Engineering Materials II: Chapter 2 Instructor: Paulos Shewatatek

Chapter 2 Alloy Steels

2 Alloy Steels
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Classification of Alloy Steels
2.3. Effect of Alloying Elements

2.1 Introduction

Alloying: Changing chemical composition of steel by adding elements with purpose

to improve its properties as compared to the plane carbon steel.

Alloy Steels are irons where other elements (besides carbon) can be added to iron
to improve:

• Mechanical property - Increase strength, hardenability, toughness (a given

strength & hardness), creep, and high temp resistance.
• Increase manufacturability
• Increase wear resistance,
• Improve magnetic properties
• Improve environmental property.

Classification of metal alloys

Ferrous Non - ferrous

Whit
e Cast Iron Steels

Grey
Low Alloy High Alloy

Low High
Carbon Med. Carbon Tool Stainles
Carbon Steel s Steel

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Engineering Materials II: Chapter 2 Instructor: Paulos Shewatatek

2.2 Classification of alloy steel

Alloy steels are grouped into low, medium and high alloy steels.

• High-alloy steels would be the stainless steel groups.

• Most alloy steels in use fall under the category of low alloy

Alloy steels are, in general, with elements as: > 1.65%Mn, > 0.60% Si, or >0.60% Cu.

The most common alloy elements includes: Chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium,
tungsten, cobalt, boron, and copper

Low Alloys: Low Carbon

• Composition: less than ~ 0,25% C ( 0,30%)

• Microstructure: ferrite and pearlite
• Properties: relatively soft and weak, but possess high ductility and toughness

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Engineering Materials II: Chapter 2 Instructor: Paulos Shewatatek

• Other features: machinable and weldable, not responsive to heat treatment -

Plain carbon steels
• Applications: auto-body components, structural shapes, sheets etc.

High-strength low alloy (HSLA) steels:

• Up to 10 wt% of alloying elements, such as Mn, Cr, Cu, V, Ni, Mo – can be

strengthened by heat-treatment

Examples of HSLA Steels:

• Weathering steels, exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance

• Control-rolled steels, has a highly deformed austenite structure that transforms to
a very fine equiaxed ferrite structure on cooling
• Pearlite-reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation
hardening with a little or no pearlite in the microstructure
• Micro alloyed steels, with very small additions of Ni, V and/or Ti for refinement of
grain size and/or precipitation hardening
• Acicular ferrite steel, very low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to
transform on cooling to a very fine high-strength acicular ferrite structure

Low Alloys: Medium Carbon Steels

• Composition: 0.25< Co <0.6 C wt.%

• Processing: Increasing the carbon content to approximately 0.5% with an
accompanying increase in manganese allows medium carbon steels to be used
in the quenched and tempered condition.
• Microstructure: typically tempered martensite
• Properties: stronger than low-carbon steels, but in expense of ductility and
toughness
• Applications: couplings, forgings, gears, crankshafts other high-strength
structural components. Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also used for
rails, railway wheels and rail axles.

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Engineering Materials II: Chapter 2 Instructor: Paulos Shewatatek

Low Alloys: High & Ultra High - Carbon Steels

• High-carbon steels: 0.60 to 1.00 % C with manganese contents ranging from

0.30 to 0.90%.
• Application: High-carbon steels are used for spring materials, high-strength
wires, cutting tools and etc.
• Ultrahigh-carbon steels are experimental alloys containing 1.25 to 2.0% C. These
steels are thermo-mechanically processed to produce microstructures that
consist of ultra-fine, equiaxed grains of spherical, discontinuous proeutectoid
carbide particles.

High-Alloy Steels: Stainless Steels (SS)

• The primarily-alloying element is Cr (≥11 wt.%)

• Highly resistance to corrosion by addition of Nickel and molybdenum

A property of great importance is the ability of alloying elements to promote the

formation of a certain phase or to stabilize it.

