite) Contributes to age strength beyond 7days

C3A Tricalcium Aluminate Produces large amount of heat during

first few days
Contributes to early strength development

C4AF Tetracalsium Reduces clinkering temperature

aluminoferrite Hydrates rapidly but contributes little to
(ferrite) strength
Color of hydrated cement (gray)
Source: http://people.ce.gatech.edu/~kk92/hyd07.pdf
 16

2a.4 CEMENT CHEMISTRY

 These reactive compounds react with water and this

reaction is called hydration

 Hydration is mostly exothermic: reactions generate

heat

 Rate of heating dictates the rate of reaction of minerals

with water
 17

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Two primary mechanisms:

 Through solutions
- Dissolution of anhydrous (without water) to
their ionic constituents
- Hydrates are formed

 Topochemical
- Solid-state hydration
- Reaction at the surface of anhydrous cement
compounds without going into solution
 18

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Series of chemical reactions occur during hydration
C3 A + 3C S H 2 + 26 H 
→ C6 AS3 H 32 , ∆H
Tricalcium
Aluminate
+ gypsum + water 
→ Ettringites + heat

 Ettringites
 Needle like crystals
 Take up much water which
contributes to stiffening of mixture
 Stable in a solution with gypsum
 Does not contribute to strength of
cement paste
 19

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

2C3 S + 6 H 
→ C3 S 2 H 3 + 3CH , ∆H

Alite + water 
→ Calcium Silicate
Hydrate
+ Lime + heat

 Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH)

 Short- network fiber structure
 Poorly crystalline to amorphous
 High surface area thus, higher
bonding energy
 Contributes greatly to high
early strength development
 20

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

C2 S + 4 H 
→ C3 S 2 H 3 + CH , ∆H

Belite + water 
→ Calcium Silicate
Hydrate (CSH)
+ Lime + heat

 Reaction generates less heat and proceeds at a slower

rate
 Belite has slow rate of initial strength development
 Belite is responsible for long term strength of cement
 21

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Once all gypsum are consumed:
2C3 A + 3C6 AS3 H 32 + 22 H 
→ 3C4 ASH 18
Tricalcium
aluminate
+ ettringite + water 
→ Monosulfate aluminate
hydrate

 Monosulfate Aulimate Hydrate

 Hexagonal small crystals,
smaller than ettringites
 Stable in sulfate deficient
solution
 Increase in size causes cracking
when subjected to sulfate attack
 22

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Ferrite undergoes two progressive reaction with gypsum

C4 AF + 3C S H 2 + 3H 
→ C6 ( A, F ) S 3 H 32 + ( A, F ) H 3 + CH

Ferric
Ferrite + gypsum + water 
→ Ettringite + aluminum + lime
hydroxide
 23

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

C4 AF + C6 ( A, F ) S3 H 32 + 2CH + 23H 
→
3C4 ( A, F ) S H18 + ( A, F ) H 3
Ferrite + ettringite +lime +water 
→ Garnets

 Garnets
 Take up space
 Do not contribute to the
strength of concrete
 24

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Hydrates
 25

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Stages of Hydration (Summary)

Hydrolysis  Breaking of molecule bonds using

water
 Occurs rapidly with an increase in
temperature
v
v

Source: http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/~garbocz/cell1994/node4.htm
 26

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Stages of Hydration (Summary)
Dormancy/Induction
Period
 Evolution of heat slows
down dramatically (one to
v three hours)
v
 Concrete is plastic
 Critical for transportation
v

Source: http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/~garbocz/cell1994/node4.htm
 27

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Stages of Hydration (Summary)

Deceleration  Concrete starts to

harden
Acceleration  Heat evolution
increases(C3S)
v
v

Source: http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/~garbocz/cell1994/node4.htm
 28

2a.5 HYDRATION OF CEMENT

 Stages of Hydration (Summary)
 Slow formation of hydrates
 Continues as long as water and
unhydrated silicates are present

v
v

Steady State
Source: http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/~garbocz/cell1994/node4.htm
 29

2a.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

 Portland cement are characterized by their physical
properties for quality control.

 Key Parameters:

 Setting Time
 Soundness
 Fineness
 Strength
 30

2a.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

 Setting Time
- Affected by fineness, water-cement ratio, chemical content
and admixtures
- Caused by C3A and C3S
- Defined into two:
 Initial Set – paste begins to stiffen
 Final Set – Cement hardened

 Soundess (Volume Stability)

- Ability if hardened cement paste to retain its volume after
setting without delayed expansion
- Expansion is caused by free lime or magnesia
 31

2a.6 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

 Fineness
- Affects hydration rate, therefore affects rate of strength
development
- Smaller particle size : greater SA-to-V ratio : larger water-
cement interaction per unit volume
- Coarser particles: hydration on surface and incomplete
hydration : low strength and low durability

 Strength
- Defined in three ways: compressive, tensile, and flexural
- Affected by w/c ratio, c/FA ratio, type and grading of FA,
curing conditions, and age
32
 CHAPTER 2b:
Components of a Concrete
(Aggregates)

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
2b.1 Introduction
2b.2 Aggregates in Concrete
2b.3 Classification of Aggregates
2b.4 Properties of Aggregates
2b.5 Quality Requirements of Aggregates
 3

2b.1 INTRODUCTION
Aggregates
 Inert, granular, and inorganic stone-like solid
materials

 Filler material hence, o chemical reaction

between the paste

 ASTM C125 – Standard terminology relating to

concrete and concrete aggregates
 4

2b.1 INTRODUCTION
Aggregates
 Granular materials as:
 Sand and gravel
 Crushed stones
 Iron ore blast furnace
 Manufactured
(lightweight and heavy weight)
 Reclaimed
(crushed concrete, clay bricks, etc)
 5

2b.1 INTRODUCTION
 Can be used in various applications:

Road Base material

 6

2b.1 INTRODUCTION
 Can be used in various applications:

Concrete Material
Ballast for railroads
 7

2b.1 INTRODUCTION
 Can be used in various applications:
Landscapes

Filter Materials
 8

2b.2 AGGREGATES IN CONCRETE

 Reasons of using aggregates in concrete:

 Economical
 Greater volume stability of concrete
 Better durability
 Adds hardness to concrete
 Abrasion resistance
 Elastic modulus
 9

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

 Aggregates can be classified into three:

According to Size

According to source

According to unit weight

 10

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Size

 Coarse Aggregates
- Gravels retained on Sieve no. 4 (4.75mm)

 Fine Aggregates
- Sand passing through Sieve No. 4 and
retained on Sieve No. 200
 11

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Natural Aggregates

 Synthetic Aggregates

 Recycled Aggregates
 12

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Natural Aggregates
- natural deposits without changing its nature

- i.e sand, crushed limestones, and gravel

- three types: Igneous, Sedimentary, and

Metamorphic
 13

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Natural Aggregates
i. Igneous Rocks
– formed from cooling of magma
– Granite and Basalt
ii. Sedimentary Rocks
– stratified rocks; cost effective
– limestones and sandstones
iii. Metamorphic Rocks
– crystal structures
– marble, schist, slate
 14

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Synthetic Aggregates
- thermally processed materials

- industrial by products such as:

Blast Furnace Slag Fly Ash
 15

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Synthetic Aggregates
 Blast Furnace Slag
– non-metallic product formed from smelting
process of iron ore, coke, and flux

 Fly Ash
– “pulverized fuel ash”
– fine grained material that is carried of in a
flue gas from the burning of coal
 16

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Source

 Recycled Aggregates
- from municipal wastes and recycled concrete

- demolished buildings and pavements

- CONS: cost of crushing, grading, dust control,

and separation of undesirable
constituents
 17

2b.3 CLASSIFICATIONS OF AGGREGATES

According to Unit Weight

 Light Weight
– less than 1120 kg/m3

 Normal Weight
– 1520 kg/m3 to 1680 kg/m3

 Heavy Weight
– greater than 2100 kg/m3
– used for special structures
 18

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

 Properties of aggregates considered in concrete can be
divided into two:

I. Dependent on Prior exposure and processing

a. Size
b. Grading and Fineness Modulus
c. Shape and Surface Texture

I. Controlled by Porosity
a. Absorption and Moisture Condition
b. Density and Specific Gravity
c. Voids
d. Soundness
 19

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Aggregate Size

 Affects concrete properties such as water

demand, cement content, and
microcracking

 Maximum size of aggregates (MSA):

 MSA < 1/5 of narrowest dimension of the
form of concrete mold
 MSA <3/4 of the maximum clear distance
between rebars
 20

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading

 Distribution of particles of granular materials

among various sizes

 Depends on the proportions of CA and FA

 Affects paste, workability of fresh concrete and

finished surface of hardened condrete

 Sieve analysis : grading curve for aggregates

 21

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading
 22

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading
 Five types of size distributions:

1. Dense graded
2. Gap graded
3. Uniformly
graded
4. Well graded
5. Open graded
 23

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading
 Dense graded and well graded are desirable for
making concrete

 Gap grading lacks intermediate sizes and has

low workability

 Uniform grading causes porous concrete

 Open graded are easy to be disturbed by a hole

 24

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading
 Fineness Modulus
– characterize the overall coarseness or
fineness of aggregates
– weighted average size of a sieve in which
the material is retained
– value is between 2.2 to 3.2

FM =
∑ % Re tained
100
 25

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Grading
 Fineness Modulus
 26

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Shape and Surface Texture
- Both affects mixing water and concrete’s strength
 Shape
– affects workability of concrete
– four types:
a. Round – loosing edges and corners
b. Angular – well defined edges and corners
c. Elongated – length is relatively longer
than the two dimensions
d. Flaky/Flat – thickness is small compared
to the two dimension
 27

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Shape and Surface Texture

 Surface Texture
– pattern and relative smoothness/roughness
if the aggregate particle

– responsible for bond development between

aggregate material and cementing property

– an increase in smoothness decreases contact

area
 28

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Shape and Surface Texture

 Generally,

– rough textured angular aggregates

are best suited as aggregates due to
(1) interlocking effects of angular aggregates
and (2) larger surface/contact area exhibited
by the angular shape and rough texture of the
aggregate.
 29

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition
 Affects mix-design, soundness, strength, and
abrasion resistance

 Absorption
– particle’s ability to take in liquid and is
affected by the material’s porosity

– difference between the weight of dry

aggregates and weight of aggregates in
saturated surface dry
 30

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition

 Moisture Condition
- presence of water in the pores and on the
surface of the aggregates
- Expressed in terms of oven dry unit weight
- Four (4) states:
i. Oven dry
ii. Air dry
iii. Saturated Surface Dry (SSD)
iv. Damp/wet
 31

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition

 Moisture Condition
 Oven Dry – free of moisture, driven by heat
to reach a constant weight
 32

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition

 Moisture Condition
 Air Dry – under room temperature and
humidity; pores are partly filled with water
 33

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition
 Moisture Condition
 SSD – pores are fully filled but surface are dry;
state where aggregates will neither absorb nor
contribute water in the mix
 34

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition

 Moisture Condition
 Damp/Wet – pores are filled with water;
surface are covered with water
 35

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Absorption and Moisture Condition
 Moisture Content
ωagg − ωOD
MC (%) = x100
ωOD
 Surface Moisture
ω wet − ω SSD
MC (%) = x100
ω SSD
 Absorption Capacity ω SSD − ωOD
AC (%) = x100
ωOD
 36

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Density and Specific Gravity

 Density (Unit Weight)

– weight per unit volume
– affects mix design and workability of fresh
concrete
– may be defined as follows:
a. Bulk Density - Volume includes all pore
space
b. Effective Density – Some of pore space
c. Apparent Density - None of pore space
 37

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Density and Specific Gravity

 Density (Unit Weight)

 Density
WSolids
γ=
VSolids

 Bulk Density
WSolids
γ Bulk =
VSolids + VPores
 38

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Density and Specific Gravity
 Specific Gravity
– ratio of mass of a given substance to the
mass of an equal volume of water
– can be defined as follows:
a. Apparent – Weight of oven dried aggregates to
weight of water occupying a volume equal to solid
including pores

b. Absolute – Weight of solid to weight of an equal

volume of water, both at a stated temperature,
excluding all pores
 39

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Density and Specific Gravity

 Specific Gravity
 Apparent
γ Bulk
SGapparent =
γ water
 Absolute
γ Solid
SGabsolute =
γ water
 40

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Voids

 Spaces between aggregates which are either

filled with water or air

 Affects mortar requirements in mix design

 Influences specific gravity and absorption of

aggregates

 Increases with increasing aggregate angularity

 41

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Voids
 30-45 % for CA; 40-50% for FA
 Can be reduced using a collection of aggregate
size
 42

2b.3 PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

Soundness

 Unsound – volume changes in the aggregate

induced by weather

 Depends on porosity, flaws, and contaminants

 Pumice - no problem with freezing/thawing

 Limestone – breaks; use critical size

aggregates
 43

2b.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

 Quality requirements may be organized into groups:

a) Deleterious Substances
b) Reactive Aggregates

 AASHTO Section 904:

a) Absorption
b) Abrasion resistance
c) Soundness
d) Restrictions on Deleterious constituents
e) Special requirements
 44

2b.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Deleterious Substances

 Substances causing chemical reaction

 Substances which undergo disruptive expansion
 Clay and other surface coating
 Flat or elongated aggregate shapes
 Structurally soft/weak particles
 45

2b.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS

Reactive Aggregates

 Example is Alkali-aggregate reaction

 Causes cracking of hardened concrete due to

internal tensile stress

 Alkali content of OPC is limited to 0.6% if reactive

aggregates cannot be avoided

 Another method consists of pozzolanic materials

 CHAPTER 4:
CONCRETE’S
MICROSTRUCTURE

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1 Definition
4.2 Aggregate Phase
4.3 Hydrated Cement Phase
4.4 Interfacial Transition Zone
 3

4.1 DEFINITION
Microstructure
 Type, amount, size, shape, and distribution of
phases present

 Microscopically magnified portion of a

macrostructure

 Microstructure :
 Hydrated Cement Paste
 Interfacial transition Zone
 Capillary Pores
 4

4.1 DEFINITION
Microstructure
 5

4.1 DEFINITION
 Macrostructure : gross microstructure visible
in the human eye (200μm)

 Includes:
 Aggregates (CA, FA)
 Hydrated Cement Paste
 Entrapped air voids

 Two phases:
1. Aggregate particles; and
2. cement paste matrix
 6

4.1 DEFINITION
Polished section from a concrete specimen

Source: Mehta and Monteiro.3rd Ed.Concrete Microstructure, Properties, and Materials

 7

4.1 DEFINITION

 Significant for concrete properties

 Properties can be modified by changing the

material’s microstructure

 Influences concrete’s strength, elasticity,

shrinkage, creep, cracking, and durability
 8

4.2 AGGREGATE PHASE

 Responsible for unit weight, elastic modulus,
and dimensional stability of concrete

 Depend on the bulk density and strength of

aggregates

 Determined by physical characteristics such as

volume, size, and pore distribution rather
than chemical characteristic of aggregates

 Affected also by porosity, shape, and texture

 9

4.2 AGGREGATE PHASE

 Has no direct influence on the strength of
normal concrete
 Affects Iterfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) due to
accumulation of water films or bleeding
 10

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

 Refers to paste made
from portland cement

 Develops as a result of
chemical reactions
between portland cement
constituents and water

 Strength depends on
alumina-to-sulfate ratio of
portland cement
 11

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.1 SOLIDS IN HYDRATED CEMENT

1) Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH)

