1

MODULEI
N
ETHI
CS
 2

PREFACE

Thismodul einSOCSCI212– ETHI

CS,isapr oductofthecol
laborat
iveef
for
tof
sel
ected facul
tymembersfr
om across t
he campuses ofEastern SamarState
Univer
sit
yasananswert othechal
lengesbr
oughtf or
thbythepandemi ctot he
educati
onsy st
em.

TheodoreRoosev el
tsaid,“Toeducateamani nmi ndandnoti
nmor al
sistoeducate
amenacet othesociet y
”.Thus,thi
smodulewillcovert
hemostvit
almoralpr
inci
ples
withtheai
mt oi nculcateamongt helear
nersthev al
uesofmoral
itywhichwil
lhelp
them dr
awacl earerl
inebet weenwhatisr
ightandwhatiswrong.

Al
though thi
swoul d notequat etot heexper i
enceoflearni
ng t
hesubjectina
cl
assroom,itwi
ll
,atthev er
yl east
,al
l
owst udentstogr
aspthenecessar
yconcepts
asthemaker soft hi
smodul eputf ort
ht hebestoft hei
rknowledgeinutil
i
zing
i
nfor
mat i
onfrom r
eli
ablesourcesandreferences.

Thedev
elopersofthi
smodulei
shopi
ngtobri
ngf
orwardt
hemostpr
eci
ousv
aluesof
humani
tythatwil
ll
eadtowar
dsacqui
ri
ngt
ruemoral
i
ty.
 3

TABLEOFCONTENTS

Pr
eface. . . . . . . . . . i
Chapt
erOneMORALANDNON-
MORALSTANDARDS.. 1
Chapt
erTwoTHEMORALEXPERI
ENCE. . . . 9

Chapt
erThr
eeTHEMORALDI
LEMMA. . . . . 13

Chapt
erFourFREEDOM ASABASI
CREQUI
REMENTOF
MORALITY. . . . . . . . . 18

Chapt
erFi
veWHATI
SCULTURE . . . . . 24

Chapt
erSi
xCULTURALRELATI
VISM.. . . . 31

Chapt
erSev
enTHEFI
LIPI
NOWAY. . . . . 37

Chapt
erEi
ghtUNI
VERSALVALUES.. . . . 42

Chapt
erNi
neUNI
VERSALVALUESANDHUMANSURVI
VAL 47

Chapt
erTenDEVELOPMENTANDSTAGESOFMORALCHARACTER. .
. . . . . . . 56

Chapt
erEl
evenPERSONALGROWTHANDSTAGESOFDEVELOPMENT.
. . . . . . . 66

ChapterTwel
veREASONANDI
MPARTIALI
TYASREQUI
REMENTSFOR
ETHICS. . . . . . 71

ChapterThir
teenFEELI
NGSANDREASON: Upsur
geofFeeli
ngsis
NaturalandWhatWeDowi t
hThem i
sWhatMakeUsEthical
or
Unethical
.. . . . . . . . . 73

Chapt
erFour
teenSEVENSTEPSOFMORALREASONI
NG. 78
 4

ChapterFi
ft
een THEDI
FFERENCEBETWEENREASONAND
WILL.. . . . . . . . . . 82

ChapterSi
xteen MORALTHEORIESANDMENTALFRAMES:
Whyare
theyi
mportant? . . . . . . . 87

Chapt
erSev
enteen ARI
STOTLEANDST.
AQUINASonVI
RTUEETHI
CS .
. . . . . . . . 93

Chapt
erEi
ght
een I
MMANUELKANT’
STHEORYofRI
GHTS 97

Chapt
erNi
net
een UTI
LITARI
ANI
SM . . . .103

Chapt
erTwent
y JUSTI
CEandFAI
RNESS . . . 107

Chapt
erTwent
yOne GLOBALI
ZATI
ONANDITSETHI
CALCHALLENGES .
. . . . . . . 112

ChapterTwent
yTwo MI LLENNI
ALSANDFI
LINNIALS:Et
hical
Chal
lengesandResponses. . . . . . . 118

Chapt
erTwent
yThr
ee ETHI
CSOFTAXATI
ON . . . 122
 5

CHAPTER1:MORALANDNON-
MORALSTANDARDS
Whencl
assesweresuspendedduet otheCOVI D-
19pandemi c,youhavebeen
stayi
ngathomemostoft het i
me.I nthet el
evisi
on,socialmedia,orinpri
ntyousee
diff
erentwaysbywhichpeopledispl
ayt heirbehavi
or .Somemi ghtbeappeali
ngto
you;other
smaymakey oufeeldi
[Link] eact
ions?Whatmakesy ou
happywheny ouli
keaFacebookpost;andsadwhent hepostseemsnotr i
ght?
LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:
[Link]
ineet
hicsandmoral
it
yanddiff
erenti
atethem;
2.i
denti
fyt
henatureandpur
poseofmor al
it
y,and
[Link]
ff
erent
iat
ebetweenmoralandnon-moralstandar
ds.

Act
ivi
ty

Takeadeepbreathandsaythewor d“moral
it
y ”i
nyourmi ndt hr
eeti
mes.
Then,
onaseparatesheetofpaperwr
it
eaone-sent
encedescr
ipt
ionf oreachpi
ctur
e
usi
ngyourunder
standi
ngofthewordmoral
i
tyastheguideofy
ourjudgment .

P
h
o
t
o

Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link]

Anal
ysi
s:doy
out
hinkdoi
ngr
ightact
ionsi
simpor
tant
?Why
?
Et
hics
Ethi
csisthephil
osophi
calstudyofwhatitmeanst oli
veagoodl if
e,toactcor r
ectly
,
andtofulf
il
lone'
sdutyandobl i
gat
[Link] ology,aphil
osophyconcer ned
withhumanv al
ues,i
ncl
udesi [Link] esult
,ethi
csi s
defi
nedasthephil
osophi
cal st
udyofmorals,someti
mesknownasmor alphi
losophy.
Itis made up ofuniversalconcept
s orpr i
nci
ples regar
ding whatconst i
tutes
goodness.
Wecanconcl udethatet hicsistheoreti
calsi
ncei tat
temptst ocri
ti
cal
lyt hink
onthenat ureofgoodnessori dealsofwhati smoralandwhati [Link] hical
pri
nci
ples that gov ern prof essionalpr acti
ce are also standards that gov ern
prof
essionalpr act
[Link] and nur ses are some of t he many heal th
prof
essionalswhogi v
ef r
ont lineser v
icesint hisCOVID-19pandemi [Link] eason
whytheyr i
sktheirl
i
v esinthenameoft hei
rprofessi
onsisbecauset heyareethically
-
boundtot heli
fe-
giv
ingoat ht hattheyhav etaken.
 6

Mor
ali
ty
Mor al
it
yontheotherhandisaboutt her ul
est hatgov er
nt hepromotionof
humangoodnesssot hati
ndi
vidual
sandt hesoci etymayf l
our i
sh( Pojman,2005).
Moral
it
ythenspeaksofnorms(Pojman,2005)orr ulesofhumanconduct .Ifethics
i
stheoret
ical
,mor
ali
tyispr
act
icalandmostoft het i
mer el
ati
v [Link] i
evet o
bemor alinourcul turemaynotbef ort he
[Link] nfl
uencesourv iew of
mor al
it
y .Forexampl e,Muslimsconsi der
eatingpor kashar am orf orbi
ddenbecause
theHol yQur ansay st hatpor kisimpur e
whileforCat holcs,af
i iestaisincomplete
withoutlechonbaboy .
Despitet hef actthatlegalit
yand
mor ali
tyshoul dal waysgohandi nhand,
thisi s notal way st he [Link] i sa
system of r ul
es i n a specifi
c country
enacted by i tsr uli
ng agency and once
viol
ated a cor responding punishmentis
given. Cheat i
ng dur i
ng a quiz maybe
mor all
yunaccept ablebuty oucan’tbeput
tojailjustbecausey ouletyourclassmat
e
P
copy y our answer s. Hence,what i s
h
o
t
o
ETHI
CSANDMORALI
TY
D

Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link] i
mmoral may Mor ali
ty deal s primar ily between bad
somet
imes be andgood—somet hingsar eright,others
notil
legal arew ron [Link] r
ali
ty isth eco deo rrules
i
nwhi chouract ionsar ejudgedagai nst
Whybeet hi
cal? shared v alues. Et hi
cs ar e pr i
nciples
thatf orm t hosemor alcodes( Boone,
` Morali
tyis,as Socr at
es said,
2017) .
“How weoughtt ol i
ve.”Itistherefor
e
i
mpor tantthatwest udyEthicssot hatwewoul dbeabl et oal i
gnourt hinking,feeli
ng,
andact i
ont owhati sgoodandbenef ici
alnotonl ytoour selvesbutt oamuchl arger
communi tyaswel l. ForBoone( 2017),Et hi
cshel psusunder standt hewor ldby
provi
dingst r
ucturetoitthroughthest andards, vi
rtues, andr ulest hatitprov i
dest hat
guideourbehav ior;heexplainswhyi tisimpor t
antf orust oactet hicall
ywi ththese
point
s:
[Link]
lyisar
equir
ementforlif
[Link]
cshel puschooset hebestwayt o
actsot hatthethingst
hatwedowi l
lnotbeaimless,poi
ntl
ess,andrandom;hence,
weliv
eal if
et hati
shappy,
product
ive,andpur
poseful.
Inthi
sti
meofpandemic,
youhaveamoralobl
i
gat
iont
oyour
sel
ftokeepy
our
mi
ndandbodyheal
thybyf
oll
owi
ngcer
tai
nheal
thmeasur
es.
 7

[Link] i
ngethi
cal
lyi
sarequir
ementf orsociet
[Link]
s;ithel
psunit
ethe
societ
[Link] dercommuni t
yt her
earerol
estoplayandrul
esto
fol
[Link]
cshel
psbui
l
drelati
onshipsthatkeepsthesoci
etyfr
om fal
li
ngapar
t.
Thatiswhy ,peoplear eadv i
sedt ost ayathomei nor dertosaveother
people’
sli
vesduri
ngt hi
[Link] la-
basedwor kerwantstogobacktohis
provi
nce,heneedst oseehi splanaccor di
ngt oamuchl argerschemeofthings
befor
edecidingandnotjustaccor
dingt ohisindiv
[Link] sorher
parti
nmaki ngever
yonesaf eandav oi
dt heriskofv i
ralcontagionbynott
ravel
l
ing;i
t
i
si nt
hissensethattheBali
k/Hati
dPr obinsyaProgram ofSenat orBongGobecomes
probl
ematic.
3. Acti
nget hi
call
yhasar eli
giouspur pose. Becauseweneedi ncent
ivestoact
morall
y,rel
i
gionpr ovi
dessuchr ewar
[Link] i
ngaccor di
ngt othenor msofr el
i
gion
wouldmakey out akehol
doft hepromi seofanet er
nalreward,doingother
wise
wouldentai
lanaf t
er-l
i
fesuff
eri
[Link] swhy ,f
orsomepeopl e,doingwhatisri
ght
wouldmeanf oll
owingthecommandsoft heholytextofthei
rrel
igi
on.
I
n2021,t hePhi li
ppineswillcelebr
ateits500y earsofbeingChr i
stiani
zed.
Chri
sti
ani
tywassi gnall
edint hecountrywhenMagel lanandhistroopsf i
rstlandedi n
HomonhonI sl
and,East ernSamar .Ourcount ryist heonlypredomi nantlyCat holi
c
nati
onintheAsianr egi
on.I nt hepresentCOVID-19situati
on,i
twasf eaturedi nthe
newsthatPresi
dentDut ertesaidtoshootal lt
hosewhowoul dviolatethel ockdown
rul
es.I
shisstat
ementmor allyupri
ghtbasedont heteachingsofChristi
anity?
[Link]
ngethi
cal
lyisf
orthebenefi
tofoneself
.Ki [Link]
whenonebehavesappropr
iat
elybecauseofself
-i
nterest,sur
elygoodt hi
ngswil
l
fol
l
[Link]
ernphi
l
osophy,agoodactbr
ingsgoodkar ma.
We hav e thi
s pr overb “Ang susi sa kal igayahan ay ang pagigi
ng
mapagmapasalamat”.Thatiswhy ,
youf eelhappywheny oupackfoodforourCOVID
-
19frontl
i
ner
sbecausey oufeelgratef
ulfortheirher
[Link]
ngofhappi
ness
i
sapersonalgainyetitbenef
itsnotonlyyoursel
fbutothersaswell.
[Link] hi
cal
lybecausehumansar ebasi
cal
l
ygood. Thi
sist
hemaj
orcl
aim of
mor alphil
[Link] enatural
l
y
goodandt heytr
ytobehav eaccordingl
y.
Do humans actaccor di
ngly because
they havet o,ordo t hey pursue an
ethi
callif
ebecauset her
ear eact
st hati
n
themselvesar enat
urall
ygoodandwor t
h
pursuing?Whatdoy out hi
nk?
ThePur
poseofMor
ali
tySour
ce:
pint
erest
.ph

Li
ving ethicall
y assur es t hat
everyonewi l
lfl
[Link]
houghmor ali
ty
mayr estr
ictourfreedom,act i
ngmor al
ly
upri
ghtbr ings gr
eat erfreedom t o do
goodt ooneselfandt oot her
[Link]
(2005,p.7)enumer at
esthesepur poses
 8

ofmor
ali
ty:
[Link]
hesoci
etyi
ntact
Phot
oE
[Link]
mpr
ovehumanl
i
fe
[Link]
agegr
owt
h
[Link]
ejust
iceandor
deri
nresol
vi
ngi
ndi
ff
erences
[Link]
ndi
vi
dualact
ionsbypr
ovi
dingduecompensat
iont
hatcor
responds
tosuchacti
ons.

TheNat
ureofMor
alPr
inci
ples
Toleadamorall
if
e,onefol
l
owsmor alpr
inci
[Link]
act
icalgui
des
t
hatgovernouract
ionsandthesepr
inci
pleshav etheset r
ait
sorcharact
eri
sti
cs
(
Poj
man, 2005)
:
1. Prescr
ipt
ivi
ty. As whatthe word“pr
escri
be”means,moralpri
nci
ples are
i
mperati
ves,t
heygiv
[Link]
e,“Donotst
eal
”or“
Loveyourenemies.
”
2. Universali
ty Mor alpri
ncipl
esmustappl ytoal lr
elev
ant
lysimil
arsit
uati
[Link]
cheat
ingispr ohi
bit
edinacer t
ainexam,theninallki
ndsofexam,cheati
ngmustnot
betol
[Link] eisconsist
ency
.Justli
kethegoldenr
ule,
donotdot oother
peopl
eal lthethi
ngsthatyoudon’twanttobedonet oyou.
[Link] erri
dingness. Moralpr
inci
plestakeprecedenceov erotherpr
inciplesorone
mor alpr i
nciplemayt [Link] e,civi
ldisobediencemaybe
mor all
yupr ightwhenitisdonewi t
hahi [Link] swhy ,goingt oral
li
es
duri
ngt heMar t
ialLaw ori
nt hepresentAnt i
-Terr
orism Billmañanitar al
li
esare
consideredr i
ghtevenwhentheymeansoci aldisobediencebecauset heyserv
ea
greaterpurposeandt hati
stodefendhumanf reedom.
[Link]
cit
[Link]
inci
plesshoul
dbeknownbyal lwhoshoul
dfol
l
owt hem;they
shoul
dn’
tbeasecretbecauseweuset hesepr
inci
plestogi
vecommands,toassign
rewar
dsorpuni
shmentortogiveadvi
ce.
[Link] act
icabil
it
[Link] alcodesshouldbewor kabl
eandtheyshoul
dnotlayaheav
y
burdentot hosewhof oll
owt [Link],t
heycoul
[Link]
ingi
n
Facebooky ourcrit
ici
sm aboutt hegovernmentwouldmeanter
rori
sm,t
hentheAnt
i-
Terror
ism Bil
lisimpr acti
calbecauseturni
ngabl i
ndeyetowhatthegover
nmenti
s
doingisnotapr acti
ceofdemocr acy
.
Mor
alv
ersusNon-
mor
alSt
andar
ds
Moralst andardsarepr i
nci
plesthathav emor [Link]
sdefinit
elypoint
outtoknowi ngwhati [Link] alstandar
dspr ovi
deast r
uctureonhow
youar egoingt oliveyourli
feandhowy our elat
ewi t
hothersinharmonyasi toutl
ines
thev aluest haty oushar ewi t
hotherstopr omotegoodnesst oevery
one,ort he
[Link] swhy ,notkeepi
ngy ourword,taki
ngadv ant
ageofot hers,or
tar
nishingy ourf r
iend’sreputat
ioninsocialmedi aareseenasmor almi sconducts
 9

becauset heydonotpr omotegoodness. Rul esabouttablemanner s,classroom

procedures and routi
nes,ordr essi
ng up fora part
yar e consi
dered non- moral
standardsbecauset heyareoutsidethescopeofmor al
it
y,theydonothav eet hi
cal
considerat
ionsandwoul dnotgi veagr eatdoseofguiltwhennotf oll
owed. To
vi
olateamor alcodewithint
enti
oni stobei mmoral
.Anamor alactisneithermor al
norimmor [Link]
ngangryisnatural
,angerisamoral
;buttheactofkil
lingsomeone
duet oangerisanotherthi
ng—iti
si mmoral.
Bynow,youshoul dn’
tbesurprisedifintheprecedingacti
vi
tyonlythemiddle
pi
cturespeaksaboutmor al
i
[Link] i
ngy ourphonei nameet ing,al
thoughitis
di
sturbi
ngtoother
s, doesnotmeani mmor ali
tybutsteal
ing( t
hemiddlepict
ure)
does.
Tosleepduri
ngacl assroom di
scussiondoesnothav eagr eatmoralimpactbutthe
i
ntenti
onfordoi
ngsomayconv eyamor alquesti
on.
ASSESSMENT
Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
,answert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ionsdi
rect
ly:
[
Graby
ourr
eader
’sat
tenti
onwi
thagreatquotef
rom t
hedocumentorusethi
sspace
t
oemphasi
zeakeypoint
.Topl
acet
histextboxanywher
eonthepage,j
ustdragi
t.
]

1.I
ntheVennDi
agr
am bel
ow,
ment
iont
hesi
mil
ari
ti
esanddi
ff
erencesofEt
hicsand
Mor
ali
ty.