These elements are grouped as four major classes:

• austenite-forming,
• ferrite-forming,
• carbide-forming and
• nitride-forming elements

Distribution of alloying elements in steels:

Alloying elements can influence the equilibrium diagram in two ways in ternary systems
Fe-C-X:

1. Expanding the γ -field, and encouraging the formation of austenite over wider
compositional limits. These elements are called γ -stabilizers.
2. Contracting the γ-field, and encouraging the formation of ferrite over wider
compositional limits. These elements are called α-stabilizers

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Classification of iron alloy phase diagrams: a. open γ -field; b. expanded γ –field

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Classification of iron alloy phase diagrams: c. closed γ -field d. Contract γ - field

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Open γ - field: austenitic steels.

• Nickel and manganese depress the phase transformation from γ to α to lower

temperatures

• both Ac1 and Ac3 are lowered.

• It is also easier to obtain metastable austenite by quenching from the γ-region to

room temperature

Expanded γ -field : austenitic steels

• Carbon and nitrogen (Copper, zinc and gold)

• The γ-phase field is expanded The γ-phase field is expanded

• Heat treatment of steels,

– allowing formation of a homogeneous solid solution (austenite) containing

up to 2.0 wt % of carbon or 2.8 wt % of nitrogen

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Closed γ -field : ferritic steels

• Silicon, aluminium, beryllium and phosphorus (strong carbide forming elements -

titanium, vanadium, molybdenum and chromium )

• γ-area contract to a small area referred to as the gamma loop

– encouraging the formation of bcc iron (ferrite),

– δ- and γ-phase fields become continuous

• Not amenable to the normal heat treatments involving cooling through the γ/α-
phase transformation

Contracted γ -field : ferritic steels

• Boron is the most significant element of this group (carbide forming elements -
tantalum, niobium and zirconium.

• The γ-loop is strongly contracted

• Normally elements with opposing tendencies will cancel each other out at the
appropriate combinations, but in some cases anomalies occur. For example,
chromium added to nickel in a steel in concentrations around 18% helps to
stabilize the γ-phase, as shown by 18Cr8Ni austenitic steels.

18Cr8Ni austenitic steels.

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opposing tendencies

High-Alloy Steels: Stainless Steels (SS)

(a) The austenitic SS:

• γ-Fe FCC microstructure at room temperature. Typical alloy Fe-18Cr-8Ni-

1Mn-0.1C

• Stabilizing austenite – increasing the temperature range, in which

austenite exists.

• Raise the A4 point (the temperature of formation of austenite from liquid

phase) and decrease the A3 temperature.

Fe-Ni equilibrium diagram

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High-Alloy Steels: Stainless Steels (SS)

• Austenite-forming elements

• The elements Cu, Ni, Co and Mn

• large amounts of Ni or Mn render a steel austenitic even at room

temperature

• Example: Hadfield steel which contains 13% Mn, 1.2% Cr and 1 %

C

• austenitic stainless steel containing 18% Cr and 8% Ni.

Disadvantage work harden rapidly so more difficult to shape and machine

• Advantages of ALL fcc metals and alloys

– ↑ toughness; ↑ ductility; ↑ creep resistance

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(b) The ferritic SS:

– α−Fe BCC structure.

– Not so corrosion resistant as austenitic SS, but less expensive magnetic

steel;

• An alloy Fe-15Cr-0.6C, used in quench and tempered condition

• Uses rust-free ball bearings, scalpels, knives

Cr-Fe equilibrium diagram

• lower the A4 point and increase the A3 temperature.

• Ferrite-forming elements

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– The most important elements in this group are Cr, Si, Mo, W, V and Al.

(c) The martensitic SS this fine magnetic bct structure is produced by rapid
quenching and possesses high yield strength and low ductility.

Applications:springs.