 “CSH gel”; tobermorite gel
 Most important phase in determining the
properties of cement paste due to its high
surface area

2) Calcium Hydroxide Crystals

 “Portlandite”
 Limited strength-contributing potential due to
lower surface area as compared with CSH
 12

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.1 SOLIDS IN HYDRATED CEMENT

3) Calcium Sulfoaluminate Hydrates

 Minor role in microstructure-property
relationships
 Refers to ettringites and monosulfate hydrate

4) Unhydrated clinker grains

 Depends on particle size distribution of
anhydrous cement and degree of hydration
 13

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.2 VOIDS IN HYDRATED CEMENT

1) Interlayer space in CSH

 Accounts for 28% porosity in solid CSH
 Too small to affect strength and permeability
of hydrated cement paste
 Contains water and removal may contribute
to shrinkage and creep

2) Air Voids
 Generally spherical
 Air trapped during concrete mix
 14

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.2 VOIDS IN HYDRATED CEMENT

3) Capillary Voids
 Space not filled by solid components of
hydrated cement paste
 Total cement-water mixture remains
unchanged during hydration
 Volume and size are determined by (1)
original distance of anhydrous cement
particles and (2) degree of hydration
 Porosity: determines the volume of capillary
voids
 15

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.3 WATER IN HYDRATED CEMENT

1) Capillary Water
 Water present in voids

 Two categories:
 Water in large voids or free water
- does no cause volume change
 Water held by capillary tension
- causes shrinkage in the system
 16

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.3 WATER IN HYDRATED CEMENT

2) Absorbed Water
 Water close in the solid surface
 Due to attractive forces
 water molecules are physically absorbed
onto the surface of solids
 hydrogen bonding : decreases with
distance from solid surface
 Loss of absorbed water causes shrinkage of
cement paste
 17

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.3 WATER IN HYDRATED CEMENT

3) Interlayer Water
 Water associated with CSH structure
 Strongly held by hydrogen bonding

4) Chemically Combined Water

 Integral part of hydrated cement
microstucture
 Not lost on drying but on decomposition of
hydrates due to heating
 18

4.3 HYDRATED CEMENT PHASE

4.3.3 WATER IN HYDRATED CEMENT
 19

4.4 INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE

• Zone that exists
between large
particles of
aggregates and
hydrated cement
paste

• Microstructure and
properties are
different from
hydrated cement
paste
 20

4.4 INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE

 “weakest link of the chain”

 Considered as strength-limiting phase in concrete

 Serves as bridge between mortar matrix and

coarse aggregate particles

 Presence of ITZ produces lower stress level than

the two phases

 Does not take high energy levels to extend

cracks
 21

4.4 INTERFACIAL TRANSITION ZONE

 Responsible for:
 inelastic behavior of concrete
 Brittle failure of concrete
 Lower tensile strength than compressive
strength

 Due to joining of matrix cracks with ITZ cracks

upon increasing stress

 Influences stiffness and elastic modulus of concrete

due to stress transfer
22
 CHAPTER 5:
CONCRETE’S STRENGTH

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
5.1 Definition
5.2 Strength – Porosity Relationship
5.3 Failure Modes in Concrete
5.4 Compressive Strength
5.5 Behavior of Concrete Under Various Stress
States
 3

5.1 DEFINITION
STRENGTH

 Property most valued by designers and QA

engineers

 The ability of a material to resist stress without

failure

 Failure is sometimes identified as the

appearance of cracks
 4

5.1 DEFINITION OF STRENGTH

 Property most valued by designers and QA
engineers

 The ability of a material to resist stress without

failure

 Failure is sometimes identified as the

appearance of cracks

 Therefore, strength is the amount of stress

required to cause failure
 5

5.1 DEFINITION OF STRENGTH

 Tension testing : fracture signifies failure

 Compression testing : sometimes shows no

signs of external fracture

SIGNIFICANCE
 Specified for concrete design and quality control

 Properties of concrete are dependent on

strength: elastic modulus, impermeability, and
reistance to weathering
 6

5.2 STRENGTH-POROSITY RELATIONSHIP

 Strength is inversely related to porosity

 Natural Aggregates are naturally dense and

strong

 Cement paste matrix and ITZ usually determines

strength characteristic of normal-weight
concrete
 7

5.2 STRENGTH-POROSITY RELATIONSHIP

 Strength can be
described as:
− kp
S = S0e
Where:
S Strength of the material
So intrinsic strengthat zero
porosity
k constant
p porosity
 8

5.2 STRENGTH-POROSITY RELATIONSHIP

 However, strength-porosity relationship for
concrete is not simple

 This is due to the presence of microcracks in the

ITZ

 Low-porosity high-strength aggregates in

concrete, strength will still be governed by the
strength of matrix an the strength of ITZ
 9

5.3 FAILURE MODES IN CONCRETE

 Failure modes are very complex and vary with
type of stress

 Useful for controlling factors that influence

concrete’s strength

 Brittle failure : Rapid propagation and

interlinkage of the crack system

 Compression failure is less brittle as compared

to tension failure
 10

5.3 FAILURE MODES IN CONCRETE

 Shear-bond cracks :
stable system of cracks
existing in the vicinity if
coarse aggregates

 Higher stress levels :

cracks are inititated in the
matrix and increases
progressively with
increasing stress levels

 Failure surface develops at

about 20deg to 30 deg
from the direction of loads
 11

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

 Depends also on various factors affecting
porosity

 Factors includes: concrete mixture, degree of

compaction, water-cement ratio, and curing
conditions

 Actual response of concrete is a result of

complex interactions between various factors:
1) Characteristics and Proportions of materials
2) Curing conditions
3) Testing parameters
 12

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials
 Mix design is the first step in making concrete
a.) Water-to-cement ratio : Abrams’ water-to-
cement ratio rule

 w/c-strength relationship : natural consequence

of a progressive weakening of the matrix
 13

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

b.) Air Entrainment

 Either result of inadequate compaction or air-
entraining admixture

 Depends on w/c and on cement content

 High strength concrete: strength loss with

increasing amount of entrained air

 Adverse effect on strength due to improved

strength of ITZ
 14

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

b.) Air Entrainment

 15

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

c.) Cement Type

 Affects degree of hydration which has direct effect
on porosity and strength

 Type III has higher fineness and hydrates more

rapidly; therefore, has lower porosity and higher
strength

 Type IV and Type V hydrates slower up to 28 days

only

 Effect of cement composition is limited to early ages

 16

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

d.) Aggregates
 MSA
 Grading
 Testure
 Mineralogical Composition
 17

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

d.) Aggregates (MSA)

 Larger particles require

less mixing water but form
weaker ITZ

 Net effect of aggregate

varies with w/c ratio and
type of applies stress
 18

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

d.) Aggregates (Grading)

 Affects bleeding and consistency characteristics
of concrete mix

(Texture)
 rough-textured or crushed aggregates produces
higher strength due to strong physical bond

 Physical bond is reduced when chemical

interaction begins
 19

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

d.) Aggregates (Mineralocigal

Composition)
 Different mineral composition produces
different strength

 May include substitution of limestones and

calcareous aggregates
 20

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

e.) Mixing Water

 Impurities may affect strength, setting time, salt
deposits, and corrosion of reinforcing bars

 Quality of water must not be acidic, alkaline,

salty, brackish, colored, or foul-smelling
 21

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

1.) Characteristics and Proportions of Materials

f.) Admixture
 Can enhance early strength and ultimate
strength of concrete at a given consistency

 Can have positive response on rate of hydration

 22

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions
 Combination of conditions that promote cement
hydration: time, temperature, and humidity
immediately after placement of concrete