Et
hics Mor
ali
ty

[Link]
ibet
henat
ureandpur
poseofmor
ali
ty.

3. I
ntheT-
Char
tpr
ovi
dedbel
ow,wr
it
ethedi
ff
erencesofmor
alandnon-
mor
al
 10

st
andar
ds.

Mor
alSt
andar
ds Non-
mor
alSt
andar
ds

REFERENCES

Ar
iol
a,M.(
2014)
.Phi
l
[Link]
i
mit
edBooks.

Boone,B.( .Et
2017) hics 101:From Al
tr
uism and Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm t
o Bioet
hics t
o
Pol
it
icalEt
hics,An Explorat
ionoftheConcept
[Link]:Adams
Media.

Pojman,L.
P.( .HowShoul
2005) dWeLi
ve?:AnI
ntr
oduct
iont
oEt
[Link]:Cengage
Learni
ng.

CHAPTER2:
THEMORALEXPERI
ENCE

I
nthef i
rstlesson,wehav ediscussedhow ethi
csandmor al
ityaredefi
ned.
Weal sodrew al i
nebet weenmor alandnon- moralstandar
ds. Thesestandards
prov
idestr
uctur
et omor alexper
[Link] eyouev eraskedyour
sel
f:“Am Igood?”
“I
fso,whyam Idoingt hi
ngsthataremor all
ywrong?”“Ifmanisbasi
call
ygood,why
 11

doIhav et
hetendencytodobadt hings?”“WhyshouldIconsi
derothersevenwhen
theyaremeananduncompr ehending?”Thesequestionsmakey ourefl
ectcr
it
icall
y
tofi
ndoutthegoodnessofy ourexper i
enceasamor albei
ng;andthat’
swhatethics
i
sallabout
—tohavear at
ionalunder st
andi
ngofthegoodnessofyourexperi
ence.
LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:
1.i
dent
if
ythet
woel
ement
sofmor
alexper
ience;
[Link]
aint
henat
ureofbannedact
s;and
[Link]
sti
ngui
sht
het
wopar
tsofmor
alexper
ience.
Act
ivi
ty
Bel
owisapoem at
tri
but
[Link]
esaofCal
cut
[Link]
nter
nal
i
zet
he
poem andanswert
hegi
venquesti
on.

The poem t el
ls us tolov e others and
for
giv
et hem wi t
htheirwr ong [Link]
youroveral
llif
eexperience,isiteasyt o
for
giv
e?Whatmakesy ousayi ti
sori ti
sn’
t?

P
h
o
t
o
A

Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link]

Anal
ysi
s:Basedony
ouransweri
ntheact
ivi
ty,
howcany
ousayt
hatanexper
iencei
s
moral
?
TheMor
alExper
ience
Wecan' tpromot ethegoodwi thoutmor al
[Link] earnti
nModul e1t hat
becoming mor al
lyupr ightisiny our
MORALEXPERI ENCE bestinter
[Link] alexper i
ence is
made up of y ou and y our
Amor alexperi
encehast woel ement s:
deeds.
According to ThomasHobbes
themor alagentwhoi sthedoeroft he
(seePojman,2005) ,eachofushas
acti
onandt hemor alactthatcomprises
ourownper sonalint
er [Link],in
thethingsdonebyt heagent . Mor al
orderto avoid conf
licts,the soci
ety
experi
ence is seen i nt he diff
erent
mustf ormulate contracts ormor al
ethi
calf rameworks call
ed t he mor al
codesthatmustbeadher edt
osot hat
theor
ies.
 12

everythi
ngwillbeinorder;other
wise,ther
ewillbe“waragainstall
.”Imaginei
fpeople
canj ustdowhat evertheywantwi thoutrest
ri
cti
[Link] i
ghtoverasliceof
breadandki l
leachot [Link] ghbor,wi
thoutpermission,canbutcheryourpig
forthef i
est
aandy ouwi l
ltakehiscowasaf orm [Link] thoutmoral
it
y ,l
i
fe
willbeinchaos.
Themor alexper
iencehast woel ement s:moralagentandmor alact
. The
moralagentist hedoeroft heact—[Link] yhumanshav etheconceptofmor ali
ty.
Non-humanani mal smighthav emor al
lyuprightbehavi
orssimil
art ohumans( e.g.
cari
ngfort hey oung)buttheydonothav etheabili
tytoreasonoutorjudget heir
acti
onsbasedonmor alpri
[Link]- li
kemoralbehavior
sofanimal
sar e
cal
led protomor albehaviors( see Skutch,2007) . Int his sense,the mor al
agent—Humans—i tisthoughtt hattheyhav et hi
sabi l
i
[Link] makesound mor al
j
udgmentt hroughhisreasoningabil
it
y.
Mor alact sar ethet hi
ngst hatmor alagent sdo. Thesebehav iorstobe
considered asmor alact sshoul d bei nsi
det heet hicaldomai n orwi thin moral
standardsdi scussedi nModul [Link] alacthasanobj ectwhor eceivesthe
acton,ani
i ntentiont hatmot i
vatest heaction,andt hesi tuati
onthatpr ov i
desthe
contextoft heact [Link] e,y oustol
ey ourclassmat e’
spenbef oret aki
ngthe
fi
nalexam becausey ouhav enomoneyt obuyoneandy ouar eindesperat eneedto
takethet estorel seyouwi l
lfailt
hecour [Link] ssteali
[Link] heact
i
sy ourclassmat e;theintenti
oni sfory outopasst hecour se;andthesituationist
hat
youdon’ thavet hemoneyt obuyf orapen.
TheNat
ureofPr
ohi
bit
edAct
s
Byt hei
rver
ynatur
e,prohi
bitedactscannotbehabi
tualandendur
ing,i
fthey
do,
theyceasetobecomeprohibi
ted(Skut
ch,2007)andt
husbecomeanor m.
Forexample,ifsteali
ngbecomeshabi tualandendur ing,t hennoonewi ll
produceamer chandize,savemoneyi nthebank,orhol dont oear nedweal t
[Link]
willli
veahandt omout hexistenceliket
hepr i
mi t
[Link] ththat ,i
twouldbe
i
mpossi bletostealbecauset herei snothingmor et osteal. Anot her,whenl yi
ng
becomesanor m,t
henI twil
lbeast rangethi
ngtodoi fy oureveal thetr ut
h..Inr
eali
ty,
l
iarssucceedindeceivingusbecausemostpeopl etellthetrut
ht hant heyli
[Link],
mor alcodesprohibi
tact sthatinthemsel v
escannotbesust ainedandmai nt
ained
(Skutch,2007)
.
TheI
nnat
eFoundat
ionofMor
alExper
ience
Therear etwoi mpul
sesormot i
vest hatthemor alexperienceisanchor ed.
Fi
rst,thoset hatar edir
ect
edt owardsself-
preser
v at
ionandsecond,t hosethatar e
di
rectedt oot [Link] dt hatamor alacthasi ntent
[Link] ntent
ionsor
motivesur geust operf
orm actsthatbenefi
tourselvesandt hoset hatpromotet he
welf
areofot hersbei tt
oourownbl oodorot her
swhoar eunrelatedtous( Skutch,
2007).
 13

Sel
f-
regar
dingmot
ivesorv
irt
ues
1. Prudence. Ther at
ionalsel
f-
love;itfor
bidsust oover
lyindul
gewi thpleasure
wit
houtthinki
ngoft hefuture(
Skutch,2007)
.Pr udencei
sdefi
nedasdoi ngtheright
thi
ngatt herightmoment ,wi
thther i
ghtper son,fortheri
ghtreason,andt ot he
appropr
iat
edegr ee.
2. Temperance. I
t’
sstandi
ngfi
rm to haveonlywhatisenoughdespitegreat
ent
icementoropposi
ngdri
veandworkstogetherwi
thpr
udence(Skut
ch,2007)
.I n
Fi
li
pino,
wecalltpagt
i it
impi
.
3. Fort
it
ude. Persever
ance ev
en i
nt he f
ace of
chal
l
engessotoachiev
eav er
yimpor
tantgoal
. Anybodycan
[Link]
taki
i
ng t
ence.I
i
me t
ti
ot
snotact
hinkt hr
i
ngoni mpul
ough a cer t
se.I
ai
tisabout
n actbef ore
become
doing it. “Being patientdoes noti mpl yall
owi ng angry —thatis
ourselves to be const antl
y mi st
reated,endur ing
hostil
i
ty,orallowingot herst ouseus,”PopeFr ancis easy .Butt obe
wrotei n Amor is Laetit
[Link] i
ence gr ows when I
acknowl edgethatot herpeopl ehavet her i
ghtt
ol ive angrywi ththe
i
nt hi
s wor l
d as wel l
.”
Ot her-
regar
ding mot i
ves or
vir
tues rightper sonand
Altrui
sm istheactofhel pingother [Link]
uism t
ot heright
andal lother-
regardingv i
rt
uescanal lbecal l
edas
benev [Link] actt hatwebecomehappywhen degr eeandatt he
wear
surf
eabl etohel
ace,seem asel
pot
fi
her
shact
sunsel f
. Howev
i
shlymay
er,ify
,att
oul
he
ook
rightti
meandf or
deeper
deri
v
,y
ed f
ou woul
rom sel
d see t
f-i
nter
hatbenev olence i
est because bot
s not
h exists
ther i
ghtpur pose,
separ atel
yont hei
rownanddoesnotr equireeach andi nt heright
otheri nordertoexi [Link] eov er
,itisonlywhenone
hasr eachedahi ghsel f-
awar enessthathei sablet o way —thatis
becomemi ndfulaboutt heneedsofot herandsat i
sfyt
h
Se
oum
r (
ce:
pSk
i
ntu
et
nc
eh
st
.,
p2
h007)
i
l .Si
mpl
y
put,onemustgai nhi msel ff
ir
stbef orehecandenyi t
.
Thati
swhy ,eveni
fitishar
dforyoutof or
giv
esomeonewhohasdoney ou
wrong,youtaketi
met oref
lectonyourexper
ienceandpat
ter
ninoutbecausei
tis
i
nnateforapersontobebenevol
ent
.
ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER2:
THEMORAL
ETHI
CS EXPERI
ENCE
 14

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link] ementsofmoralexper
ience.
[Link]
ainthenatur
eofpr ohibi
tedacts.
[Link]
ibeinnat
efoundat i
onsofmor alexper
ienceusi
ngy ourper
sonal
exper
ience.

REFERENCES

Pojman,L.
P.( .How Shoul
2005) dweLi
ve?
:AnI
ntr
oduct
iont
oEt
[Link]:Cengage
Learni
ng.

Skut
ch,
A.F.( .Mor
2007) alFoundat
ions:AnI
ntr
oduct
iont
oEt
[Link]:Axi
osPr
ess.
CHAPTER3:
THEMORALDI
LEMMA
Si
ncewehav ealreadyt ackl
edwhatamor alexper
iencei
s,wenow gowith
yourexper
ienceofcomingt oachoi ceofwhatandhow toactwhentwoopposing
acti
onsthataremoral
lyrelevantcomet oget
her
.Thisi smorethanj
ustanswer
ing
 15

thequeston:“
i Si
nobaangpi pi
l
ii
nko,angmahalkooangmahalako? ”Inyourlife,
youwer epresentedwit
hmanychoi cestodecideonasi nglematt
er. Choosing
moral
lyappropri
ateacti
oncanbediffi
cul
tbutbecauseyouar eamoralagent,you
needtobecriti
calandbr
avel
ychoosewhatisbestnotj
ustbasedonsel
f-
int
erestbut
onthecommongood.
LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hismodul
e,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
[Link]
ermi
net
hel
evel
sofmor
aldi
l
emmas;
[Link]
inet
henat
ureofmor
alchal
l
enges;
and
[Link]
aint
henat
ureofmor
alr
easoni
ng.
Act
ivi
ty
Lookatt
hepictur
esbel [Link]
ney our
selfthaty
ouar
eworkingf ort
he
gover
nmentasal aw enf
orcerandatthesamet i
mey ouhaveastr
ongbeliefasa
Chr
ist
ianinthesancti
tyoflif
eandthatyoureducati
onmadeyoulear
nt hatever
y
per
sonwi t
hanal
legedcri
mehast her
ightt
ofai
rtri
al.

Sour
ce:
Ressur
gent
.PH

Wil
lyouf
oll
owthewalki
ngorderofthenPresi
dentFer
dinandMar
cosorwi
l
lyoust
ick
t
owhatyouhav
el ear
nedinchurchandinschool
?Why ?
Anal
ysi
s:Whydoyouthi
nkpeoplehav
edi
ff
icul
tyi
nmaki
ngadeci
siont
hati
s
si
gni
fi
canttohi
smoralstandi
ng?
Mor
alDi
l
emma
Sometimeschoosingisahar [Link] i
kei ntheactiv
ity,orders
comingfrom powerf
ulpersonsthatyouarewor ki
ngformightnotbeali
gnedwi t
ht he
beli
efsofyourrel
i
gionorwi t
hwhaty oureducati
[Link] ol
lowi
ngor dersfrom
yourbossmi ghtmakey oulosey [Link]
ngasideyouridealsmightalsogi ve
youagnawingconscience.
Asmor al
agents,
encounter
ingmoraldi
l
emmasisnotanuncommon
exper
[Link]
sexcerptadoptedf
rom Morr
ow(
2018,p.14)
:
I
n1981,t
hel
ong-
runni
ngadv
icecol
umn"
DearAbby
"publ
i
shed
 16

t
hef
oll
owi
ngl
ett
er:
Greeti
ngs,Abby!IneededsomeScot chtape,soIwenttomy
son'sdeskandfoundthefirstf
ewpagesofal et
terhe'
dwrit
ten
to hisgir
lf
ri
end.“Iam j ustinter
ested i
n becoming st
oned,
spendingmoney,andhavi
ngsex, ”i
tsaid.
Idi
dn'
treadanyf
art
her
.
Myi nit
ialt
houghtwast oconfronthi
m aboutit
,buthe'
dclaimI'
dmadeami [Link]
fatheri stornbet weenmai ntai
ninghisson’spri
vacyandi nmakingsuret hathis
child’swel l
-bei
ngi sprot
ected. Notonlythat,hethinkshecannotdobot hatt he
samet imeandwoul dneedt [Link]
readf r
om hi sson’sdesk,hissonmi ghtcont
inuehisv i
[Link]’
t,itwould
entai lt
hathedoesnothav erespectforhi
sson’spriv
[Link]’
rei
ntheposi t
ionof
thi
sconf usedfather,
whatwi l
lyoudo?
Oneisinmoraldi
l
emmawhenhei sinconfl
ictbetweentwomoralpr
inci
ples
towhichhefeelscommitt
edandnomatterwhathewi l
lchoosesomet
hingbadwi l
l
event
uall
yhappen(Poj
man,2005;
Kowal
ski,
2011).