(d) The precipitation hardening SS – producing multiple microstructure form a single-

phase one, leads to the increasing resistance for the dislocation motion

– (a) and (b) are hardening and strengthening by cold work

• microstructure - martensitic, ferritic or austenitic based on microstructure, and

precipitation hardening based on strengthening mechanism

High-Alloy Steels: Tools steels

• Wear Resistant, High Strength and Tough BUT low ductility

• High Carbon steels modified by alloy additions

AISI-SAE Classification

Letter & Number Identification

• Classification

• Letters pertain to significant characteristic

– W,O,A,D,S,T,M,H,P,L,F

• – E.g. A is Air-Hardening medium alloy

• Numbers pertain to material type

• 1 thru 7 (E.g. 2 is Cold-work )

• Provide the necessary hardness with simpler heat-treatment and retain this
hardness at high temperature.

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• The primary alloying elements are:

– Mo, W and Cr

• Examples:???

• HSS – Turning machine tools

• High carbon tool steels – Drill bits/Milling tools/punches/sawblade

SAE-AISI system - Classification of alloy steel

• Low alloy steels (alloying elements =< 8%);

• High alloy steels (alloying elements > 8%).

• According to the four-digit classification SAE-AISI system - SAE 1XXX (X)

– First digit: 1 indicates carbon steel (2-9 are used for alloy steels);

– Second digit indicates concentration of the major element in percents (1

means 1%).

– Last two ( three) digits indicate carbon concentration in 0.01% ( 0,001%).

SAE-AISI system - SAE 1XXX(X)

• First digit indicates the class of the alloy steel:

2- Nickel steels;

3- Nickel-chromium steels;

4- Molybdenum steels;

5- Chromium steels;

6- Chromium-vanadium steels;

7- Tungsten-chromium steels;

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9- Silicon-manganese steels.

Other reference materials

7. Tungsten

8. Nickel, Chromium and Molybdenum

Stainless steels – ANSI designation:

AISI has established three-digit system for the stainless steels:

• 2XX series – chromium-nickel-manganese austenitic stainless steels;

• 3XX series – chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels;

• 4XX series – chromium martensitic stainless steels or ferritic stainless steels;

• 5XX series – low chromium martensitic stainless steels;

Example: SAE 5130

• Alloy chromium steel,

• containing 1% of chromium and

• 0.30% of carbon.

– SAE 2515:

• Indication for carbon or alloy steel ( 2 = Nickel steel)

• Major alloying element (5% Nickel)

• Carbon content (0.15%)

– SAE 5120

• Indication for carbon or alloy steel ( 5 = Chromium steel)

• Major alloying element (1% Chromium)

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• Carbon content (0.20%)

Low Alloys – Summary

1.3 Effect of alloying elements

2. Rule of thumb: Chromium (Cr) makes steel hard whereas Nickel (Ni) and
Manganese (Mn) make it tough.

3. Note that:

3.3 2% C, 12% Cr tool steel grade - very hard and hard-wearing

wearing

3.4 0,10% C and 12% Cr - Modest hardening

3.5 13% manganese steel, so

so-called Hadfield steel - increases steel toughness

Mn between l% and 5%, however - toughness may either increase or decrease

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Element
Effect

Aluminum Ferrite hardener

Graphite former
Deoxidizer
Mild ferrite hardener
Chromium Moderate effect on hardenability
Graphite former
Resists corrosion
Resists abrasion
Cobalt High effect on ferrite as a hardener
High red hardness
Strong effect on hardenability
Molybdenum Strong carbide former
High red hardness
Increases abrasion resistance
Manganese Strong ferrite hardener
Ferrite strengthener
Nickel Increases toughness of the hypoeutectoid steel
With chromium, retains austenite
Graphite former
Copper Austenite stabilizer
Improves resistance to corrosion
Silicon Ferrite hardener
Increases magnetic properties in steel
Phosphorus Ferrite hardener
Improves machinability
Increases hardenability
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CH 2

Home Take Assignment - TWO

EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

• Discuss briefly the effect of alloying elements; support with practical examples
and applications

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Effect of alloying elements on the properties of steel

Carbon has a major effect on steel properties.

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Engineering Materials II:: Chapter 2 Instructor: Paulos Shewatatek

• Hardness and tensile strength increases as carbon content increases up to about

0.85% C

• Ductility and weldability decrease with increasing carbon

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