 Hydration proceeds under saturated conditions

 Time, temperature, and humidity are important

in hydration
 23

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

a) Time
 At a given w/c, longer moist curing period
produces higher strength
 ACI recommends the following relationship for
moist-cured OPC (ASTM Type I):

 t 
f cm (t ) = f c 28  
 4 + 0.85t 
 24

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

a) Time
 For specimens cured at 20degC:
Where:
fcm(t) = mean compressive
strength at age t days
  28  fcm = mean 28-day compressive
 
f cm (t ) = exp s1 −   f cm strength
 t / t1  s = cement type coefficient
   = 0.2 (high early strength)
= 0.25 (normal hardening)
= 0.38 (slow hardening)
t1 = 1 day
 25

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

b) Humidity
 Moist-cured concrete performs better than air-
cured concrete

 Slight strength loss in moist-cured concrete

happens as a result of microcracking in the ITZ
caused by drying shrinkage
 26

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

b) Humidity (Con’t)
 Minimum of 7-days moist curing is
recommended for OPC

 Moist curing can be done by spraying, water

ponding, or by covering the surface with wet
sand, sawdust, or cotton mats
 27

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

c) Temperature
 Depends on time-temperature history of casting
and curing
 Three cases:
i. cast and cured at same temperature
ii. cast at different temperatures and but cured
at normal temperature
iii. cast at normal temperature and cured at
different temperatures
 28

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

c) Temperature (Con’t)
i) CASE I (same casting and curing temperature)
 Up to 28 days, the higher casting and curing
temperature, the more rapid the hydration
and strength gain

 But under constant experiments, it is noticed

that higher temperature results to a lower
ultimate strength
 29

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

c) Temperature (Con’t)
ii) CASE II (different casting temperature)
 Low casting temperature produces a
relatively more uniform microstructure of the
hydrated cement which accounts for higher
strength
 30

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

2.) Curing Conditions

c) Temperature (Con’t)
ii) CASE III (different curing temperature)
 Lower curing temperature produces lower
strength

 Hydration reactions are slow

 Curing temperature is more important than casting

temperature
 31

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3.) Testing Parameters
 Involves test specimen and loading conditions

 Test Specimens:
i. Size;
ii. Geometry; and
iii. Moisture state of concrete

 Loading Conditions:
i. Stress level and duration; and
ii. Rate of stress application
 32

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3.) Testing Parameters

1) Specimen Parameters
Specimen Size:

 Standard compressive test specimen is

6”x12” (h/D = 2)

 greater ratio of h/D produces lower strength

 Variation is strength is due to increasing

degree of statistical homogeneity in large
specimens
 33

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3.) Testing Parameters

1) Specimen Parameters
Specimen Moisture State:

 Specimen must be in moist condition at the time

of testing

 Air-dried specimen shows 20%~25% higher

strength

 Lower strength of saturated specimen is

attributed to the disjoining pressure within the
cement paste
 34

5.4 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3.) Testing Parameters

2) Loading Condition

 Compressive strength is measured using

uniaxial compression test (ASTM C469)

 Progressive increase of load for the specimen

to fail

 Generally, the more rapid the rate of loading,

the higher the observed strength
35
 36

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES

I. Under Uniaxial Compression

II. Under Uniaxial Tension

III. Under Shearing Stress

IV. Under Biaxial nad Multiaxial stresses

 37

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
I. Under Uniaxial Compression
 Under short-term loading (up to 30%),
microcracks in ITZ remain undisturbed and
therefore, there is a linear-elastic behavior
 38

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
I. Under Uniaxial Compression
 Gradual increase in curvature then it bends
sharply and, finally, descends until specimen
is fractured
 39

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
I. Under Uniaxial Compression
 At stress level between 30%~50% of f’c, no
cracking occurs in the mortar matrix
 Crack propagation is stable and microcracks
in ITZ show some extension due to stress
concentrations

 At stress level between 50%~75%, crack

propagation increases and system becomes
unstable
 Fracture of specimens occur by bridging the
cracks between matrix and ITZ
 40

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
II. Under Uniaxial Tension
 Shape of stress-strain curve, elastic modulus,
and Poisson’s ratio is similar with that of
compression

 Tends to arrest cracks less frequently than

compression stress and interval of stable
crack propagation is short

 Testing method: ASTM C496 (Splitting

tensile test) and ASTM C78 (Third-point
flexural loading test)
 41

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
II. Under Uniaxial Tension
 Splitting Tension Test
 15cm x 30cm concrete cylinder
 Compressive stress produces a transverse
tensile stress which is uniform along the
vertical diameter
 42

5.5 BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE UNDER

VARIOUS STRESSES
II. Under Uniaxial Tension
 Third-Point Flexural Loading Test
 150mm x 150cmm x 500mm concrete beam
 Expressed in terms of modulus of rupture
computed from the flexure formula
43
 CHAPTER 3:
FRESH CONCRETE

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concrete Mix Design
3.3 Factors Influencing Mix Design
3.4 Proportioning of Concrete Mix
3.5 ACI Mix Design
3.6 Properties of Fresh Concrete
 3

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Source: K.M. Nemati (2015), University of Washington

 4

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete Mixture Proportions

 Expressed in the basis of

mass of ingredients per
unit volume

 Unit volume is either cubic

yard or cubic meter of
concrete
 5

3.1 INTRODUCTION
 6

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Concrete Mix Design

 The art of economically selecting

suitable components of concrete and
determining its mix proportions to
produce concrete that will satisfy
performance requirements under a
particular conditions of use.
 7

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

Cost
Specifications
Workability
Strength
Durability
Placement Conditions
Appearance

Source: K.M. Nemati (2015), University of Washington

 8

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Cost

 Material cost
 Equipment cost
 Labor Cost
 9

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Specifications

 Minimum strength required

 Minimum w/c ratio
 Maximum cement content
 Maximum aggregate/cement ratio
 Maximum density of concrete
 10

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Workability
 Determines the case with which a
concrete mixture can be mixed, transported,
placed, compacted, and finished without
harmful segregation and bleeding

 Measured using slump test (ASTM C143)

 11

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Workability

 Affected by:
1. w/c ratio
2. Amount and type of aggregates
3. Amount and type of cement
4. FA-to-CA ratio
5. Weather conditions
6. Admixtures
 12

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Strength and Durability

 Strength : ability of a material to resist

applied load
 Durability :ability to resist weathering
action , chemical attack, and abrasion while
maintaining desired properties
 Require lower w/c ratio
 13

3.2 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Basic Considerations

 Strength and Durability

 Choice of slump
 Maximum Size of Aggregates
 Water-to-cement ratio
 Minimum cement content
 Finishability, appearance, water
resistance, permeability
 Admixtures
 14

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Type of Cement

Aggregates

Water-to-Cement Ratio

Quality Control
 15

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Type of Cement

 Influences rate of strength development

 Higher strength : lesser cement content

 16

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates

 Economical Consideration

 Size and Shape

 Strength

 Exposure Conditions
 17

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Economical Considerations

 Minimize water and cement content to

produce stiffest possible concrete
 Maximum size, shape, and Surface
Texture
 Optimal ratio of FA to CA
 Grading and its significance
 Consistency, strength, finishability
 18

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Size and Shape

 Maximum Size of Aggregate (MSA): size

of smallest sieve through which all materials
pass

 Nominal Maximum Size : largest size of

aggregate present
 19

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Size and Shape

 Larger nominal size : higher workability

 Smaller size: higher SA for bonding

 MSA:
< 1/5 of narrowest dimension of form
or ¾ spacing of rebars
or <1/3 thickness of unreinforced slab
 20

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Size and Shape

 Fineness modulus is calculated from

particle size distribution of FA

 Values ranges from 2.3 to 3.1

 Influences bulk volume of coarse aggregates

 21

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Exposure Conditions

 Air Entraining/ Air Content

• must be used in concrete
exposed to freezing and
thawing
• used to improve
workability
• Depends on: (1) MSA and
(2) Level of exposure
 22

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Aggregates
 Exposure Conditions
 Requirements of ACI 318 Building Code and ASTM C94
 23

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Water-to-Cement Ratio (w/c)