P
h
o
t
o
C
Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link]
g

Whyar e we exper i
enci ng mor aldilemma? ForMacNi ven (1993),mor al
dil
emmashappenbecauset hemor alpri
nciplesthatcont rolourthought sandact i
ons
havebr okendownandcannol ongerguideus;unl esswehav eanadequat ewayt o
solveourmor aldilemmas,ourmor alsystem wi llcontinuet of ail
.Somet imeswe
solvemor aldil
emmasbyr ankingt hepr i
oriti
esofourper sonalobl i
gati
on. Ifthe
fat
herthinkst hathistoppr i
or i
tyistopr ot
ecthi schildfrom hisv i
ces, thenhewi l
ltalk
tohissonabouti tevenwhent hatmeansbr eachinghi sson’spr i
v [Link]
mes,
we consi dera mor e gener alobligati
on,ourobl i
gation fort he gr eat
ergood.I f
fol
lowingt heorderoft hePresidentt okill
peopl eisjustamat teroft aki
ngor der
sasa
j
obt henitdoesnotcomef r
om auni ver
salprincipl
et hatpr omotest hecommongood
butonlyforsel f
-i
nterest;so,youwi llref
uset oshootpeopl edeadev enwheni tmeans
l
osingy ourjob.
 17

Howev er,notalldil
emmasar e
mor aldil
[Link] ngwhatcolor MORALDI
LEMMA
ofdr esstoweari napar ty,
deci
dingon
A mor aldi
lemma i s a ci
rcumstance
whatsnackst ohav eorwher etobook
whereamor alagentisconf
rontedwith
yournextweekend get awayar e not
two ormor emor al
lyrel
evantactions
mor aldil
[Link] aldilemmasar e
which he can perfor
m;howev er
,he
those confl
icting choices undert he
cannotperf
orm alloftheact i
onsand
scopeofmor alstandardsthatwehav e
thusneedstochoose.
l
earnedi nModul e1.
Lev
elsofMor
alDi
l
emma
[Link]
vi
dualorPersonalLev
[Link]
vesmaki ngmoralj
udgmentandev
entuall
y
comeupwi thasoundmor aldecisi
onthatconcernsthei
ndiv
iduall
i
feofaperson.I
t
doesnotbearagreati
mpacttot hesoci
etyatlar
ge.
Forexample:A womanwasaboutt odel i
verherfi
rstborn. Howev er
,her
pregnancywasect opi
candsheonl yhasthischancetohav eababy .Becauseof
complications,shewasr ushedtotheoperati
ngroom unconscious. Thedoctors
tal
kedwi thherhusbandandsai dthatt
heycanonlysaveonel i
fe,t
hemot herorthe
[Link] ouwer et
hehusband,whoseli
fewouldyouwanttosave?
2. Organizat
ionalLevel
. Thisisaboutt hemor aldil
emma ofa per son i
n an
or
gani
z at
ion. Workpl
aces, business establ
ishments, school
s, and ot her
or
gani
z at
ionshav eregul
ati
ons,proceduresorevenv al
uesthatmaychal l
enget he
moral
pr i
ncipl
esofamemberoft hator gani
zat
ion.
Forexampl e:Onet eacherbelievest hatstudentsshoul dgetthegradethat
theyworkedf orandf rownsatt hepr acti
ceofmasspr [Link] heschool
yearends,shesubmi tt
edt hegradesofhercl asstotheprinci
[Link]
nci
palasked
hertochanget hegradesof10ofherst udentswhogotf aili
ngmarkssothattheycan
passandmov etothenextgr [Link],herteacherperf
ormancereportwil
lbe
affect
[Link] heteacher,wil
lyouchanget hegrades?
3. Sy stemi
cLev el. Thisisinthelevelofsoci
etyatl
arge. Moraldil
emmas
concerningthedif
ferentsoci
ali
nst
it
uti
onsthataf
fectt
hel
i
feoft hewholesoci
ety
coversthisl
evel
.
Forexample:ThePresi
dent’
swarondr ugsposesasy st
emicmor aldil
emma.
Eradicati
ngthesaleanduseofi l
l
egaldrugsinthecountryisagoodt
[Link] er
,
thepr obl
em li
esint hei
mplementati
onoft hewarondr [Link]
nothav eenoughbudgettospendf ort
het ot
alrehabi
l
itat
ionoft
hosei
nv olv
edindrug
[Link]
li
ngtheonlysol
uti
on?
Mor
alReasoni
ng
Wesai
dthatamoraldi
l
emmaurgesust ochoose,t
ocomeupwi t
hadecision
becausewecannotper
for
m allt
hemor
all
yrelevantopt
[Link]
nthi
ssensethat
weneedtocomeupwi t
hasoundmoral
[Link]
?
Theartofmoralreasoningisdemonstrat
ingt
hatoneclai
mi ssupportedby
ot
herst
atement
[Link],yourcontent
ionsar
ebackedupwit
hmor alpr
inci
plesand
 18

notjustamer eopi
[Link] ,oneneedst obecri
ti
calinmaki ngasound
moraljudgement
.Inmoralreasoni
ng,youropi
niondoesnotmat terunl
essyoucan
proveitunderacert
ainfr
amewor koramor altheor
[Link] sonwhodoesmor all
y
sounddecisi
ondoesnotdoorsaythingswit
houtconcret
ebasis.
Moralreasoningentail
sintr
[Link] alreasoni ngent ai
lsdeter mining
whatyourownv aluesindi
cateaboutaspeci fi
cexperience,det ermini
ngwhet hery our
val
uescontradi
ctwi t
honeanot her
,anddebat ingtheissuet hor oughl
y.I
talsomeans
t
o evaluat
ewhatsomeonehasal readydoneori saboutt o [Link] al
reasoningweseet heconsequencesofour
act i
onandf rom theseconsequenceswe
j
udge i t
s goodness. We al so r eason
accor di
ngt ot her oleswepl ay( [Link]
friend;asaf amilymember ;asaleader )as
these r ol
es demand mor alobl igati
ons
(Mor row,2018) .
Wheny outhi
nkyoucannothavea
soundmor alr easoni
ng,i
tisbestt
haty ou
donotmakeanydeci si
onsyetuntilyou
ar
eabletocomeupwi thaconvi
nci
ngmor alconcl usion. Becar
efulwit
hy our
emot
ionsast
hesemayi
nter
fer
ewi
thsoundce:
Sour pi
nter
est
.phil

reasoni
[Link] swhy ,youdon’tmakeadeci si
onwheny ouareoverl
yhappyor
deeplysad. Ifyou'r
eaChr i
sti
anandwantt oknow how t omakeadecentmor al
decisi
on,here'
sat echniquerecommendedbySt .Ignati
usofLoyola,t
hefounderof
theSocietyofJesus( Jesuit
s):htt
ps:
//www.i
gnatianspi
ri
tual
i
ty.
com/making-
good-
decisi
ons/an-i
gnat
ian-f
ramewor k-
for
-maki
ng-
a-deci
sion/

ASSESSMENT
Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
,dot
hef
oll
owi
ng:
1. Wr it
ey ourper
sonalexperienceabouthavi
nga
mor aldil
emma. Whathappened? Whatwer et he
opti
onst hatyouneededt ochoosefr
om?Whatwas
yourdecisi
on?Howdi dy oudecide?Limity
ourstory
tothreeparagr
aphsonly
.
2.) Then,answer these questions and provi
de
expl
[Link]
mi ty
ouranswersto
eachinexactl
yfi
vesentences:
P
h
a.I
nwhatl
evel
wasy
ourdi
l
emma? o
t
o

b. Was your deci

sion based on mor
alSour
ce:
en.
wi
D
ki
pedi
[Link]
g
r
easoni
ngoramer
eopini
on?
 19

REFERENCES

Kowalski,D.A.(2012).MoralTheori
esatt heMovies:AnIntr
oduct
iontoEthi
cs.
Ply
mout h,
UK: Rowman&Li t
tl
efi
eldPubli
shers,I
nc.
MacNiven, D.(1993).Creati
veMorali
[Link]:Routl
edge
Mor row, D.
R.(2018).MoralReasoning:ATextandReaderonCont emporar
y
EthicsandMor alI
[Link]:Oxf ordUniv
ersit
yPress.
Pojman,L. P.(2005).How ShouldweLi ve?:
AnI nt
roducti
ontoEt hi
[Link]:Cengage
Learni
ng
 20

CHAPTER4:
FREEDOM ASBASI
CREQUI
REMENTOFMORALI
TY
Nowt hatyouarealway sstayingathome, itwouldbeni ceifyouwoul dtalkto
youreldersaboutt hewayt heyliveddur i
ngt heiry oungerday [Link] el
y,musi cwi l
l
nevergooutoft hetopi
[Link] ourlovedonest osingy ouAndyWi ll
iams' BornFree:
"Bornfree,
asf reeasthewindbl ows; Bornfreetof ollowyourhear t
."I
sy ourdef i
nit
ion
offreedom thesameast heoneexpr essedint hesong?Fr eedom isdefinedi nmany
way [Link] ti
sdoingwhaty ouwantwheny ouwanti [Link] her
swoul dcl ai
mt hat
i
tisnotunl [Link] i
rstmodul e,wesai dt hatmor ali
tyrestri
ctsourf reedom
onlytoexperiencegreat
[Link] reedom gott odowi thmor alit
y?
LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hismodul
e,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:
[Link]
aint
hev
iewofdet
ermi
nism andhowi
tbecomesat
hreatt
oet
hics;
[Link]
aint
her
easont
hatonl
yhumansar
emor
albei
ngs;
and
3.r
elat
efr
eedom wi
thmor
ali
ty.
Act
ivi
ty
Ev
enwitht
hecurrentpandemic,st
udentsfrom UPandot hery oungpeople
l
ikeyouwentt
othest
reet
st odefendourfr
eedom ofspeechandexpressionthatcan
becurt
ail
edwhent
heAnti
-Terr
ori
sm Bil
[Link].

P
h
o P
t h
o o
A t
Sour
ce:
Resur
gent
.Phi
l o
B

Basedony
ourcur
rentbel
i
efoff
reedom,
aret
hesepr
otest
sri
ght
?Whyorwhynot
?

Anal
ysi
s:Basedont
heact
ivi
ty,
whydoy
out
hinkf
reedom i
snecessar
ytohumanl
i
fe?

TheCaseofDet
ermi
nism
Determi
nism isamodeloft houghtthatsaysthathumanbeings,becauseof
thei
rgeneti
cmake- upandsocialexperi
encesespecial
lydur
ingthei
rfor
mat i
veyears,
are“progr
ammed”t oactaccordi
ngt [Link]
nism,wear e
alr
eadypre-det
erminedorpre-
desti
nedt odowhatwear eprogr
ammedt odowi thout
thi
nkingaboutthem orf
eeli
ngsorryaboutthem.
 21

I
fwear etoconsiderthi
s,et
hicst henbecomesi rr
elevant
.Whywoul dyoust
il
ldo
mor alr
easoningandcomeupwi t hasoundmor aljudgment
,whichwhatethi
csis,
when y ourbehavioris notofy ourown choi ce butonly an answertoy our
programming?Webecomer obot s. Fordet er mi ni
sm,t hi
smeanst hatwearenot
humanbei ngs,j
[Link]:
pint
erest
.phi
l
Deterministi
cv iews pose
anissueonf reewi l
[Link] sethi
cs
i
nj eopardybyi mplyi
ngt hatgenes
render ethics obsol [Link],i t
i
mpl i
es t hat mor al adv i
ce,
educat i
on,orl earni
ngexper i
ences
areal sousel [Link] et hanthat,
the threatcomes f rom t he i
dea
thatwehumansar ejustsophi sti
catedanimal
s,madet
ofol
l
owgenet
ici
nst
ruct
ions
andcandonot hingabouti t(Bl
ackbur n,
2001)
.
Nunsvowtobechastet
[Link]
sm soseri
ously,it
woul
df ol
low t
hat,because human bei ngs are geneti
call
y and ev ol
uti
onaril
y
progr ammedt ocopulate(orhavesex),nuns
willdoev er
ythingj
ustt ogetlai
[Link],
i
twi llbeuselesstomaket hem havesuch
[Link]!
Homosapi
ens:
TheMor
alCr
eat
ure
Ourbr ainhasf [Link] ront al
l
obe i ncl udes an ar ea thatf unctions f or
j
udgement .Ourbr ainsar edesi gnedt omake
deci si
ons,t o seeal ternativ
esand choose.
Non- human ani mal s hav e di f
ferent br ain
structur et hanour [Link] ng
i
snotbasedpl ainlyonbi ologicalinstinctsas
P
h thatoft heot herani mal sbutwi thourabi li
t y
o
t tot hink aboutouract i
ons and use our
o
D freedom t [Link]- humanani mal salso
donothav ef reewi ll
.Hence,t heyar eslav es
ofnat ur e;t heyactaccor di
ngt ohowt heyar e
genet ical lypr ogr [Link] heymay
show benev olenthuman-l
i
keact
scalledpSor
uo
rt
co
e:mo
pint
er
ral
est
.be
phhav
i
l iors( seeSkut ch,2003) ,
thesebehav iorsarenotmoralbecauset heyar enotdonewi thr easonandwi th
freedom butduet othei
rDNApr
ogrammi ng.
Anotherthi
ngt hatmakeshumanst heonl ymor alcreatur
ei scult
[Link]-
humanani malsdonothav eacul ture. Socio-cult
uralfactor
sl i
kehi st
ory,bel
iefs,
i
deals,andwor l
dviewsshapeourmor alpri
nciples. Cultur
ei saf actorinshaping
moralcodesandt hesemor alpr
inci
plesarethemsel v
espar tofcultur
[Link] swhy ,
wesayt hatmorali
tycouldv
ar yf
rom oneculturet oanother.
Remember,
moral
it
yishowweoughttol
[Link]
hewor
d“ought”
i
nther
ebecausei
tisi
nhavi
ngthef
reedom t
ochooset hatt
hat“ought
”woul
drequi
re
 22

ust ot hinkhar daboutouract ionsandonl yhumansamongal lotheranimalshav e

thatabi li
ty. Rat i
onali
tyist hecapaci tyt
ot hi
nkhar di nor dertomakeanupr ight
[Link] hr ati
onali
tyandf r eedom arerequiredinmaki ngmor alactsandonl y
humanshav ebot h;theset wot henmakehumansast heonl ymor [Link]
humanbei ngsactaccor di
ngt ot heirDNA-programmedi nstinctsandnotaccor dingt o
freewill
,thent her eisnoneedf ormor alr
[Link] llnotneedt hefreedom
andwi lltot hinkanddeci deaboutwhat ’srightandwhat ’swr ong,wi l
lnotev er
exper i
encemor aldil
emma,ar enotboundt omakechoi cesandhence,wi llhav ean
existencesi mil
art othatofthebi rds,dogs,andot hernon-humanani mal sorwillli
vea
bruti
shl i
fe. Thati swhy nt
,i eleseryes,apr otagonistwillconfrontaconsci ence-
numbedant agonistwiththeline: “Hayopka!”
Fr
eedom
Wehav ebeental
kingaboutf r
eedom—butwhatr eall
yfreedom is?Whywoul d
peopl
eriskt
heirli
vesinthistimeofpandemicingoingtost r
eetst odemonst r
atefor
ussowecanmai ntai
nourf reedom ofspeechandexpr essi
ont hatisthreat
enedby
thenew Anti
-Ter
rori
sm Bill
?I tgoestoshow thatfr
eedom i sbasi cal
lyimport
ant.
Herearesomeoft hethi
ngspeopl esayaboutt
hediff
erentsortsoff r
eedom:

P
h
o
t
o
F

P
h
o
t
o
G
Sour
ce:
pint
erest
.phi
l

Thesepict
uresaboveshowhowf reedom i
sdefi
nedinthecontextofsame-
sexunion,mediaandexpressi
on,andrel
i
gi on.I
nthel
ightofet
hicsandmor al
i
ty,
we
wil
lconsiderSt
.JohnPaulII
’sdef
ini
ti
on.
Skut
ch (
2007)identi
fi
ed t
wo
meani
ngsoffreedom i
nr el
ati
ont o
moral
i
ty:
1.)Freedom fr
om pri
ordet
er mi nat
ion.
Thismeanst hatwear enott iedto
theinfluenceofanypast( [Link]-
P
programmi ng;ear
lyexper
iences;ex-
h
o
girl
fr
iend),andweuseourf reewi l
l.
t
o
Sour
ce:
Alegoo.
com
H
 23

Fr
eewi
l
lmeanshav
ingaf
ir
m st
andt
omakeachoi
cewi
thoutbei
nghi
nder
ed
2.)Fr eedom t o expr ess one’ s own
[Link] scani mpl ytwot hings.A. ) MORALFREEDOM
Beingabl etosat i
sfyapar t
iculardesi r
e
Mor alfr
eedom istochooseanddot he
wi t
houtext ernalobst acles l i
ke l aws
ri
ghtt hi
ngthatshouldbedonewi thout
andcust omsast hesedesi resar epar t
bei
nghi ndered.
ofourt otalnature.I tisbei ng away
from t he thi
ngs t hatst ops us f rom
expressingourt otalpersonal i
ty .Forexample,mar ryi
ngsomeoney oulovebasedon
yoursexualpr eference.B. )Bei ngabl etosatisfyourpr i
maryneedswhich,beingan
animal,ar ebiologicall
y-determi ned,wi t
houtbei nghinderedbyourownat ti
tudes.
Thisissomet hingi nter
[Link] e,bei
ngabl etocontroly
ourdesi
retostealfor
foodandi nsteadf i
ndaccept ablemeanst ofeedahungr yst
omach.
Wehav epreviouslylearnedt hatmoral
ityisabouthowweoughtt [Link]
PaulII’
sdef i
nit
ionoffreedom r el
ateswi t
hmor ali
tyasitpointsoutthecapaci t
yt odo
whatshoul dbedoneandnotmer elywhatiswishedt [Link] d,ethicsis
aboutcomi ng up with and execut ing a moral
lyupr i
ghtdecision through mor al
[Link] l
ljustdowhat everwewant ,thenwebecomel i
kei r
rati
onalnon-
humanani malsthatar esl avesofpassi onsandi [Link],ont he
otherhand,al l
owsust ot hinkdeepl yaboutwhati sgoodandwr ong,andt hent o
choosef reelywhetherornott odowhatwe" ought"[Link] hicalfr
eedom means
beingabl et odowhati sgoodwi thoutbeinghi nder
edandbei ngabl et ohi nder
oneselftodoev il
.
ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER4:
FREEDOM ASBASI
C
ETHI
CS REQUI
REMENTOFMORALI
TY

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link] on t
he postbel
ow,expl
aint
he v
iew ofdet
ermi
nism and how i
t
becomesathreatt
oEthi
cs.

[Link]
ehumansmor
albei
ngs?Expl
ain.
 24

REFERENCES

Balckburn,S.(2001).Et
hics:AVeryShortIntr
oduct
[Link]:Oxf
ordUniver
sit
yPress,
I
nc.
Skutch,A.F.(2007).Moralfoundat
ions:AnIntr
oducti
ontoEthi
[Link]:Axi
osPress
 25

CHAPTER5:
WHATI
SCULTURE?
Allofusarebornintoacultur
e.I
tissomet
hingthati
sinher
it
edfr
om our
s.I
t
speaksoft hewaywecommuni cat
e,thewaywer el
atewit
hothersandt
hewaywe
viewthi
ngscomi [Link]
ureisembeddedi
nusandwecannotescapefor
mit.
Ithel
psdefineourmoralbehav
ior.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hel
esson,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:
[Link]
ti
cul
atet
hedef
ini
ti
onofcul
tur
e;
[Link]
tr
ibut
efacet
sofper
sonalbehav
iort
ocul
tur
e;and
3.f
eel
proudofone’
scul
tur
eandexpr
esst
hedesi
ret
opr
opagat
eit
.

Acti
vi
ty:Makeapersonaldatacont
aini
ngyourname,whatyoueat,yourresi
dence,
yourl
anguage,howy
oudr ess,y
oursport
s,y
ourfami
ly,f
amil
ycelebrat
ionsandy our
art
sandmusi c.
Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
,answert
hef
oll
owi
ngquest
ions:
[Link]
sonal
dat
aspeakofmyper
sonal
i
ty?
[Link]
tur
eaf
fectmywayofseei
ngt
hingsandr
elat
ingwi
thot
her
s?
[Link]
emymani
fest
ati
onst
hatIf
eel
proudofmycul
tur
e?

Cul
tur
edef
ined

Asimpl edefinit
ionofcul t
ur eist hati ti
sawayofl [Link] schar acter izedas
thepeopl e’
swayofl i
fewhi chisshar edbyot herpeopl einacer t
ai nculturalr egi [Link]
i
snotsaf et oassumet hatev eryonei nagi vensociet yshar est hesamecul t ureor
peopl ewhoar efarfrom eachot hercannol ongershar ethesamewayofl i
[Link] ture
occupi esal argedomai ni nt hel i
[Link] er
ythi
ngamandoesi nhi sev eryday
l
iv i
ngi sdomi natedbyhi scul t
uralor [Link] t hewayhepr ayt ot hewayhe
car r
ieshi msel finthesoci alwor ldisamani f
estati
onofone’ scul turalher i
[Link] th
this,culturecanbedef i
nedast hev alues, beli
efs,behav i
ourandmat er i
alobj ect st hat
toget herform apeopl e’swayofl i
fe( Maci onis,2007) .Cultur eencompassesabr oad
spect rum ofani ndivi
dual ’ssoci alandper sonall i
[Link] dTy l
ordef i
nedcul tur eas
thatcompl exwhol et hati ncludesknowl edge,bel i
efs,ar t,l aw,mor al
s,cust oms,
traditi
onsandanyot hercapabi l
iti
esandhabi tsacqui r
edbymanasmemberof
soci [Link] vinHar ri
scl aimst hatcul t
urei stotal
lysocial l
yacqui r
edl i
feway sofa
groupofpeopl [Link] udespat ternedofr epetit
iveway soft hinking,f eelingand
act i
ngt hatar echar acteristicsoft hemember sofapar ti
cul arsoci etyorsegmentof
soci [Link] Geer t
zdef i
nescul tur
easi deasbased oncul t
urall earni ng and
sy mbol [Link] been char acteri
zed as set s ofcont rolmechani sms f rom t he
gov erningofbehav i
our .Ourmember shipt osoci etyisgov ernedbyt hegui del i
nes
whi char ehanded, t
wi sted, r
ev i
sed, andt aughtacr ossgener at i
ons.
 26

Cul
tureisfart oocomplexanddy namictobeboxedi nasingleadject
ive.
Possessi
onofcul turecanbelikenedtoanor gani
zat
ionalmember
[Link]
cul
turesexi
sti
ngwi thi
nabigcul t
ureandtherearecul
turest
hatr
emaindespitethe
negati
veconnotat
ionandunfavorabl
eeff
ectstoit
smember s.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofCul
tur
e
Ant
hropol
ogist
s,soci
ologi
stsandbehavior
alscient
istsi
nthestudyofcul
tur
e
cameupwit
hal i
stoftr
ait
sandcharacter
ist
icssharedbyallcul
tur
es.

[Link]
tur
eisl
ear
ned.
Weacqui r
eknowl edgethatarepassedont ousbyourpar ent s,pri
maladults
and the people ar ound us both dir
ectl
y and indi
rect
[Link]
dr en absor bed the
i
nformationgivent othem from t
hedayt [Link]
m ofl earni
ngcannot
beattri
butedtobi ol
ogicalfact
[Link]
urall
eani
ng, t
henisbasedont heabi l
it
y
orhumancapaci t
ytousesy mbol
sthatdonothav eadi r
ectornatur alconnectionsto
thet
hingst heyrepresent.

[Link]
tur
eiscol
l
ect
iveorshar
ed.
Cul
tureissociali
nnat ureandnotbyanymeanst obedefinedasapr i
vateor
personalvalues ofpr [Link] knowledge one has now i s a productof
accumulat
ionofbitsandpi eceswithi
[Link] t
ur ated
tothesoci
etyandsoci et
ytowhi [Link] edgeacrossgeneration.
Asgenerati
onslearnandpasst heknowl
edgeofsoci ety,theknowledgeisabsor bed
thr
oughsocietyandthuscont i
nuetobesharedwithi
nt hatsociety
.

[Link]
tur
eist
ransmi
tt
edor
all
yandi
nwr
it
ing.
Sharing and l ear
ning of cul t
ure can be done ei ther consciously or
unconsci
ousl y
,wi t
hin generations oracr oss generati
on in unli
mi t
ed way [Link] al
tr
ansmissionofcultureispotentt hroughtheli
fecy cl
[Link] enamongsoci eti
es
wit
hnost ructur
eoff ormali nstructi
onoreducat ion,itisamodeofl earni
ngand
bri
nging up the [Link] i
tten transmissi
on isr elat
ivel
ymoder [Link] th writ
ing,
l
earni
ngandcul tur
altransmissi onbecamepr eci
se,extensivel
ycompl i
cated,highly
symboli
c,andheav il
ycumul ati
v e.

[Link]
tur
eissy
mbol
i
c.
Cultureoper at
eswi t
hinarealm ofsymbolconst ructi
onandsy [Link]
i
sl earned,shar ed and t r
ansmit
ted using a compl ex setofsy mbols used to
communi catecal l
edl [Link] alorwr it
ten,gestures,handsigns,body
l
anguage,f aci
alexpr [Link]
ureistransmi t
tedthrought heaidofl anguage.I
t
enabl
esust orecallknowl edgeencount
eredint hepastgivingusanot ionofti
[Link]
theotherhand,weusesy mbolstocommuni cateouremot i
onalconditi
[Link]
weuseandseear eboundbyt hecult
uretowhi chtheywer eformed.

[Link]
tur
eishol
i
sti
candi
ntegr
ated.
Par
tsofcul
tur
ear
eint
ri
cat
elyconnect
edt
ooneanot
heri
ntoahol
i
sti
cent
it
y.
 27

ForDur kheim,cul
tureisapr oductnotofasi ngl
ei ndivi
dualbutofacol l
ecti
ve.A
coll
ecti
v e consci
ousness orawar eness ex i
sts bey ond the indivi
[Link]
el
ement soft hecul
turetendt ofiteachot herforsmoot herandbet t
eradapt i
ve
[Link] hatel
ementswi t
hinthecultureneedt ofuncti
onhar moniously,
otherwise str
ain orfri
cti
onalconf l
i
ctoccur [Link] tureis patterned by specifi
c
di
mensi onofsociall
ifesuchaseconomi candpol i
ti
cal act
ivi
ti
es.

[Link]
tur
eisadapt
ive.
Cult
uraladapt
ati
onist heev ol
uti
onaryprocesst hatmodif
iesthesociall
if
eof
thepeopleint hegivennatur alenvi
ronment .I
tisanadj ustmentstrat
egypeopl e
uti
li
zeorempl oytorespondt ot hechangesint henaturalorsocialenvi
ronment,or
themet hodusedt oreactpr operl
ywi t
hr especttost imulit
hatar eavail
abl
[Link]
str
ategycouldbebiol
ogical
,technologi
calorsocio-behavior
ali
nnat ur
e.

[Link]
tur
esat
isf
iesneeds.
Cult
ur edefinestheact i
vi
ti
esofman.I tisl i
kewisewi t
hinacultur
ewher e
theseact i
vi
tiescanbegr ati
fi
[Link] at
if
icati
onr ef
erst othegranti
ngofaqualit
yofl i
fe
orlif
estyleforpersonalorsocialgr
atif
icati
[Link] t
urehast hecapaci
tytosati
sfyand
granttheneeds–bi ol
ogi
calandsocial,[Link]
owst hesmoot handef f
ici
ent
i
nteractionamongmember soft hesocietyfort hesatisfact
[Link] e
maybedi fferencesinthestepsweal lfollowandt hepeoplewei nt
eractbeforewe
reachourgoal ,
buttheorigi
nofthegratif
icati
onwi llbethesame.

[Link]
tur
eiscompul
sor
y.
Beingamemberofasoci et
yalsomeanst hatyoubecomeasubj ectofthe
soci
etyt owhi chy ouarebor nandsocial
i
[Link] earnscult
urebyconditi
oni
ng.
Condit
ioning can be the obser
vance ofrewar
d and punishmentgiv
en an act .
Compul soryi
nt hi
ssenseoftheworddoesnotmeani tisper
manentandimmov able.
Cult
urechangesandi sinfl
ux.
[Link]
tur
eisdy
nami
c.
No culturei s stat
ic and [Link] nce member
shipt o cultur
ei s
conti
nuouslychangingbyt hei nf
luxandchangesi nandamongmember s;people
mov einandoutofacul tur
[Link]
alcommuni cati
onsistr
ansf
ormingatf astpace
bythetechnol
ogicaldevelopmenthappening,conceptsandi
deasarebeingmodi fi
ed
andtransf
ormedwi t
hr especttooccurri
ngeventsandchangi
ngpoli
ti
calenvironment,
theoveral
lcul
turei
sconst antl
ychanging.

[Link]
tur
eiscumul
ati
ve.
Everyti
met hetransmissionofknowledgeisconductedthroughsoci
ali
zat
ion,
accumulati
onoccur s-
fr
om ol [Link] cl
ehappensr epeatedl
yandeveryti
me,
knowledge is accumulated and tr
[Link] edge thatwas formed and
devel
oped wi t
hin a particul
arcultureis a process oft r
ansmissi
on from one
gener
ationint
oanot her
,throughsharingandcult
urall
earni
ngshar i
ng.

[Link]
tur
eint
eract
sandunder
goest
ransf
ormat
ion.
 28

Allhumancul turesandsoci etiesint

eracttoothercul t
ureswhi char eeither
rel
ated ort otall
ydi stinctf r
om oneanot [Link] actcould eit
herr esul
tt o
copyingorbor rowingofsomeaspect sofonecultur
eresul t
ingtothet r
ansf ormation
ofone cul t
ure orbot h.I nteracti
on can happen int he f or
m ofdomi nation or
col
oni al
[Link] natedsoci etyisforcedandt hesubjectedt othecul t
ur eoft he
defeatedandt hi
smayr esul
tt otheaccept anceofthedomi nantreli
gion,pol i
ti
cal
authorit
y,educationalsy stem, andev enthewayofspeaki ngandt hi
nking.

TheI
nfl
uenceofCul
tur
einMor
alDev
elopment
Cul
tureisone’sperson’ssocialher i
taget hathasbeenpassedf rom one
generat
iontothenextbasi cal
lythr
ought her el
ationshi
pst hatbindsthesociet
y
toget
her.I
tnecessar
il
ysaysonwhatar ethingsamemberoft hesoci
etymustdo,
whatt odo,andhow todot hi
ngs.I
tt eachesandcondi t
ionsmember sonhow t o
rel
ateandli
vewi t
htheothermember soft hesoci etyandev entopeopleoutsi
deof
thei
rowncultur
e.

Cult
urefunct
ionstomol dandest abl
ishasociali
dentit
ythatbr
ingspeopleas
welltot heknowledgeofcommonobj ect
iveswhichmemberwoul dtrytoachiev e.
Culture,i
ndeed,providesnorms,cust oms,l aws,andmor aldemandst hataretobe
foll
[Link] al
,cult
ureplaysav italrol
et hedevel
opmentoft hehumanper son.
Inev eryaspectoft hehumanper son,t hecultur
albackgroundcanbev er
yv i
sible.
Culturehasanessent i
alinf
luenceont hemor aldevel
opmentoft hehumanper son
sincemor al
ityi
sjustoneoft hecultur
al aspects.

Cul
tur
einf
luencest
hemor
aldev
elopmentoft
hepeopl
ethr
ought
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts:

[Link] turei
sal wayssocialandcommunalbywhi cht herel
ati
onshi poft hepeople
towardsoneanot her
.Andt heirexperi
enceasapeopl earetheculture’[Link]
i
nt hisr el
ati
onship and communalexper i
encethatcul t
ureinfluencest hemor al
developmentofi tsmember [Link] hatmor ali
tyaspr i
nci
pleis
promot edbecauseprimaril
yofther el
ati
onshipwi
thinthecommuni t
y .Lawsandrules
andst andar
dsofat t
itudesandbehav i
orsaresetandpr omulgatedbyt hecommunit y
topromot etherel
ati
onshipthatbindsthem toget
herasapeopl e.

[Link] tur
edef i
nesthenormativeprinci
plesandbehavi
orsoft [Link]
ines
whichpar t
icul
arpri
nci
pleandbehav iort
hatshouldbekeptthatwouldser vethebest
i
nterestofthecommuni ty
.Therewoul dbeadefini
ti
ononwhatar etheprincipl
esalso
thatshouldnotbepr omot edorr eject
[Link]
nednor mati
v eprincipl
esand
behaviorsinfor
m andi ndoct
ri
natet hemember sastheyl i
veandr elatewi t
ht he
communi [Link] dshapeal sot heki
ndofmor aljudgementaper sonhas,
whichismostoft heti
mecongr uenttothegeneralmor
aljudgment.

3. A cul tur
e as bestexempli
fi
ed i
nt he experi
ence oft he people,dev el
ops
rest
rict
ionsandsetsboundari
esandl i
mitat
ionsast heyli
verandr elatewi t
hone
[Link] would cr
eat
e an at
mospher e ofpromoti
ng the wel far
e oft he
communi ty
.Indeed,
anyonewhotri
estostepbeyondt hesei
ssubjecttopuni shment
orconsequencessetbythecommunit
yembeddedi nthecult
ure.
 29

[Link] psingener at
ingthecharacterandi denti
tyofi
tspeople,i
tal
soincludes
themor alchar [Link]
urecondit
ionst hemi nd-thewaypeopl ethi
nkandt heway
we per ceiv
et he wor l
d and thei
rr el
ationship with one anot
[Link] cultur
ei s
aggressive,thosewhoar eini tbecomeaggr essiveintheirrel
ati
onshi
pwi thone
[Link] ersely,ifacultur
eisunj ust,thesamemaybedev el
opedamongt he
peoplewhoar eini t
.

[Link] ureidenti
fi
est heauthori
ti
esort hegov er
ningindiv
idual
sorgr [Link] e
thesymbolofgui danceandcont r
ol.I
nmanycul tur
es,menal way saremostoft he
ti
mel ookedupt oasl eader
sov erseeingtheor deroft hecommuni ty
.Theyar e
expectedt ogiveguidancetothebody .Peoplesubmi tt
hemsel v
est otheauthori
ty:be
i
tpatriarchalormat ri
[Link]
tyast heyrepresentthepopulace,
themember slookatt hem aspeopl ewhopr omot eandkeept hesetofr ulesand
l
awst hatgov ernthecommuni t
[Link] sareconsideredessenti
alin
moralissuesoft hecommuni t
y.

Insum,cul tur
eisv erysignif
icantinthedevelopmentoft hehumanper son
andi nhi smor aldevel
opment .Ithasat ightgri
pont hemor aldevelopmentoft he
peopl [Link]
oningpr i
ncipleoft hemoraldev el
opmentofi t
smember s.
Althoughi tmaynotal way spromot ewhati sgoodandj ustforall
,itiscertai
nt hat
therear epr i
nci
ples,at
ti
tudesandbehav i
orsthatactuall
yhindergoodr elat
ionships
andv i
olat
et hewelfar
eoft [Link]
urethatarediffi
cultto
eli
mi nate,yettheyshouldbesubj ectt opeople’
sdiscernmentthatpr operchanges
andmodi f
icati
onshav eto bedonef orthesakeoft hewel f
areandj usti
cef or
everybody .

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER5:
WHATI
SCULTURE?
ETHI
CS

Acti
vi
ty:Makeaper sonaldatacontai
ningyourname,whatyoueat,yourresi
dence,
yourl
anguage,howyoudr ess,y
ourspor t
s,y
ourfamil
y,f
amil
ycelebrat
ionsandy our
art
sandmusi candanswerthefoll
owingquesti
ons:
[Link]
sonal
dat
aspeakofmyper
sonal
i
ty?
[Link]
tur
eaf
fectmywayofseei
ngt
hingsandr
elat
ingwi
thot
her
s?
[Link]
emymani
fest
ati
onst
hatIf
eel
proudofmycul
tur
e?
 30

REFERENCES
 31

Abesamis,JT [Link]
anco(
2014)
.Soci
etyandCul
tur
eA Li
ber
alAppr
oacht
o
Underst
andi
ng

Humani
ty,
Mal
abonCi
ty:
Mut
yaPubl
i
shi
ngHouse,
Inc.

Al
ata,
EJandEJI
gnaci
o(2019)
.Bui
l
dingandEnhanci
ngNewLi
ter
aci
esAcr
osst
he

Cur
ri
cul
um,
Mani
l
a:RexBookSt
ore.

Bulaong,O.
,et
.al(
2018)
.Et
hicsFoundat
ionofMor
alVal
uat
ion,Mani
l
a:RexBook
Store.

Lanuza,[Link]
mnudo(
2016)
.Under
standi
ngCul
tur
e,Soci
etyandPol
i
tics,
Manila,

RexBookSt
ore.

Leano,
[Link]
an-
on(
2018)
.Et
hicsf
orCol
l
egeSt
udent
s,Mani
l
a:MI
ndshaper
s
Co.

I
nc.

Ri
odique,
F.(
2016)
.Under
standi
ngCul
tur
e,Soci
etyandPol
i
tics,
Mani
l
a:Mi
ndshaper
s
Co.

I
nc.

CHAPTER6:
CULTURALRELATI
VISM
 32

Al
lofusar
ebornint
oacultur
[Link] ow,wemeetot
hercult
uresandare
oft
ent
imesshapedbyit
.Asbear ersofcul
tur
e,ourtaski
stobet ol
erantofot
her
cul
tur
esandseewhati
sgoodinsomeandadaptt hesamei
nourl
iv
es.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hel
esson,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:

[Link]
inecul
tur
alr
elat
ivi
sm;

2.r
ecogni
zedi
ff
erencesi
nmor
albehav
iorofdi
ff
erentcul
tur
es;

[Link]
aluat
ethest
rengt
hsandweaknessesofcul
tur
alr
elat
ivi
sm;
and

[Link]
eci
atet
hedi
ff
erencesamongcul
tur
es

Act
ivi
ty:

Onasheetofpaper,infi
vesent
ences,gi
vey ourownv
iew aboutther
acial
di
scr
imi
nati
onbei
ngexper
iencedbyt
hecoloredmenandwomeni nt
heUni t
edStat
es
ofAmer
ica,
inpar
ti
cul
arwi
ththedeathofGeorgeFl
oyd.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ther ecenteventthatshookhumanr ight

sadv ocat
esintheworldpart
icul
arl
y
i
nt heUnitedStatesofAmer i
cawast hedeathofGeor geFly
od,ablackAmeri
[Link]
l
astwor dscontinuetohauntust oday
:“Si
r,Icannotbreat
he”bri
ngstomindthedeep-
seatedconceptandunder standingofbeingablet osubjugat
epeoplebecauseof
thei
rsex,colorandreli
gion.

Inthewor l
dtoday ,wer ecognizethatthemanyculturesoft heworldhave
theirownbel i
efs,val
uesandpr acti
cest hathavedevel
opedinparti
cular
,hist
ori
cal
,
social
,mat er
ialandecol ogicalcontextsandt hati
tmakessenset hattheywould
diff
erfrom ourownandt hatnonear enecessaril
yri
ghtorwrong,[Link],
wear eengagingincultur
al r
elati
vi
sm.

Cul
tur
alRel
ati
vi
sm def
ined

Cult
uralr el
ativi
sm istheabi l
i
tyt ounder standacul tureoni t
sownt er
msand
nott omakej udgement susingt hest andar dsofone’ sowncul t
[Link] sto
promot eunder standingofcul t
uralpracticest hatar enotty pi
cal l
ypartofone’sown
cult
[Link] heper specti
veofcul turalr elativ
ism leadst ot hev i
ew thatnoone
cult
urei ssuper i
ort hatanotherwhencompar edt osy stemsofmor ali
ty,l
aw,pol i
ti
cs
andet [Link]
saconceptt hatcult
uralnor msandv aluesderivet heirmeaningwi thi
na
specif
icsoci alcont [Link] sobasedont hei deat hatt hereisnoabsol ute
standardofgoodandev i
l
.Ther efor
eev erydeci sionandj udgmentofwhati sr i
ght
andwr ongi sindi v
iduall
ydecidedi neachsoci [Link] hatanyopinionon
ethi
csi ssubj ectt ot heperspectiveofeachper sonwi t
hint heirparti
cularculture.
 33

Ov
eral
l
,ther
eisnor
ightorwr
onget
hical
syst
em.

Cult
uralrelati
vism is considered to be mor e constr
ucti
ve and posi
ti
ve
conceptionascompar edt [Link]
st oseeani ndiv
idual
’shabi
ts,
val
uesandmor al
si nthecontextofhi sorhercul t
uralrel
evancebycompar ingi
tto
one’sowncul tur
alv al
uesandbydeemi ngt hemostsuper iorandgr eat
erofall.
Anthropologist
sbelievethatallcul
turesareequall
ylegit
imateexpressi
onsofhuman
exi
stence, t
obest udiedfrom apurelyneutral
perspecti
ve.

Cul
tur
alr
elat
ivi
sm andet
hics

Cultur
alrelativi
sm isclosel
yrelatedtoet hicalrel
ati
[Link]
calrelativi
sm
vi
ewstrut
h asv ariabl
e and notabsol [Link] i
tut
esr ightand wr ong is
det
ermi
nedsol el
ybyt heindi
vidualorbysoci et
[Link] ncetr
uthi snotobject
ive,there
canbeobjecti
vest [Link] fsomeone
el
seisri
ghtorwr ong.I ti
samat t
erofper sonalopi ni
onandnosoci etycanpass
j
udgementonanot hersociety
.

Theadv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofCul
tur
alRel
ati
vi
sm

ADVANTAGESOFCULTURAL DI
SADVANTAGESOFCULTURAL
RELATI
VISM RELATI
VISM

1.
Itpr
omot
escooper
ati
on. 1.
Itcr
eatesasy st
em t
hati
sfuel
l
ed
bypersonal
bias.
Wear esodi ff
erentfrom eachot her
thatwehav emanyt hingst oshar e. Everysoci et
yhasacer t
ainnat ural
Everyindiv i
dualhasadi ff
erent biast oitbecauseofhowhumani t
y
perspect i
vebasedont heir oper [Link] endtopr efertobe
upbringing,experiencesand withot her swhohav esi
mi larthought
personal [Link] acingt he orfeelings, sotheysegr egate
manydi f
ferenceswehav e,the themsel v estobecome
cooper ati
oncr eatesthepot entialfor neighbor hoods, communi tiesand
astrongersoci ety. social groupsthatshar especi fi
c
perspect [Link] earegi v
en
thepowert odefinethei
rownmor al
code, then, t
heywi lldosobasedon
theirper sonalbias.

[Link] esasoci et
ywher eequali
ty 2.I
twoul dcr
eatechaos.
i
spossi bl e.
Peoplewhocanf ol
lowt heirown
Insomecases, peopl
er i
seby mor alcodebecauset hereisno
steppi ngont [Link] wrongorr i
ghtwouldbeal l
owedt o
some, itisasoci abl
ewayofcr eati
ng pursueanylifet
heypr eferr
edunder
discrimi nati
[Link] hi
sisseeni n thetheoryofcult
uralrelati
vism.
thedi scr i
minat i
onofwomen, the Thereisnor eal
wayt opr otectt
he
l
imi tedoppor tuni
ti
esthatminorit
y peopleinsuchasoci ety,soeach
peopl ef ace,andt hevi
olenceweal l personcanber esponsiblet opr
otect
 34

experi
enceduet
opol
i
tical themsel
[Link]
eatesasy
stem that
oppressi
on. emphasizethatonl
ythest
rongest
cansurv
ive.
Culturalr
elati
vism allowsthe
i
ndiv i
dualtodef i
net heirmoralcode
withoutdefini
ngt hemor al
codeof
[Link] ivesonhi sown.
Thatsepar ati
oncr eatesequali
ty
becauseeachper soncanset
hi
s/ owndef i
niti
onofsuccess.

3.
Peopl
ecanpur
sueagenui
ne 3.
Iti
sanideathati
sbasedont
he
i
nter
est
. perf
ect
ionofhumanit
y.

Todaymor et hanever,peopleare Manypeopl estrivetodogoodev ery

drawnt ocer tai
ncareeroptions dayandmostwantt ohav et he
becauset heyhav enoot herchoice. chancet oseekhappi nessinsome
Incultur
al relat
ivi
sm, yougetto way .Thismakescul t
ur alr
elati
vism
pursuey ourowni nt
erestwithout i
nv i
[Link] er,peopl earenot
restri
cti
[Link] hedefini
ti
ons [Link] eforgetful,
wel i
e, i
n
ofwhaty oucanhav eandwhaty ou otherwor ds,webacksl [Link] t
houta
cannothav [Link] nest
ly, groupmor alcodei nplacet ogov er
n
eachper sonwoul dgett ofocuson decisions,anythingcoul dhappen
his/herstrengthsinsteadofhis/her whenweexper iencethesemoment s
weakness. ofimper fect
ion.

[Link] sencour agedbycul tural [Link] omot eal ackofdi ver si

ty.
rel
at i
vism.
Cul t
uralrelativ
ism pr omot esan
Aspeopl ear ef r
om di f
ferent i
ndi vi
dualisti
cpoi ntofv iew, whichat
cultures,theybr ingwi ththem fi
rstglanceseemst opr omot e
diff
erenti deasandt heirdef i
nit
ions di versi
tybuti nr ealit
yi tremov esone
ofsuccessar edifferentfrom the from asoci [Link] ystandar ds
[Link] stem promot edthe thatareinpl acear ethosewhi char e
i
ndi vi
dual’ defini
tioninsteadofa setbyt heni ndiv i
dual involved,whi ch
groupdef initi
on, asoci etycanev olv
e meansev er yonei spur suingone’ s
becauset herei sanat urallevelof ownposi ti
onofst rengt [Link]
respectbui l
tintot [Link] s cannotbecr eat edwhent he
givent her i
ghtt opur suelifeinhis emphasi sofasoci etyi n
ownt er ms i
ndi vi
dualisti
cgai nt hatcancomeat
theexpenseofot hers.

5.
Itpr
eser
veshumancul
tur
e. 5.I
tdrawspeopl
eawayf
rom one
another
.
Humani tyi
sav er
ydiver
sesetof
thoughts,t
radi
ti
ons,
ideasand Cult
uralr
elat
ivi
sm canbot hpr
omote
practi
[Link]
me,thetr
adit
ionsof peoplecomingtogethert
osharethei
r
humani t
yaresetasi
desot hataset st r
engthsandcanencour agepeopl
e
 35

ofst
andar
dscanbeappeased. todrawapar tf
rom oneanot her.
Becauseeachper sonisuncer t
ainof
Underthet
heoryofcult
ural
whatcodesandst andardsanot heri
s
rel
ati
vi
sm,suchanappeasement
foll
owing,thenat urali
ncli
nat i
onfor
maynotbenecessary.I
twouldn’
t
self
-preservati
oncausespeopl eto
evenbeaconsider
ati
on.
drawaway .Onemi ghtdesir
et o
developacl ose-knitcommuni t
yat
fi
rst,buteachdemoncausespeopl e
tobackawayi nsteadofcl osing
ranks.

6.
Itcr
eat
esasoci
etywi
thout 6.
Itcoul
dli
mitmor
alpr
ogr
ess.
j
udgement.
Thei deaofmor al progr essmakes
Wear esot rainedtoj udgeot hersin onemor einclusionar yt han
today ’
swor ldt hatwedon’ tevengiv e [Link] nclusi onis
i
tasecondt hought .Undert het heoryr ef
lectedint helawsandcust omsof
ofcul t
uralrelat i
vi
sm, judgmentgoes t [Link] alrelativ
ism,
away .Theonl yper sont hatj
udges everyonewoul dbel ef ttoone’ sown
youi syourself .Peoplewhomi ght choicewi thoutexcept ionandt here
disagreewi thy ouar eabl etoset woul dbecompl eteagr eementi n
theirowncodesandst andardsf or ei t
herchoi [Link] thint hesoci ety,
theirowni ndiv i
duali
sticbubbl e. eit
herchoi cecoul dbeseenasa
Insteadofwor r y
ingaboutot hers,you mor alprogress,buti nr eali
ty,i
tcoul
d
onlywor ryabouty oursel f
. holdpeopl eback.