 Inversely proportional with compressive strength

 Determined from:

1. Durability
considerations

2. Required strength
 24

3.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MIX DESIGN

Water-to-Cement Ratio (w/c)
 Requirement of ACI 318 Building Code
Max w/c ratio Min Fc MPa (psi)
Concrete intended to have 0.5 28 (4000)
low permeability when
exposed to water
Concrete exposed to 0.45 31 (4500)
thawing and freezing in a
moist condition or to de-
icing chemicals
For corrosion protection of 0.40 35 (5000)
reinforcement in concrete
exposed to chloride
 25

3.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIX

 May be determined by:
 Published data (i.e American Concrete Institute)
 Direct laboratory test (Trial Method)

 Provide means of meeting specified requirements of

quality

 Components must satisfy quality requirements:

 Aggregates: sound, clean, well shaped, and
properly graded
 Cement: appropriate type, normal setting
characteristics, should fulfill specification
requirement
 26

3.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIX

 Concrete mix designs are often given by a ratio:

 Ratio is in terms of weight in the components

 27

3.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIX

 Concrete mix designs are often given by a ratio:

 28

3.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE MIX

 Most common method : Absolute Volume
Method

 Other methods:
 29

 Sieve Analysis, Unit Weight, SG,

1. Required material Information Absorption Capacities
2. Choice of slump

3. Maximum Size of Aggregates

4. Estimation of mixing water and air content

5. Water-to-cement Ratio

6. Calculation of cement content

3.5 7. Estimation of coarse aggregate content
ACI 8. Estimation of fine aggregate content
MIX 9. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregate

DESIGN 10. Trial Batch

 30

3.5 ACI MIX DESIGN

 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 31

3.5 ACI MIX DESIGN

 32

3.5 ACI MIX DESIGN

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (TABLES)
 33

3.5 ACI MIX DESIGN

 SAMPLE PROBLEM (TABLES)
 34

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

 Comprise batching, mixing, transporting,
placing, compacting, and surface finishing

 Affects hardened concrete due to:

 Strength and durability depends on its

compaction
 First 48 hours are important for the
performance of concrete
 Controls long-term behavior, ultimate
strength, elastic modulus, creep, and
durability
 35

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Properties at Early Age

Workability
Slump Loss
Segregation/Bleeding
Plastic Shrinkage
Time of Set
Temperature
 36

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Workability

 Not a fundamental property of concrete

 Consistency : Fluidity of the mix

• Too wet mix is workable but segregation will
occur and results to excessive bleeding,
formation of honeycomb, and sand streaking

 Cohesiveness : bleeding and segregation

 37

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Workability

 Measurement methods:
 Slump test
 Kelly Ball Test
 Compacting factor test
 Pressure method

 Do not use more water; use adequate vibration

for more compaction
 Do not over vibrate for this will cause error in
slump
 38

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Workability

Stiffening and Setting

 Concrete gradually stiffens until it

becomes rigid

 It is essential to remain plastic long

enough to permit transportation, placing,
consolidation, and finishing
 39

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Stiffening and Setting

Initial Set: Loss of consistency, unworkable concrete

Final Set: Complete solidification
 40

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Segregation
 Separation of constituents of a heterogeneous
mixture which will result to non-uniform
distribution

 Two forms:
(1) Coarser particles tend to separate out
(2) Cement separate from the mix

 Depends also on handling method and concrete

placing
 41

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Segregation
 42

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Bleeeding
 “Water Gain” : form of segregation where in
water in the mix tend to rise to the surface

 Caused by inability of solids to mix and hold

water while setting

 Can be expressed as the total settlement per

unit height of concrete
 43

3.6 PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Platic Shrinkage
 Cracks appearing on the surface of fresh
concrete while on plastic stage

 Reasons: loss of water

 Rate of water evaporation is caused by:

 air and concrete humidity
 Wind speed
 Relative humidity
44
 CHAPTER 6:
ADMIXTURES

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Surface-Active Chemicals
6.3 Set-Controlling Chemicals
6.4 Mineral Admixtures
 3

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Admixture
 Material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic
cement, and fiber reinforcement

 vary widely in chemical composition

 Added to fresh concrete immediately before or

during mixing

 Used to improve or modify properties of OPC

 Difficult to classify according to function because

one may perform more than one function
 4

6.1 INTRODUCTION
STANDARDS

 ASTM C260 – “Air Entraining Admixtures”

 ASTM C494 – “Chemical Admixtures”

 ASTM C618 – “Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural

Pozzolans as Admixtures”

 ASTM C989 – “Ground Iron Blast-Furnace Slag”

 5

6.1 INTRODUCTION
To discuss admixtures’ composition, mechanism of
action, and applications, admixtures are classified
into three groups:

I. Surface-active Chemicals

II. Set-Controlling Chemicals

III. Mineral Admixtures

 6

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

 Also known as Surfactants

 Consists of long-chain organic molecules, one end

is hydrophilic and the other end is hydrophobic

 Generally used for:

1. air entrainment or
2. reduction of water
 7

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

1. Air-Entraining Surfactants
 Composed of salts of wood resins, proteinacious
materials and petroleum acids, and synthetic
detergents

 consists of a nonpolar hydrocarbon chain with an

anionic group
 8

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

1. Air-Entraining Surfactants (con’t)

 Air-water interface promotes bubble formation due to

lowered surface tension

 Solid-water interface makes the cement surface

hydrophobic
 9

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

1. Air-Entraining Surfactants (con’t)

 Applications

 Resist freezing and thawing cycles

 Improved workability of fresh concrete

 Making mass concrete and lightweight

concrete mixtures

 However, any overdose cause an excessive

delay in cement hydration and strength loss
 10

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

2. Water-Reducing Admixtures

 Anionic polar group is joined to a hydrocarbon chain

 Surfactant itself is polar or hydrophilic

 11

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

2. Water-Reducing Admixtures (Con’t)

 Before: a well-dispersed system between the water

and cement is not attained due to (1) high surface
tension of water and (2) formation of flocks of cement
 12

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

2. Water-Reducing Admixtures (Con’t)

 After: layers of water dipoles surround the hydrophilic

cement particles and flocculation is prevented thus, a
well-dispersed system is obtained.
 13

6.2 SURFACE-ACTIVE CHEMICALS

2. Water-Reducing Admixtures (Con’t)

 Applications

 Decrease cement content

 Increase mix consistency

 Achieve higher compressive strength

 14

6.3 SET-CONTROLLING CHEMICALS

 These are soluble chemicals that can influence the

rate of ionization of cement compounds or the rate of
crystallization of the hydration products

 Consists of Accelerating admixtures and retarding

admixtures

 Can be attributed mainly to dissolving of the

anhydrous constituents rather than to the
crystallization of the hydrates
 15

6.3 SET-CONTROLLING CHEMICALS

 Alteration of type and concentration of the ionic
constituents in the cement paste and thus, influencing
the dissolution of cement compounds according to the
following:

a. Accelerators promote the dissolution of cement

constituents which has the lowest dissolving rate
during the early stage of the hydration process

b. Retarders impede dissolution of cement ions which

has the highest dissolving rate during the early stage
of the hydration process
 16

6.3 SET-CONTROLLING CHEMICALS

 Alteration of type and concentration of the ionic
constituents in the cement paste and thus, influencing
the dissolution of cement compounds according to the
following:

c. Monovalent cations reduce solubility of calcium ions

but increases solubility of silicate and aluminate ions

d. Clˉ, NO3ˉ reduces solubility of silicates and

aluminates but promote solubility of calcium ions
 17

6.3 SET-CONTROLLING CHEMICALS

1. Accelarating Admixtures

 Applications

 For cold weather

 Reduce curing period requirement

 Increase rate of early strength development

 18

6.3 SET-CONTROLLING CHEMICALS

2. Retarding Admixtures

 Applications

 Hot weather concreting

 Longer workability period

 Eliminates cold joints ad discontinuities in

large structures
 19

6.4 MINERAL ADMIXTURES

 Also known as Supplementary Cementing Materials
(SCM), these are siliceous materials added to concrete
in relatively large amount (20%~70% by mass)