7.I
tcanbeexcl
udedf
rom cul
tur
al 7.
Itcoul
dli
mithumani
ty’
spr
ogr
ess.
rel
ati
vi
sm.
Culturalr
elati
vi
sm isoftenseenas
Undert het heoryofcultural progressionbutiti
snotal way sthat
relativi
sm, eachcul turecanbe way .Whent heabil
itytojudgeone
treatedasani ndivi
[Link] al
codes st andardf r
om anotherisremov ed,
ofacul turecanbedef inedandan thent hecomparati
v eprocessof
expect at i
oni mplement edt hat placingacur r
entsocietyorculturei
s
peopl ef oll
owi [Link]
houghot her remov edaswel l
.Nodef init
ionof
cul t
uresmaynotsetupsucha successcanbei mplement ed
restrict
ion, andot hersmi ghtsay becauseeachi ssuccessf ulinit
sown
suchar estri
cti
oni snotaf orm of way .
cul t
ural rel
ativi
sm, peoplei nsucha
sy stem candowhatmakessenset o
[Link] ef ocusingont he
cust omsofacul turenott hemor al
i
ty
thati simposedupont hosecust oms.

[Link]
epersonalmoral 8.
Cult
uralr
elat
ivi
sm cant
urn
codesbasedonsociet
alst
andards per
cepti
onsint
ot r
uth.
withease.
I
nthewor
ldofcul
tur
alr
elat
ivi
sm,
that
 36

Todet erminei fadecisionisrightor bi asbecomesat r

uththatcanbe
wrong, cult
ural r
elat
ivi
sm allows [Link] si
ontoact
i
ndiv i
dualstoconsul twiththe becomesar i
ghteousonebecauseof
standardsoft heirsocietyorculture. t heindi
vidualtr
uththatthecul
tur
e
Iti
sasi mpl etesttodet erminethe all
owedt hroughthebiasit
courset hataper sonshoul dtakein per petr
ates.
suchaci r
cumst [Link] ti
ng
withthemor alcodeoft heculture,
onequest ionmustbeasked: does
theactionconf ormt othecul t
ural
mor alcode?I ftheansweri sposi t
ive,
thentheact ionispermi tt
ed.

9.I
tst
opscul
tur
alcondi
ti
oni
ng.

Peopletendt oadaptt heiratt

it
udes,
thoughtsandbel i
efstot hepeople
theyarewi t
honar [Link]
i
sacul tur
al condi
tioni
ngandi t
preventspeoplefrom, hav i
ngan
i
ndividual
isti
cperspect i
[Link]
rel
ativi
sm stopsit
.

Theadvantagesanddi sadv
antagesofcult
uralr
elati
vi
sm presentedabov ear
e
basedont hetheoreti
calimplementati
onofsuchasy [Link]
nall
ypr oposedby
FranzBoasin18887,itisanideathathasneverbeenimplemented onal argescale.
Mor al
standar
dsmakesensei naperson’scul
tur
[Link]
ngindiv
idual
izedcultur
es

onasi ngul
arorl
argerscales,i
tbecomeseasiert
okeepandembr
acet
het
radi
ti
ons
thathumanit
yhasdevelopedwiththepassageoft
ime.

Thecal
lper
hapsf
orust
odayi
stobemor
emul
ti
-cul
tur
all
yli
ter
[Link]
candot
hesameby:

[Link] hercultur
[Link]
stst
ept omul
ti
-cul
tur
ali
sm i
stoknow about
cul
tur
esotherthany [Link]
oll
owsthati
fwedonotknowother
s’cul
tur
e,the
l
esswelcomingandt oler
antwebecome.

[Link] l
i
ari
zeoneselfwi
thhow discr
iminat
ionandprej
udi
ceappearinone’
sown
cultur
[Link] need t o be abl
et o spotand ident
if
y and conf
rontpat
ter
ns of
discri
minati
onandprej
udi
ceinourownliv
es.

[Link] ouare,soyouwil
lbehav
[Link]
icul
turall
i
teracyi
scor
e
val
ues,
thati
s-whatoner
eall
ybel
iev
esaboutpeopl
ewhoarediff
erentfr
om us.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:
 37

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER6:
CULTURAL
ETHI
CS RELATI
VISM

AssessmentQuest
ions:

PartI
.Gi
vey ourper
sonalcommentaboutt
hesituat
ionsbelow(Ref
erence:
TheChall
engeofCultur
alRel
ati
vi
sm byJAMESRACHELSr etr
iev
edfrom
htt
ps:
//f
aculty
.uca.
edu/
rnovy/
Rachel
s--
Cul
tur
al%20Relat
ivi
[Link])
:

1. Darius,akingofanci ent Per

  sia,wasi ntr
iguedbyt hev ar i
etyofcul tureshe
encounteredi nhi strav el
[Link] ound, forexampl e, thatt heCallati
ans( at r
ibe
ofIndians)cust omar ilyatethebodi esoft hei
rdeadf at [Link] eeks, of
course,didnotdot hat�t heGr eekspr acticedcremat ionandr egardedt he
funeralpyreast henat uralandf i
tti
ngwayt odisposeoft [Link] iust hought
thatasophi sticatedunder st
andingoft hewor ldmusti ncl udeanappr eci at
ionof
suchdi f
ferencesbet weencul [Link] ,
tot eacht hi slesson, hesummoned
someGr eekswhohappenedt obepr esentathi scour tandaskedt hem what
theywoul dt aket oeatt hebodi esoft heirdeadf ather [Link] eshocked, as
Dariusknewt heywoul dbe, andr epl
iedt hatnoamountofmoneycoul dper suade
them todosuchat [Link] i
uscal ledinsomeCal l
ati
ans, andwhi l
et he
Greekslistenedaskedt hem whatt heywoul dtaket obur ntheirdeadf at hers'
[Link] l
at i
answer ehor r
ifi
edandt oldDar i
usnotev ent oment ionsucha
dreadfulthing.

Arethepract
icesoftheGreeks(
cremati
on)andCal
l
ati
ans(
eat
ingt
hebodyoft
hei
r
deadfat
her)acceptabl
etoyou?Why ?

2. Eskimoscust omst ur
nedoutt obev erydiff
erentfr
om [Link] t
en
hadmor ethanonewi f
e,andtheywoul dshar ethei
rwi veswi thguest s,l
ending
them forthenightasasignofhospi tali
[Link],withinacommuni ty,a
dominantmal emi ghtdemandandgetr egularsexualaccesst oothermen' s
[Link], however,werefreet obreakthesear rangement ssi mplyby
l
eav i
ngt hei
rhusbandsandt akingupwi thnewpar tners�f ree,thatis,solongas
thei
rformerhusbandschosenott omaket roubl
[Link] l
,theEskimopr acti
ce
wasav olat
il
eschemet hatborelit
tl
er esemblancet owhatwecal lmar r
iage.

Ar
etheEskimosimmoralbecauseoft
hei
rsexual
pract
ice?St
atey
ourar
gument
,
whet
heryouagreeornot
.

Par
tII
.Essay
.Makey
ourar
gumentont
hest
atementbel
ow.

1.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
ohaveauniver
sal
standar
dofmoral
i
ty,
e.g.t
heTen
Commandments,
wher
eallpeopl
eshavetoabi
de.
 38

REFERENCES

Al
ata,
EJandEJI
gnaci
o(2019)
.Bui
l
dingandEnhanci
ngNewLi
ter
aci
esacr
osst
he

Cur
ri
cul
um,
Mani
l
a:RexBookst
ore.

Lanuza,[Link]
mundo(
2016)
.Under
standi
ngCul
tur
e,Soci
ety
,andPol
i
tics,
Manila:

RexBookSt
ore.

Leano,
[Link]
a-on(
2018)
.Et
hicsf
orCol
l
egeSt
udent
s,Mani
ula:
MIndshaper
s
Co.,

I
nc.

CHAPTER7:
THEFI
LIPI
NOWAY
 39

Weal lar
ebornint
oacul t
ure.I
nourcase,i
tistheFil
i
pinocult
[Link]
beenbroughtupbythi
scult
ureandthewaywelookatthi
ngsandhowwer el
atewi
th
oneanotherspeakv
olumesofwhowear eandwhatwehadbeent hr
ough.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
Att
heendoft
hel
esson,
youwi
l
lbeexpect
edt
o:
1. analyze cr
uci
alqual
i
ties oft
he Fi
l
ipi
no mor
ali
dent
it
yint
hei
rown mor
al
exper
iences;
[Link]
aluat
eel
ement
sthatneedt
obechanged;
and
3.f
eel
proudofone’
sher
it
age.

Act
ivi
ty
Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
,fi
l
lupaT-
char
tont
hest
rengt
handweaknessesoft
he
Fi
l
ipi
no.
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Ourcul t
urei
sabi gref
lecti
onofourgr eatandcomplexhistor
y.I
tisproductof
theinteracti
onwehadf rom t
hediffer
entpeopl ewehaveinter
actedwithasanat i
on.
A blendoft heMal ayo-Polynesi
anandHi spaniccult
urewi t
ht heinfl
uencefrom
Chinese, I
ndians,Ar
absandot herAsiancul
tur esreal
l
ycontr
ibutetothecustomsand
tradi
ti
onsoft hePhi
li
ppines.
Ourcult
urei
suni
quecompar
edtootherAsi
ancount
ri
esandbel
i
efsappl
i
ed
ev
ery dayint heli
feoft
heFil
ipi
nosrev
ealhow ri
chandblessedt
hecul
tur
e,we
Fi
li
pinoshav e.
Onewayt ounderstandbet t
erourFili
pinocul
ture,iti
sproperandf i
tt
ingthat
wetakestockofoursel
vesbyt aki
ngal ookatourcharacteri
sti
csandseehowt hese
canstr
engthenthegoodi nourculturalval
uesandcorrectwhati sexcessi
veinthem
andsupplyfort
hei
rdefi
ciencies.
Byaskingourselv
esthesequesti
onswewi l
lbeabl et
oseet helightofthe
whyandhowofourbei ngFi
li
pinos:Fr
om whom dowedrawourself-
ident
ity?Where
dowefindthedeepestmeani
ngi nourli
ves?Howdower eacttosuf
feri
ng?Howdo
wecommi toursel
vestoouridealsofli
fe?Whatisourview oft
hewor l
di nalli
ts
dept
handhiddenreal
it
y?
[Link]
l
ipi
no’
ssel
f-
ident
it
y
We ar ef amily
-ori [Link] anak-
ent magulang rel
ati
onshi
pi s ofpr i
mar y
i
mpor t
ancet ousFi l
i
[Link],i na,anakarecult
ural
lyandemotionall
ysignif
icant
tousFili
pinoswhocher i
shourf i
l
ialatt
achmentnotonlytoourimmediatefamily,but
also t
o ourext ended family(ninongs,ninangs,etc)
.Thisf amil
y-center
edness
suppli
esabasi csenseofbelonging,st
abil
i
tyandsecurit
y.I
tisfr
om ourf amil
i
est hat
weFili
pinosdrawoursenseofi denti
ty.
 40

[Link]
ngi
nLi
fe
Wear emeal-ori
ent sal
ed.( u-sal
o,kainan).BecauseFi l
ipi
nosconsideralmost
every
oneaspar toft hefamily(parangpami lya)
,wear eknownf orbeinggr acious
hostsandgr at
[Link]
ngourguest switht hebestwehav ei sani nborn
val
uet oFil
ipi
nos,ri
chandpooral [Link] ovet ocelebrateanyandallev entwitha
speci
almeal .Even with unexpected guests,we Fi li
pinos tr
yourbestt o of f
er
something,meagerasi tmaybe,wi t
ht het r
aditi
onalgr eet
ing:Tul
oypokay oat
kumainmunat ayo.
[Link]
fer
ingsi
nLi
fe
WeFili
pinosarekundiman-or
ient
[Link] sasadFi li
pinosong
aboutwoundedl [Link]
li
pinosarenat
ural
l
yat t
ract
edtoheroessacri
fi
cingeveryt
hing
[Link] i
entandforgi
vi
ngtoaf aul
t(magpapaka-
ali
pinakonangdahi lsa
i
y o).Thisacceptanceofsuf f
eri
ngmani f
estsadeep,posi t
ivevalueofFi l
ipi
nos’
kalooban.
[Link]
fe-
Commi
tment
WeFi li
pinosarebayani-
ori
ent
[Link] [Link] li
pinosar enat
ur al
hero-fol
[Link]
enceandt oler
ance,wewi l
lnotacceptul t
imatefai
lure
anddef [Link] endinsti
ncti
vel
ytoalway spersonal
izeanygoodcausei nt ermsofa
l
eader ,especiall
ywheni t
sobjectist odef endtheweakandt heoppr [Link]
protectthisinnatesenseofhumandi gni
ty,Fil
ipi
nosarepreparedtol aydownev en
thei
rlives.
[Link]
ld-
View
WeFi l
ipinosarespi ri
t-
ori
ent
[Link] eoftensai
dtobenatural
lypsychi
[Link]
haveadeep- seat edbeli
efi nthesupernat
uralandinal
lkindsofspir
it
sdwel l
ingin
i
ndividualper sons,pl aces and [Link] intoday’
s worl
d ofsci ence and
technology,
Fi l
ipinoscontinuetoinvokethespir
it
sinvari
ousunder
taki
ngsespeciall
y
i
nf ai
th-heal
ingsandexor cisms.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofFi
l
ipi
noCul
tur
e
Tothestudent
:Onapi eceofpaper,at
tachacut
-outpict
ureonthefoll
owing
char
act
eri
sti
csoftheFil
i
pinocult
[Link]
deit,wr
it
eathree-
sentencedescr
ipt
ionof
i
t.

[Link]
pinopeoplear ev eryresil
ient.
[Link]
li
pinosar everyr
eli
gious.
[Link]
li
pinosar everyr
espect f
ul.
[Link]
li
pinoshel poneanot her.
[Link]
li
pinosv al
uetradit
ionsandcul ture.
[Link]
li
pinoshav ethelongestChr ist
mascelebr
ati
on.
[Link]
li
pinoslov ear
tandar chit
ect ur
e.
[Link]
li
pinosar ehospit
ablepeopl e.

Fi
l
ipi
noFami
l
yVal
ues
 41

Tothest
udent
:Onapieceofpaper
,descri
bethef
oll
owi
ngFi
l
ipi
noFami
l
y
Val
uesi
nthewayyouexper
iencet
hesewit
hy ourownfamil
i
es.
[Link]
ang
[Link]
ki
sama
[Link]
angnaLoob
[Link]
agasaPami
l
ya
[Link]
ya
[Link]
an
[Link]
onat
e
8.
Fun-
lov
ingt
rai
t
Weaknessesoft
heFi
l
ipi
noChar
act
er
Tothest
udent:Onapieceofpaper
,suggestoneort
wocour
sesofact
ionof
ever
yobservedweakFil
ipi
nocharact
er.
[Link]
vi
tyandlackofini
ti
ati
ve
[Link]
oni
alMent
ali
ty
[Link]
a-kany
asy
ndr
ome
[Link]
remeper
sonal
i
sm
[Link]
remef
ami
l
ycent
eredness
[Link]
sci
pli
ne
7Lackofsel
f-
anal
ysi
sandr
efl
ect
ion
[Link]
ngascogon
[Link]
a-gay
ament
ali
ty

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER7:
THEFI
LIPI
NOWAY
ETHI
CS

AssessmentQuest
ions:
(Fori
tems1and2y
ouonl
yhav
etochooseone,
eit
her#1or
#2).

[Link]
ysi hesongAkoayPi
soft l
ipi
noont
hequal
i
tiesoft
hemor
al
 42

i
dent
it
yoft
heFi
l
ipi
no.

[Link]
eapoem (f
reeverse)orcomposeasongtosymboli
zeyourFi
l
ipi
no
i
dentit
yinter
msofdescript
ionofy
ourFi
li
pinocul
tur
alher
it
ageanduni
que
quali
ti
es.

[Link] i
teaper sonalessayaboutyourownanal ysi
sofwhatwear eatpresenti
.e.
sl
oweconomi cprogress,hi
ghcasesofgraftandcorrupti
on,l
ackofsocial
cohesion,[Link] el
ikethatv
is-a-
v i
sourvaluesystem andwayof
l
[Link] thatstandpointhowdoy oupr
ojectourcount r
ywill
becomei nthe
nexttenyear sorso.
 43

REFERENCES
Abesami
s,[Link]
anco(
2014)
.Soci
etyandCul
tur
eALi
ber
alAppr
oacht
o

Under
standi
ngHumani
ty,
Mal
abon:
Mut
yaPubl
i
shi
ngHouse,
Inc.

Cathol
i
cBi
shopsConf
erenceoft
hePhi
l
ippi
nes(
2004)
.Act
sandDecr
eesoft
he
Second

Pl
enaryCounci
loft
hePhi
l
ippi
nes,
Mani
l
a:Cat
hol
i
cBi
shopsConf
erenceoft
he
Phi
li
ppines.

_
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
___
__(
2008)
.Cat
echi
sm f
orFi
l
ipi
noCat
hol
i
cs,

Mani
l
a:Cat
hol
i
cBi
shopsConf
erenceoft
hePhi
l
ippi
nes.

Leano,
[Link]
a-on(
2018)
.Et
hicsf
orCol
l
egeSt
udent
s,Mani
l
a:Mi
ndshaper
s
Co.

I
nc
 44

CHAPTER8:
UNI
VERSALVALUES
Embeddedinourper sonali
tyareuniver
salval
uesenshr
inedinourheart
sby
theCreat
[Link] al
uesareofpar amountimport
anceinone’
slif
[Link]
ewhat
onecheri
shandt reasuresucht hattheyprovi
demot i
vat
ionandguidancetoone’
s
acti
ons.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Af
terunder
goi
ngt
hel
esson,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:

[Link]
ibehumanv
alues;

[Link]
aint
hathumanv
aluesar
enecessar
yforhumansur
viv
al;
and

[Link]
ri
vet
oli
veav
alue-
ladenl
i
fe

Act
ivi
ty

Onasheetofpaper
,dr
awabigci
rcl
ewit
hyournameoni
[Link]
oundy
ourname,
wr
it
etheval
uesthaty
oucheri
shmosti
nlif
e.

Uni
ver
sal
Val
uesDef
ined

Valuesr epresentaspi rati

onsandgoal s:themot i
vesandpur posesweseek.
Theyar eemot ionallychar [Link] vepowert oourideasandunder st
andingssuch
thattheyconst i
tutet hedr iv
ingforcebehi ndindi
v i
dualandgr oupbehav i
[Link] erm
i
sal sousedt odesi gnat ethemor alcharacter
ist
icsthatareinherentinasubj ectsuch
aspi et
y,responsi bil
ity,seculari
sm andr espectamongot [Link]
,howev eri
s
anadj ecti
vet hati sr elat
edt owhatbel ongsorwhi chrelatestot heuni [Link]
conceptref er
st othesetofal lthi
ngscr eatedandwhati scommont oalli
tskind.

These concept s enable us to appr oach t he not i

on ofuni versalvalue.
Universalval
uesar ef ormedbyi mpliedbehav ioralstandar dst hatarenecessaryt o
l
ivei nahar moni ousandpeacef ulsoci ety
.I tisanot i
ont hatisassoci at
edwi th
mor al
ityandet hi
[Link] ecer t
ainv aluesthatcomef r
om theirdepthsand
guidet hei
racti
[Link] hinkal lthesameway ,valuescanv ary
fr
om oneper sont othenext .However ,universalvalueshav et obesoci al
lyshared.
Universalval
uesar eacquiredf r
om f ami l
yupbr i
ngingandeducat ionbecauset he
processofsoci al
izat
ioninvolvesthei
nt ernal
izationoft imelessconcept s.

Schwar
tz’
sConceptofUni
ver
sal
Val
ues

Theresult
sofa44count ri
[Link] t
zandhi s
col
leaguessuggestthatther
ear efi
ft
y-si
xspeci
fi
cuniversalv
aluesandtentypesof
univ
ersalval
uessur vey
edf r
om awi derangeofdiff
erentcult
uralt
[Link]
ow are
eachofthevaluetypeswiththespeci
fi
crelat
edval
uesalongsi
de:

1. Power– soci
alst
atusand pr
est
ige,cont
rolordomi
nanceov
erpeopl
eand
resour
ces
 45

[Link]– per
sonalsuccessbydemonst
rat
ingcompet
enceaccor
dingt
o
soci
alstandar
ds

[Link]
sm –pl
easur
eorsensuousgr
ati
fi
cat
ionofonesel
f

[Link]
imul
ati
on–exci
tement
,nov
elt
yandchal
l
engei
nli
fe

5. Self-
dir
ect
ion – i
ndependentt
houghtand act
ion – choosi
ng,cr
eat
ing and
expl
ori
ng

6. Uni
ver
sal
ism – underst
andi
ng,appr
eci
ati
on,t
oler
anceandpr
otect
ionf
ort
he
wel
far
eofall
peopl
eandf ornat
ure

7. Benevol
ence– preserv
ati
onandenhancementoft
hewel
far
eofpeopl
ewi
th
whom oneisinf
requentper
sonal
cont
act

[Link]
ti
on–r espect,commitment
,andaccept
anceoft
hecust
omsandi
deast
hat
tr
adi
ti
onalcul
tur
eorr eli
gionpr
ovi
de

[Link]
mit
y–r est
raintofact
ions,i
ncli
nat
ionsandi
mpul
sesl
i
kel
ytoupsetorhar
m
ot
hersandvi
olat
esocialexpect
ationsornor
ms

[Link]
it
y–saf
ety
,har
mony
,andst
abi
l
ityofsoci
ety
,ofr
elat
ionshi
psandofsel
f

Int
erest
ingl
y,Schwart
zt est
edanelev
enthpossibl
euni
versalv
aluewhichwas
spi
ri
tuali
tyorthegoaloff i
ndingmeaninginli
fe,however
,hefoundoutthatnotal
l
cul
turesseem torecogni
zeit
.

UNChar
terofUni
ver
sal
Val
ues

Thev al
uesenshri
nedi ntheChar t
eroft heUnitedNat i
ons( UN)statesthat
respectforf
undamentalhumanr i
ghts,soci
aljusti
ceandhumandi gnit
y,andrespect
fortheequalr i
ght
sofmen and women ser veasov er
arching val
uest o which
suppli
ersofgoodandservicestotheUNar eexpectedtoadhere.

The formerUN Secr et

ary Gener
al,KhofiAnn in a speech i
n Germany
emphasi zedthatcer
tai
nf undamentalval
uesareessenti
alt
ointer
nati
onalrel
ati
onsin
st
the21 cent uryandpr [Link] e:progr
ess,equalri
ghts,human
digni
ty,f r
eedom,equality,solidar
it
y,toler
ance,respectfornature and shared
responsibil
i
ty.

Basi
cHumanVal
ues

Thefunct
ionofmostoft hesebasi
cv aluesistomakei tpossi
bleforev
ery
humanbeingtorealizeormaint
ainthehi
ghestlevelormostbasi
cuniver
salval
uesof
l
ife,
lov
eandhappi [Link]
earesomeoft hebasi cuni
ver
salhumanv al
ues:

BASI
CUNI
VERSALHUMANVALUES DEFI
NITI
ON

1. Happi
ness 1. rewar
dfora rel
igi
ous l
i
fe by an
aft
erl
i
fei
npar
adi
se

2. ul
ti
mat
eval
ueofr
eli
giouspeopl
e
 46

1. Peace 1. basi
c condi
ti
on f
or f
reedom and
happi
ness

2. notj
ustt
heabsenceofwar

1. Lov
e 1. feeli
ngs or experience of deep
connectedness or oneness with
anotherhuman being,any animal
,
plant,t
reeorunnamable

2. exper
ienceofsomet hi
ngf
arbeyond
any compr ehensi
on and t ot
all
y
i
ndescri
babl
e

3. mayhappenwhenoneopenst othe
beaut
yandnatureofotherpeopleor
tothebeautyandmy st
eryofnature
i
ngeneralorevenbeaut
if
ult
hings

1. Fr
eedom 1. exper
ienceoft
heunr
est
ri
cted

2. i
ndependentoft
hesoci
alpr
essur
eof
anot
her

3. r
elat
edwit
hempat
hy,i
ntegr
it
y,and
r
espect

1. Saf
ety 1. fr
ee of t
hreat
,fear and sur
viv
al-
str
ess

2. fr
eedom f orm emot ional f
ear
,
hel
plessnessandanxi
ety

1. I
ntel
l
igence 1. capacit
yf orl
ogic,
under st
anding,self
-awareness, learning, emot i
onal
knowledge, r easoning, pl anning,
creat
ivi
tyandproblem solving

2. abi
li
ty t o perceive or i nfer
i
nformation and r et
ain i t as
knowledge t
o be applied towar
ds
adapti
ve behav i
ors wi t
hin an
envi
ronmentorcontext

1. Respect 1. comes basi call

y out of t he
underst
anding thatdeep down t
he
otherpersonist hesameaswear e
oursel
ves

2. themostbasi
cprinci
pleofanysoci
al
communicat
ion coming outofour
 47

percepti
on,empat
hyandawar
eness
thattheotheri
sbasi
cal
l
yaswear e
ourselv
es

1. Equal
i
ty 1. ori
ginat
edfrom oldFrenchorLati
n
words as aequal is, aequus,
aequali
tas(
even,
level
,equal
)

2. ri
ghtt o cl
aim equall
i
ber
ti
es wi
th
other
s

3. absenceofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion

1. Just
ice 1. pr
operadmi
nist
rat
ionoft
hel
aw

2. f
airand equi
tabl
etr
eat
mentofal
l
i
ndi
vi
dual
sunderthel
aw

3. neededtoreal
i
zeandmai nt
ainour
hi
ghesthuman val
ues offr
eedom,
peace,
lov
eandhappi
ness

1. Nat
ure 1. underst
andi
ng our phy
sical
dependenceofnat
ure

2. awar
eness ofbeing a par
tofthe
whol
esyst
em ofthecreat
edwor
ld

1. Heal
th 1. astateoftotalphysical,mental,and
soci
alwell
-being,r
athert hanjustthe
absenceofdiseaseori nfi
rmit
y

2. ar esource f
orevery
day exi
stence
r
atherthanthegoal
ofli
fe

3. a posi
ti
ve idea that emphasizes
soci
aland personalr esour
ces as
well
asphysi
calabil
i
ties

ASSESSMENT

Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
s,doasdi
rect
ed.

[Link]
it
eaci
nquai
ndescr
ibi
nganyoft
hebasi
chumanv
aluesexpl
ainedi
nthel
esson.

[Link]
amant
epoem onanyoft
hebasi
chumanv
aluesexpl
ainedi
nthe
l
esson.

[Link] hree-
col
umnchar
tont
heelevenbasi
chumanv al
[Link]
stcol
umn
fi
llitupwit
ht he11Basi
[Link] hesecondcolumn,rel
atehow t
his
valueisbei
ngappli
edt
[Link]
hethir
dcolumn,makey ourper
sonalcommitment
 48

howy
ouwi
l
lli
veoutt
hesev
aluesi
nyourdai
l
yli
vi
ng.

REFERENCES

Bul
aong,
O.(
2018)
.Et
hicsFoundat
ionofMor
alVal
uat
ion,
Mani
l
a:RexBookSt
ore.

Leano,[Link]
a-on(
2018)
.Et
hicsf
orCol
l
egeSt
udent
s,Mani
l
a:Mi
ndshaper
s
[Link].

Quisumbing,[Link] ML Bay
bay(
2009)
.Lear
ning t
o Know f
ora Peacef
uland
Sustai
nable

Fut
ure,
UNESCOAPCEI
U.

Quisumbing,[Link](
2005)
.Lear
ningt
oDoVal
uest
oLear
ningandWor
king
Together

i
naGl
obal
i
zedWor
ld,Bonn,Ger
many
:UNESCO-
UNEVOCI
nter
nat
ionalCent
re
f
or

Techni
cal
andVocat
ional
Educat
ionandTr
aini
ng

CHAPTER9:
UNI
VERSALVALUESandHUMANSURVI
VAL
 49

Ifa val
ue has the same v al
ue orworthforever
yone,itis sai
dt o be
uni
versal
.Uni
ver
salv al
ues apply across t
he wor
ld(acr
oss count
ry,cult
ure and
rel
i
gion).

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES:

Att
heendoft
hel
esson,
youar
eexpect
edt
o:

[Link]
standt
hei
deasofuni
ver
sal
val
ues;

[Link]
ermi
net
hepr
ocessont
heuncov
eri
ngoft
heuni
ver
sal
val
ues;
and

3.v
aluet
hei
mpor
tanceofuni
ver
sal
val
ues.

Act
ivi
ty

Writ
eadet ai
leddescript
ionofy
oursel
[Link]
ey ourl
i
fe'
sobj
ecti
ves?How
doyousetyourl
i
fe'sobjecti
ves?Howdoy ouknowwhat '
sri
ghtandwhat
'swrong?
Whathavebeenyourli
fe'saccompli
shmentsandfai
lur
es?

I
ntr
oduct
ion

The phr ase " value"r ef

erst o somet hing t hata per son ora communi t
y
consi der si sv aluableenought obepur sued,pr omot ed,orfav [Link] scanbea
phy sicalobj ect( money ,food,art)
,ament alst at
e( peace,secur i
ty,certaint y
),ora
behav iorr esultingf r
om suchobj ectsorment alstates( protect i
ngi nnocent s,t el
li
ng
thet r uth,bei ngcr eat i
v e).Adesi reisn'tthesameasav alueDesi rei sdef inedasa
strongdesi r
ef orsomet hi
ngwi thoutgi vingitmucht hought;i tcanst em f r
om an
i
nst inct ,drive,orphy sicalnecessi t
[Link] al uemaycomef r
om adesi r
eorasequence
ofwi shes, butitdoessoaf t
erconsiderationofwhet herornott heobj ectofmydesi re
i
[Link] losopher sf requentlyfocusont hewor dgoodwhendi scussinghow we
getf rom ourdesi rest oourv al
[Link] e( 1873- 1958),aphi losopher ,cont ended
thatt het er m" good"cannotbedef i
nedbecauset her eisnost andardagai nstwhi ch
wemaydet ermi newhati [Link] hisi ncapacityt odef ineev aluati
ve
terms" thenat urali
sticf all
acy,
"becausei tthinkst hatev al
uat i
v et er
mi nol ogycan
mat chsomet hingi nnat ur eorreali
[Link] ntainedt hatgoodwasanon- nat urali
sti
c
char act eristi
ct hatsci encecoul dnotv erify(Baldwin, 2010) .

Ast heyconnectt ohi sorherupbr ingi

ngandsoci alsetting,ev er
yindividual
willv aluespeci f
icgoods, statesofmi nd,orbehavior
[Link] esultofitsgeogr aphical
position,hi st
ori
caltrajectory,ori deati
onalbackground,anysoci etywi l
lpr i
vil
ege
speci fici t
ems,st at
es,andbehav i
ors.
Toassertthatt hereexistuni versalvalues,on
theot herhand,ent ail
sat tempt i
ngt odiscoversomet hingthatappl iest oallpeople
andsoci eti
esasar esultoft [Link]
fi
cr esearch,socialscience
testing,orphi l
osophicalmedi tati
on could alllead t o universalideals. Mor e
mal ev olentmeans,suchasi mper ialacti
ons,i
deologicalandr eli
giouspr eaching,or
economi cexploit
ati
on,mayal sobet oblame.
 50

Toi nvesti
gateuni versalv alues,onemustpayat t
entionnotj ustt othev alues
themsel vesbutal sot ohow t heyhav emani festedthemselv esi nt hecont empor ary
wor ld order .Thesubj ectofet hi
cali nv est
igati
on isv al
[Link] aseset hics,
mor alit
y,andv aluesar esomet i
mesusedi nter
changeably.
Al thought heset ermsar e
oftenusedi nter
changeabl yi nEngl i
sh,phi l
osophersseparat et hem i nt hef oll
owi ng
way .Mor alsandmor alit
y,accor dingt omostphi l
osophers,comef rom rat i
onal i
ty,
alt
houghv aluescancomef rom soci alsetti
ngs,emot i
onaldisposi ti
ons, orrational i
ty.
Although t hese terms ar e of ten used i nt
erchangeablyi n Engl ish,phi l
osopher s
separ atet hem i nt he following way .Mor al
s and mor ality,accor di
ng t o most
philosopher s,comef rom rat i
onal i
ty,althoughv al
uescancomef rom soci alset ti
ngs,
emot ional dispositi
ons, orrati
onal i
ty.