 Contributes to the properties of hardened concrete

through hydraulic activity or pozzolanic activity or
both

 Materials can be divided into two groups:

1. Natural Pozzolanic Materials
2. By-Product Materials
 20

6.4 MINERAL ADMIXTURES

1. Natural Pozzolanic Materials
 Materials that are processed for pozzolans and are
classified into four groups:

i. Volcanic glasses – unaltered aluminosilicate

glass
ii. Volcanic tuffs – hydrothermal alteration of
volcanic glass
iii. Calcined clays/shales – amorphous
aluminosilicate structure of clay
iv. Diatomaceous earths – hydrated amorphous
silica from cell walls of aquatic algae
 21

6.4 MINERAL ADMIXTURES

2. By-Product Materials
 Most common by-product materials are:
i. Fly Ash – powdered coal from thermal power
plants which contains silica, alumina, and calcium

ii. Iron Blast-Furnace Slag – granulated or

pelletized slag from cast iron production

iii. Silica Fume – induction of silicon metal and

ferrosilicon alloy

iv. Rice Husk Ash – combustion of rice hulls

 22

6.4 MINERAL ADMIXTURES

2. By-Product Materials (Con’t)

 Applications

 Workability improvement

 Improved durability to thermal cracking

 Improved durability to chemical attack

 High strength and high-performance concrete

23
 CHAPTER 7:
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Elastic Behavior
7.3 Drying Shrinkage and Creep
7.4 Thermal Shrinkage
 3

7.1 INTRODUCTION

 Deformation is a result of material response to

external load and environment

 Concrete shows elastic and inelastic strains due

to loading and temperature conditions

 Deformations in concrete include thermal

shrinkage, drying shrinkage, and creep
 4

7.1 INTRODUCTION
 Stress-strain relationship in concrete is complex
because (1) concrete is inelastic material and (2)
strains are not uniform throughout a concrete
member
 5

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

 Measure of material’s stiffness or determining

stresses induced by strains

 Nonlinearity of stress-strain relationship in

concrete is due to progressive microcracking of
concrete

 Stress level and microcracking in concrete can

be divided into four stages
6
 7

Microcracks exists Microcracks remain

in ITZ due to stable
bleeding
characteristics and
curing history of
concrete.

Linear stress-strain
relationship
 8

a stable system of
microcracks appears
at ITZ

Propagation of Cracks begin to

microcracks form in the cement
matrix
 9

Cracks in the ITX rate of strain energy

become unstable reach the critical
level needed for
crack growth

Increasing
propagation of
cracks causes
bending of curve
toward the horizon
 10

Bridging of cracks
in the ITZ and
cement matrix

Failure of material
 11

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

ELASTIC MODULUS
 There are three types of elastic modulus in
concrete
a) Static Modulus of Elasticity – given by the
slope of σ – ε curve under uniaxial loading

b) Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity –

corresponding to a very small instantaneous
strain given by initial tangent modulus

c) Flexural Modulus of Elasticity – determined

from deflection test
 12

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Static Modulus of Elasticity
 13

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Static Modulus of Elasticity
 Three types:
1) Tangent Modulus – slope of the line tangent
to the stress-strain curve at any point of the
curve

2) Secant modulus – slope of the line drawn

from the origin to a point on the point
corresponding to 40% f’c

3) Chord Modulus – slope of the line drawn

between two points on the stress-strain curve
 14

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity

1) Aggregates
- aggregate porosity determines stiffness

- larger amount of coarse aggregates with high

elastic modulus, the greater the modulus of
elasticity of concrete

- size, shape, surface texture, and

mineralogical composition affects ITZ thus, affect
the stress-strain curve
 15

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity (Con’t)

2) Hydrated Cement Paste Matrix

- Determined by its porosity which is controlled
by w/c, air content, mineral admixtures, and degree
of cement hydration

3) Transition Zone
- stress-strain relations in concrete is determined
by capillary voids, microcracks, and calcium
hydroxide crystals
 16

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

Factors Affecting Modulus of Elasticity (Con’t)

4) Testing Parameters
- Specimens tested in wet conditions have higher
elastic modulus
17
 18

7.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR

POISSON’S RATIO
 The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain within
the elastic limit for a material subjected to
axial load

 Concrete’s poisson ratio varies from 0.15 to

0.20

 Value is lower for high strength concrete, for

saturated concrete, and for dynamically loaded
concrete
 19

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

 Originate from hydrated cement paste

 Both have similar strain-time curve

 Both are influenced by the same factors

 Microstrain for both is large

 Both are partially reversible

 20

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

CAUSES :
 Shrinkage Strain
- Loss of physically absorbed water from CSH
and loss of hydrostatic tension in small
capillaries due to relative humidity between
the concrete and the environment

 Creep Strain
- Loss of physically absorbed water from CSH
due to sustained stress
- Crack propagation in the ITZ
- Delayed elastic response in aggregate
 21

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
1. Materials and mix-proportions
- Hydrated cement paste is the main source of
moisture-related deformations

a. Aggregate
- Elastic modulus and aggregate content

- degree of microcracking in the ITZ when a

relatively nonreactive aggregates are used
 22

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
1. Materials and mix-proportions (Con’t)
b. Cement
- fineness and composition have negligible
effect on concrete

- strength of concrete at the time of load

application affects creep

- cement content and w/c ratio affects

aggregate fraction and moisture-dependent
deformations

- strength and permeability of the system

 23

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
1. Materials and mix-proportions (Con’t)
c. Admixture
- affects volume of fine pores in the hydrated
products

- water-reducing and set-retarding

admixtures causes pore refinement show
higher drying shrinkage and creep
 24

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
2. Time and Humidity
- diffusion of absorbed water and water held
by capillary tension is a time-dependent
process

- atmospheric
humidity
affects rate of
moisture flow
 25

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
2. Time and Humidity (Con’t)
- temperature has two counteracting effects

- higher temperature during curing before

load application decreases creep

- higher temperature during curing under

applied load increases creep
 26

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
3. Geometry of Concrete
- controlled by length of path travelled by the
water

- expressed in terms of theoretical thickness

- ratio of the area of the section the

semiperimeter in contact with the atmosphere

- inverse relationship with creep and

shrinkage
 27

7.3 DRYING SHRINKAGE AND CREEP

FACTORS AFFECTING:
4. Curing History
- alternating environmental humidity results
to higher creep due to increase in microcracks
in the ITZ

5. Intensity of Applied Stress

- creep is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the applied stress
 28

7.4 THERMAL SHRINKAGE

 Generally, solids expands and contracts

 Strain depends on the coefficient of thermal

expansion

 Control temperature: selection of proper materials,

Mix proportions, Curing conditions, and Construction
practice

 Shrinkage strain is more important than expansion

strain

 Degree of strain and stress relaxation results to large

amount of tensile stress that causes cracks
 29

7.4 THERMAL SHRINKAGE

FACTORS AFFECTING:
1. Degree of Restraint
- externally by rock foundation
- internally by differential deformations due to
temperature gradient

2. Temperature Change
- difference between peak temperature of
concrete and service temperature of the structure
 30

7.4 THERMAL SHRINKAGE

FACTORS AFFECTING:
2. Temperature Change (Con’t)
- placement temperature of concrete and pre-
cooling of fresh concrete
- Adiabatic temperature rise is
affected by amount,
composition, and fineness of
cement and hydration
temperature
- Heat loss depends on thermal
property of concrete and
construction methodology
 CHAPTER 8:
SOIL AND ITS PROPERTIES

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
8.1 Origin and Grain Size
8.2 Weight-Volume Relationships
8.3 Plasticity Structure of Soil
8.4 Classification of Soil
8.5 Soil compaction
8.6 Permeability
8.7 Seepage
 3

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

SOIL
 Layers of unconsolidated materials extending
from solid rock to surface

 Formed by weathering and disintegration of

rocks

 Mode of origin is divided into three basic types:

 Igneous Rock – solidified molten magma
 Sedimentary Rock – deposits formed by
weathering
 Metamorphic rock – rock alteration due to
heat/pressure
 4

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

 Divided into four sizes:
1. Gravel - pieces of rocks with occasional
particles of quartz, feldspar, and other minerals

2. Sand – mostly quartz and feldspar

3. Silt – microscopic soil fractions that consists of

fine quartz particles

4. Clay – flake-shaped microscopic particles of

mica, clay minerals, and other minerals
 5

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

 Mechanical Analysis to determine the size range
of particles present in soil:

1. Seive Analysis
 Shaking of soil sample through a set of
sieves

 Uses loose oven dried soil samples

 Percent finer is calculated and plotted in

particle-size distribution curve
 6

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

1. Seive Analysis (Con’t)
 7

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

2. Hydrometer Analysis
 Uses principle of sedimentation

 Different particles settle at different velocities

expressed by stoke’s law
Where:
v velocity
ρs soil’s density
ρw density of water
η viscosity of water
D diameter of particles
 8

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

2. Hydrometer Analysis (Con’t)
 9

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve
 10

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve
 Used to determine four parameters for a given soil:

1. Effective Size (D10)

- diameter of particle size that corresponds to
10% finer
- Estimates hydraulic conductivity and drainage
of soil
2. Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
Where:
D60
Cu = D60 – 60% finer
D10 D10 – 10% finer
 11

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve
3. Coefficient of Gradation (Cc)
2
D
Cc = 30
D60 × D10
4. Sorting Coefficient (So)
- Measure of uniformity

D75
S0 =
D25
 12

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve
 13

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve

 Determines the proportions of soil particles present

 14

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Particle Size Distribution Curve
 Also shows the type of distribution of various-size
particle
 15

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Example

Shown is a result of
sieve analysis.
Determine the
percentages of gravel,
sand, silt, and clay.
Also, determine the
four parameters of
soil.
 16

8.1 Origin and Grain Size

Example

D60
Cu =
D10
2
D
Cc = 30
D60 × D10

D75
S0 =
D25
 17

8.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

 18

8.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

 Volume of soil sample is the total volume of solids
and voids (water and/or air) present

 Volume relationship for the three phases are void

ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation

 Weight of soil sample is the total weight of solids

and water present

 Weight relationship for the three phases are

Moisture Content and Unit Weight
 19

8.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

1. VOID RATIO
Vv
 Ratio of the volume of voids to e=
the volume of solids Vs

2. POROSITY
Vv
 Ratio of the volume of voids to n=
the total volume V

3. DEGREE OF SATURATION
Vw
 Ratio of the volume of water to S=
the volume of voids Vv
 20

8.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

4. MOISTURE CONTENT
Ww
 Referred to as water content ω=
 Ratio of the weight of water to Ws
the weight of solids

5. UNIT WEIGHT W
 Weight of soil per unit wolume
γ=
V
 Referred to as moist unit weight
 Can be expressed in terms of Ws (1 + ω )
moisture content γ=
V
 21

8.2 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Unit Weight, Porosity,
and Moisture Content and Moisture Content
Relationship Relationship
 22

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

 Soil can be divided into four basic states depending
on moisture content – solid, semi-solid, plastic, and
liquid
 The limits of these moisture content are defined in
Atterberg Limit
 23

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

 Soil can be divided into four basic states depending
on moisture content – solid, semi-solid, plastic, and
liquid
 The limits of these moisture content are defined in
Atterberg Limit (shrinkage, plastic, and liquid)
 24

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

1. LIQUID LIMIT (LL)
- moisture content, in percent
- from plastic state to liquid state

CASSAGRANDE CUP
 25

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

2. PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)
- moisture content, in percent, at which soil
crumbles when rolled into threads
- lower limit of the plastic stage

FALL CONE METHOD ROLLING OF SOIL THREAD

 26

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

3. SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL)
- moisture content, in percent, at which volume of
sand changes
- oven-drying of soil specimen
 27

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

PLASTICITY CHART
 28

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

PLASTICITY CHART
Upper limit of
plasticity index-liquid
limit relationship

Separates inorganic
clay from inorganic
slits
 29

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

PLASTICITY CHART
1. PLASTICITY INDEX, PI
- Measure of plasticity of soil; range of moisture
content where soil exhibits plastic properties

PI = LL − PL

2. LIQUIDITY INDEX, LI
- Scaling the natural water content of soil sample
to the limits
w − PL
LI =
LL − PL
 30

8.3 PLASTICITY STRUCTURE OF SOIL

PLASTICITY CHART
3. CONSISTENCY INDEX, CI
- Indicates the consistency of soil
LL − w
CI =
LL − PL
4. ACTIVITY INDEX, LI
- For clays, signifies volume change under several
water content conditions
PI
A=
%clayparticles
 31

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

 TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION

 AASHTO CLASSIFICATION

 UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION

 32

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION

 Soil texture is influenced by individual

particles present

 Soils are named after their principal

components

 USDA developed textural classification

systems for soil that is based on soil fraction
that passes through sieve no. 10 (2mm)
 33

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Note:
If a certain percentage
of soil particle is larger
than 2mm in diameter,
a correction is
necessary
particle(%) ×100
%adj =
100 − % gravel
 34

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

EXAMPLE:
Classify the following soil according to USDA
textural classification.
Particele-size SOIL
distribution (%) A B C D
Gravel 10 21 0 12
Sand 20 12 18 22
Silt 41 35 24 26
Clay 29 32 58 40
 35

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
 Soil is classified as A-1 to A-7 which are based on
the following assumptions:

1. Grain Size
a) Gravel – passing 75mm sieve and retained in
sieve No.10
b) Sand – passing sieve No.10 and retained in sieve
No.200
c) Silt and Clay – passing sieve no. 200
 36

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
 Soil is classified as A-1 to A-7 which are based on
the following assumptions:

2. Plasticity
a) Silty – PI ≤ 10
b) Clayey – PI ≥ 11

3. Cobbles and boulders (size larger than

75mm) are excluded but is recorded.
 37

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
 38

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
 39

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 Originally proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for
airfield construction

 Classified soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils
— Gravelly (G) and sandy (S)
— < 50% passing through sieve no 200
2. Fine-Grained Soils
— Inorganic Silts (M), inorganic clay (C), and
organic silts and clays (O)
— ≥ 50% passing through sieve no 200
 40

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 41

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

 42

8.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

EXAMPLE
Determine the group
symbols and group
names according to
USCS.
 43

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

 Densification of soil using mechanical means

 Degree of compaction of soil is measured in

terms of dry unit weight

 Water is added to the soil during compaction so

that soil particles slip over each other

 Dry unit weight after compaction increases as

the moisture content increases but at a
certain ω, any increase tends to reduce the dry
unit weight
 44

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

 Optimum moisture content
refers to moisture content
at maximum dry unit
weight

 Proctor Compaction Test

(Proctor, 1933) determines
the maximum dry unit
weight of compaction and
optimum moisture content
 45

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

 Dry Unit Weight:

γ
γd =
1+ ω
• ω and Ɣ of soil are
obtained in the
laboratory
 46

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL COMPACTION

1. SOIL TYPE
— Grain size distribution, grain shape, solid’s
specific gravity, amount ant type of clay minerals

2. COMPACTION EFFORT
— Compaction energy per unit volume
— Increase in compaction effort increases the
maximum dry unit weight but decreases the
optimum moisture content
 47

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

EFFECT ON COHESIVE SOIL PROPERTIES
 Induces variations on soil’s:
 Hydraulic conductivity – measure how easily
water flows through soil and decreases with
increase in moisture content
 Strength – decreases with molding moisture
content
 Compressibility – shows two trends:
 Under lower pressure: soil compacted on the
wet side of optimum is more compressible
 Under high pressure: opposite of the above
 48

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

EFFECT ON COHESIVE SOIL PROPERTIES
 Compressibility (con’t)
 For samples compacted on the dry side of
the optimum:
— Pressure orient the particles normal to its
direction of application

 For samples compacted on the wet side of

the optimum:
— Pressure reduces the space between clay
particles
 49

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION

 Standard procedures include:

1. Sand Cone Method

2. Rubber Balloon Method

3. Nuclear Method
 50

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION
1. Sand Cone Method
— Consists of glass or plastic jar with metal cone
attached at its top
— Sand is allowed to flow out of the
jar to fill the hole and the cone
 51

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION
2. Rubber Balloon Method
— Same with sand cone method but the volume is
determined by filling up the balloon with water
 52

8.5 SOIL COMPACTION

FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF COMPACTION
3. Nuclear Method
— Density meters operate either in drilled holes or
from ground surface
— Uses radioactive isotope
source which gives off
gamma rays that radiates
back to the meter detector

— Dense soil absorbs more

radiation than loose soil
 53

8.6 PERMEABILITY
 Soils are permeable due to interconnected
voids through which water can flow from
points of high energy to points of low energy

 Importance involves:
a) Pumping of water for underground
construction
b) Stability of Earth dams
c) Stability of earth-retaining structures

 Uses concepts of Bernoulli’s principle and Darcy’s

Law
 54

8.6 PERMEABILITY
Bernoulli’s Principle
— Total head at a point can be given by the sum of
pressure head, velocity head, and elevation head
Pv2
h= + +z
γ 2g
Darcy’s Law
— Discharge velocity of water through saturated
soils
v = ki
 55

8.6 PERMEABILITY
 Measured using hydraulic conductivity

 Depends on the following:

 Fluid viscosity
 Pore-size distribution
 Grain-size distribution
 Void ratio
 Roughness of mineral particles
 Degree of soil saturation
 56

8.6 PERMEABILITY
LABORATORY HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
1. Constant Head Test
— Constant head difference
between the inlet and the outlet
while water is being collected
 57

8.6 PERMEABILITY
LABORATORY HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
2. Constant Head Test
— Water flows from
Standpipe through soil
 58

8.6 PERMEABILITY
IN SITU k OF COMPACTED CLAY SOILS
1. BOUTWELL PERMEAMETER
— Hole is drilled and casing is placed in it then filled
with water and falling head test is conducted
 59

8.6 PERMEABILITY
IN SITU k OF COMPACTED CLAY SOILS
2. CONSTANT-HEAD BOREHOLE PERMEAMETER
— Constant head is maintained by
supplying water and the rate of
flow is measured
 60

8.6 PERMEABILITY
IN SITU k OF COMPACTED CLAY SOILS
3. POROUS PROBES
— Pushed/ driven into soil then constant /falling head
test is performed
 61

8.7 SEEPAGE
 Seepage is the flow of water in the soil

 Critical in building foundations, earth dams,

reservoirs, roadbeds, and filtration beds

 Uses the concept of Darcy’s Law

 Flow net is a graph used to determine the

ground water flow and is based on Laplace’s
equation of continuity
 62

8.7 SEEPAGE
 Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift
pressure at the base of a hydraulic structure
63
 CHAPTER 9:
SOIL STRENGTH

Prepared by: Engr. NMSTabucal

 2

CHAPTER OUTLINE
9.1 Shear Strength
9.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
9.3 Direct Shear Test
9.4 Triaxial Shear Test
9.5 Consolidation Test
 3

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

 Safety of geotechnical structures are dependent
on soil strength

 Soil failure causes structures founded on it to

collapse

 Net increase in soil stresses are caused by

foundation construction

 Net increase is used to calculate settlements in

soil
 4

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

Concrete Steel Soil

Compressive Tensile Shear

Strength Strength Strength
 5

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

SIGNIFICANCE
 To analyze soil stability problems such as:

 Bearing Capacity

 Slope Stability

 Lateral earth pressures

 Pavements
 6

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

SHEAR STRENGTH FAILURE
 7

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

 Soil’s resistance to shearing stress

 Depends primarily on interactions between

particles

 Shear failure occurs when soil particles slide

past each other due to stresses
 8

9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH

 Two sources of shear strength:
1. COHESION
— Stress independent component
— Electrostatic attraction between clay
particles

2. FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE
— Stress dependent component
— Internal Friction angle, Φ, measures
shear strength of soil due to friction
 9

9.2 MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

 Soil fails due to critical combination of normal
stress and shear stress and is given by the
equation:

s = c'+σ ' tan φ '

 10

9.2 MOHR-COULOMB FAILURE CRITERION

 Inclination of the failure plane is shown by the
figure below and is given by the equation:

φ
θ = 45° + 2'
 11

9.3 DIRECT SHEAR STRENGTH

 (ASTM D 3080) to determine shear-strength of
both cohesive and non-cohesive soils

 Shear force is applied by moving half of the box

relative to the other to cause failure of soil
 12

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

 Developed by Casagrande to overcome
disadvantage of the direct hear strength

 Advantages are: More versatile, controlled

drainage, no rotation of the principal axis, failure
plane can occur anywhere

 “triaxial” – three principal stresses are assumed

to be known and are controlled

 Soil specimen is subjected to a confining fluid

pressure then loaded axially to failure
 13

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

Four types of test:

1. Unconsolidated-
Undrained (UU or Q)
2. Consolidated-
Undrained (CU or R)
3. Consolidated-Drained
(CD or S)
4. Unconfined
Compression (UC)
 14

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

1. Unconsolidated-Undrained
 “Quick Test”
 Drained valves are closed for all phases of
the test
 Stimulates short term strength for cohesive
soil
 15

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

2. Consolidated-Undrained
 Application of third principal stress

 drainage valve is open during consolidation

but closed on shearing phase

 Stimulate long term and short term shear

strength for cohesive soils if pore water is
measured during shearing phase
 16

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

2. Consolidated-Undrained (Con’t)
 Total stress is not equal with effective stress
 17

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

3. Consolidated-Drained
 Slow test, stimulates long term shear for
cohesive soil

 Drainage valve is open throughout the test

 Complete sample drainage before the

application of vertical load

 No excess pore pressure therefore, total

stresses is equal to effective stresses
 18

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

3. Consolidated-Drained (Con’t)
 19

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

4. Unconfined Compression
 Used for clay soils
 No confining stresses (ASTM D-2166)
 20

9.4 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

4. Unconfined Compression (Con’t)
 21

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

CONSOLIDATION
 Compression or settlement of soil due to
placing of loads onto the ground which
increases the vertical effective stress

 Caused by (1) deformation of soil particles,

(2) Relocations of soil particles, and (3)
expulsion of water or air from void spaces

• Most settlement of structure on clay is due to

volumetric change and rarely due to shear
strain
 22

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

SIGNIFICANCE

 Volume change of soil is the governing

design criteria of a project

 Settlement is not tolerated due to the

reduction of structure’s service life

 Rate of consolidation is also important to

determine the expected total consolidated
 23

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

 24

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

CONSOLIDATION VS COMPACTION

COMPACTION CONSOLIDATION
•Instantaneous Process • Time-dependent process
• Applicable to all soil • Applicable to clayey soil
• Unsaturated soils • saturated soils
• decrease in air voids • decrease in water voids
•Dry density increases • dry density increases
•Water content does not •Water content decreases
change
 25

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

 Two types of consolidometers (oedometers)
1. Floating ring
2. Fixed ring

1. Floating ring
 26

9.5 CONSOLIDATION TEST

 Two types of consolidometers (oedometers)
1. Floating ring
2. Fixed ring

2. Fixed Ring
27