On t he ot herhand,et hics ist he studyofmor al

s,i ncl
uding its origi
ns,
applicati
ons,j usti
ficat
ions,[Link] t
empt shav ebeenmadet o
descr i
beuni v er
salhumanv al
[Link] of
essorHansKung,aCat holi
ct heologianfrom
theUni versityofTubi ngeninGer many ,wasi nst
rumentalintheestabl i
shmentoft he
ParliamentofWor ldReli
gions,whi chpr oducedt heDeclar
ationTowar dsaGl obal
Ethics. Sr iRav iShankar ,a Hi ndu spiri
tualteacher
,has pr oduced a Uni v
ersal
Decl ar
ationofHumanVal [Link] hesedocument splaceast rongemphasi son
values,andt heyov erl
api nanumberofway [Link] ethebestway st of ind
universalv alues?Ther ear eav ari
etyofappr oachestodet erminingwhet hersuch
valuesexi [Link] oachesmaypr obabl ybedivi
dedintothreegroups:sci enti
fic,
histori
cal,anddi al
ect i
c. 

Thr eephi l
osopher scanbeusedt osy mbol izet hesecat egor i
es:Ar istot l
e,
Menci us,and Jür genHaber [Link] i
stotl
e( 384-322 B. C.)i sr egar ded asoneof
AncientGr eece' sthreemaj ort hi
nker [Link] oungman, het rav elledf rom Macedoni a
toAt hens,wher ehest udiedPl at o,anot herrenownedphi losopher( 428- 348B. C.) ,
whowasadi scipleofSocr ates( 470-399B. C.),
perhapsant i
qui ty'
sgr eatestGr eek
phil
osopher .Socratesdi dnotwr it
eany t
hingdown,i nsteadquest i
oni ngt heci ti
zens
ofAt hensaboutt [Link] dfr
equent l
yraisemor equest ionst hananswer s
duringt hosei nterr
ogations,poi nt i
ngouthowest ablishedt raditionsmaynotal way s
refl
ectwhati sbestf orthei ndividualper [Link]
omai nt
ainedt hatet hi csandmor al
s
shoul dbeunder stoodt hrought heconceptofv ir
tues,ort hest andar dofexcel l
ence
withinpar ti
cularoccupat ionsasagui deforhowt oact ,i
nnumer ousdi aloguesusi ng
Socr atesast hemaj orf i
gur [Link] ai
n, forexampl e, entailspr eventinga
shipf rom cr ashing.E4J Uni versity Modul e Series:I nt egrity & Et hics Modul e
2:Univ ersalVal uesandEt hics4t hatt heship'
scar goandpassenger sr eachsaf elyin
port,andt hatt heshi pisseawor thy .Howev er,wheni tcomest ouni versalpr i
nci ples,
we'ret alkingaboutwhati tmeanst obeagoodhumanbei ng, notj ustagoodpi lot.

Ari
stotl
eendeavoredtoestabl
ishPl at
o'scoretheoryaboutv i
rt
uesinpr
acti
cal
dat
a;asar esult
,hetookascienti
fi
cmet hodtodetermini
ngwhati sgoodandwhati s
[Link]
stotl
eaccompl ished thi
sbycont rasti
ng humanswi t
h non-
humanani malsanddiff
erentpol
it
icalsocieti
[Link]
tueofahuman
bei
ng,accordi
ngt oAri
stotl
e,ent
ail
sident i
fyi
ngtheactivi
ti
est hatt
hebestindi
vi
duals
 51

engagei nandt hatmaket hem happy .Humanbei ngsar edi stingui shedf r
om ot her
animal sbyt woact ivi
ties,accor dingt ohi m:t heyt hinkandt heyl i
vei npol itical
groups. Ot herspeci es, suchasot herpr i
mat esanddol phins, ar eknownt ohav esome
abili
tyforcr iticalr [Link] herspeci es, suchaspr imat es, dol phins, andev enant s,
areknownt ol iv ei nwhatappeart obest r uctur edpol iti
calgr [Link],ont he
otherhand, ar et heonl yani mal swhousel anguage, allowingt hem t ocr iti
call
yr ef l
ect
ont hei rt hought sandact i
ons. TheGr eekwor dl ogosi mpl iesbot hl anguageand
reason,andi ti st hisphr aset hatgi vesAr i
st otlet hekeyt odi scov eringwhati sgood
andv aluabl ei npeopl [Link] luenceoft heset woki ndsofact ivi
tiesdef ines
[Link] istot lecamet ot heconcl usiont hatt hebestper soni sonewhoengagesi n
bothcr itical ref lect i
onandpol iti
cal par ticipat [Link] nt ell
ect ual v i
rtueswer et hef irst
setofact i
v i
t i
es,whi let hepr acticalv i
rtueswer et hesecondset .Peopl e,accor dingt o
Aristotl
e,needt obet aughti nv i
[Link] hings,suchasweal th,food,dr ink,sex,
orpower ,maybedesi redbypeopl ewhof eelt heywi llmaket hem happy .Accor ding
to Ar i
st otle,each oft hem i s si gnificant ,butal loft hem mustbe enj oyed i n
moder at ioni nor dert obef ul l
yv alued. Uni ver salpr i
ncipl escanonl ydev elopi fweuse
ourlogi ct ot hi nkandcr eat eacul turewher et hinkingi sencour agedandknowl edgei s
appreci ated( Shi elds,2016) .Focusi ngonhi stor yandt r
adi t
ioni sasecondwayt o
uncov eruni v er sali deal [Link] us( 372- 289B. C.)wasaChi nesephi losopherwho
fl
ourishedar oundt hesamet imeasAr ist ot l
[Link] uswasadi scipleofConf uci us,
ther enownedChi nesephi l
osopher ,j ustasAr i
stotlewasast udentofPl at owho
studied underSocr ates ( 551-479 B. C. ).Some cl aim Menci us st udied under
Conf ucius'gr andson,t hought hisi sdebat abl [Link] usi sknownast he" second
greatConf uci anschol ar "becauseheexpandedandbui ltonConf ucius'v iewsi n
signifi
cantway s. Conf uci us,possi blyChi na' smostf amousphi losopher ,adv ocat ed
forav irtue- basedmor al framewor [Link] mpor tantv irt
uewasr en,whi chmeans
compassi ont oot her [Link] scompassi on,howev er,wasnotdi rect edatev ery
one,but
primarilyatt hosewhower epar tofspeci ficsoci alsy stems,begi nningwi t
ht he
[Link] smeanst hatbei ngagoodper sonnecessi tatesanawar enessofone' sr ol e
i
nsoci et yaswel last het radit
ionsandr ul est hatcomewi thi [Link] orone' s
eldersisamaj orConf uci usconcept .

Uni
ver
sal
orCor
eEt
hical
Val
ues

Sixbasicethi
cali
dealsare:t
rustworthiness,respect,accountabil
i
ty,fair
ness,
caring,andciti
zenshi
[Link] hicalvaluesast hefoundationf orethi
cal
reasoni ng,wecanspotcircumstanceswher ewear esof ocusedondef endingone
valuet hatwecompr omiseanother–f orexampl e,whenwear eloyaltof r
iendsand
hencedonotal waysspeakthetr
uthaboutthei rconduct.

[Link]
ust
wor
thi
ness

Honest
y,i
ntegr
it
y,rel
i
abil
i
ty,andl
oyal
tyar
esomeoft
hebehav
ior
alat
tri
but
es
t
hatar
eassoci
atedwit
htrustwor
thi
ness.

Honest
y

Honest
yist
hemostf
undament
alet
hical
val
uet
her
[Link]
yisassoci
ated
 52

wi
thhonor
abl
epeopl
e,andwel
i
keandt
rustt
hosewhoar
etr
uthf
ul.

Honest
yincommunicat
ionsr
efer
stotheint
ent
iontocommunicat
ethetrut
h
asbestwecanandt oavoidcommunicat
ingi
nawayt hati
sli
kel
yt odecei
veor
misl
ead.

Ther
ear
ethr
eedi
mensi
onst
oconsi
der
:

Trut
hful
ness entai
ls notpurposef
ull
y di
storti
ng infor
mation (l
yi
ng)
.The
dist
inct
ionbetweentrut
hful
nessandt r
uthit
sel
[Link]
ngmi stakeni
snott
he
sameasl yi
ng,becauseevenhonestmist
akescanerodeconf i
dence.

Si
ncer
it
y/non-decepti
on–asi ncerei
ndi
vi
dualdoesnotact
,sayhalf
-t
rut
hs,or
r
emai
nsi
l
entwiththegoal ofi
nst
il
li
ngfalseormisl
eadi
ngbel
ief
sorimpressi
ons.

Honest
y– I ntrust
ing r
elat
ionshi
ps,honest
ymayf
orce us t
ovol
unt
eer
i
nfor
mati
onthatanot
herper
sonneed.

Steal
ing,cheating,fr
aud,and decept i
on are allprohi
bit
ed byhonestyi n
[Link] yunet hical,butital
sot akesadv ant
ageoft hosewho
aren'
[Link]'
sabet ray
aloff ai
thandj [Link]
eal lfal
sehoodsaredishonest
, not
alloft hem ar eimmor [Link]
shonest yisonl yper
mi ssibl
einaf ew sit
uati
[Link]
exampl e,whenpol icelieundercov erorwhenonel i
est ocr i
minal
sort err
ori
stsi n
ordertosav eli
[Link] er,
ethicallysanctionedl
yingisuncommon-f orexample,in
thecaseofsav i
ngal i
fe.

I
ntegr
it
y

Anethicali
ndividualmakesthesamedeci si
onsineverysett
ing-atworkand
athome,inpubl i
candal [Link] nt
egri
tydevot
est i
met oself
-r
efl
ecti
on
sothattheevents,cr
ises, anddemandsoft hedaydonotdictatethemoralt
raj
ector
y
ofthei
rli
[Link] ntainthei
rdominance.

Thef
ouradv
ersar
iesofi
ntegr
it
yar
e:

•Sel
f-
int
erest—whatwewant

•Sel
f-
prot
ect
ion—whatwedon'
twant

•Sel
f-
decept
ion—ar
eluct
ancet
ovi
ewasi
tuat
ioncl
ear
ly

•Sel
f-
ri
ght
eousness—t
hei
deat
hatt
heendj
ust
if
iest
hemeans.

Rel
i
abi
l
ity

When we make pledges orcommi t

mentst o other
s,we hav e et
hical
obl
igat
ions t
hatgo beyond l
egalrequi
[Link]-
keeping has an et
hical
di
mensionthatr
equi
resustomakeal l
reasonabl
eatt
empt st
ohonorourpr omises.

I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantt
o:

Avoid maki
ng bad-f
aith excuses – Honorabl
e peopl
e don'
t expl
ain
di
sobedienceormakeupexcusestogetoutofobl
i
gat
ions.
 53

Avoi
dmaki ngimprudentcommitments–Thinkaboutwhetheryouar ewil
li
ng
andli
kelytokeepapr omi [Link] ut
ure
occur
rences that coul
d make keepi ng your pl
edge di
ff
icul
t,unat t
racti
ve,or
i
mpossible.
All
wecandoatt imesispl
edgetotryourbest
.

Avoi
dambiguouscommit
ments–Becauseotherswil
lexpectyoutodowhat
yousayy
ou'l
ldo,makesuret
heotherper
sonunder
standswhatyou'r
epromisi
ngto
dowhenyoumakeapr omi
se.

Loy
alt
y

Loyalt
yi sdef
inedast heactofadv ocat
ingandsafeguar
dingtheint
erestsofa
gr
oupofpeopl e,anorganizat
ion,oragroupofassociat
[Link]
on
ofloyalt
yi n somepar t
nerships,such ashusband-wif
e,empl oyer
-employee,and
ci
ti
zen-countr
y .

Loyalt
yshoul dbepr i
ori
ti
[Link] herear esomanyi ndi
vidual
sand
organizati
onsclaimingourl oyal
ty,i
tisoft
enimpossi bl
et ohonoral
lofthem atthe
same t [Link] a r esult,we mustassi gn a numer icalval
ue to ourloyalt
y
commi tment s.I
nourper sonalli
ves,i
t'
scompletelyacceptabl
eandethi
caltoprot
ect
theinterestsofourchi l
dren,parents,andspouses,ev enifitmeansputti
ngother
chil
dren,neighbors,
orcowor kersonthebackbur ner
.

Conf
ident
ialI
nfor
mationPr
otect
[Link]
ntai
nsecr
etsori
nfor
mat
ion
obt
ainedinconfi
denceinor
dertobeloy
al.

Confl
ict
ingInt
erest
sShouldBeAv oi
[Link]
eesandpubli
cser
vantshave
an added dutyto makeal lprofessi
onaljudgmentsbased on mer
itr
atherthan
per
sonalmot i
[Link]
rpurposeistokeepthepubli
c'
sfait
hint
hem.

[Link]

Respectisaboutvalui
ngever
yone'
sinherentval
ueanddi gni
ty,
includi
ngone's
[Link] heyareorwhatt
heyhav edone, wehav eamor alobl
igat
ion
totreatt
hem wi t
[Link]
epeople,wehav ea
responsi
bil
i
tytobethebestwecanbei nallsit
uati
ons.

Respecti
sconcer
nedwi
th:

Respect,decency,and ci
vi
li
ty-A r espect
fulperson i
s a good list
ener.
Respect f
ulpeoplet r
eatother
swi t
hat tent
ion,adheri
ngt oaccept
edst andardsof
taste and decency,and don'tuse intimi
dation,coerci
on,orv i
olence tot each
disci
pli
ne,mai ntai
nor der
,oraccomplishsocialjusti
ceunlessinexceptionaland
l
imi t
edcircumstances.

Tol
erance-Anethi
calper
sonacceptsandrespectsindi
vi
dualdi
ff
erencesand
opi
nions,j
udgingot
her
ssolelyonthebasi
softhei
rcharacter.

[Link]
bil
i
ty

Ther
ear
enumer
ousopt
ionsav
ail
abl
einl
i
[Link]
ngr
esponsi
bleent
ail
staki
ng
 54

cont
rolofourdeci
sionsand,asaresult
,ourlif
[Link]
l
stakingresponsi
bil
it
yfor
whatwedoandwhowear [Link]
soentai
lsaccepti
ngthatouracti
ons,aswellasour
i
nacti
ons,hav
econsequences.

[Link]
abi
l
ity

Anaccountabl
epersonisnotav ict
im,andheorshedoesnott
ransf
er
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyort
akecredi
tforot
her
s'l
abor
.

Pur
sui
tofExcel
l
ence

When ot
hersr el
y on our knowledge,compet
ence,or wi
l
lingness t
o
accompli
shjobssafel
yand successf
ull
y,thepursui
tofexcel
l
encetakesonan
ethi
cal
component.

Di
li
gence.
Responsi
blepeopl
ear
etr
ust
wor
thy
,caut
ious,wel
l
-pr
epar
ed,and
wel
l
-i
nfor
med.

Per
severance.
Responsi
blepeopl
efini
shwhatt
heyst
art
,ov
ercomehur
dles
andmaki
ngreasonsrathert
hangiv
ingup.

Cont
inuousImpr
ovement
.Peopl
ethatar
eresponsi
blesear
chf
ormet
hodst
o
i
mpr
ovet
hei
rwor k.

Sel
f-
Rest
rai
nt

Self
-cont
rolisexercisedbyresponsibl
epeople,whoresistt
hei
rdesi
resand
cr
avi
ngs(suchasl ust,hat
red,gl
utt
ony,greedandfear).I
fnecessar
y,t
heypost
pone
gr
ati
fi
cat
ionandnev erfeelcompell
edto"winatanycosts.
"

[Link]
rness

Fair
nessisadiffi
cul
tideat [Link]
ngpartiest
endtobeli
evethat
onl
yoneposi ti
oniscor r
ect:t
[Link] l
ecer t
ainsituat
ionsandjudgmentsare
unquesti
onablyunjust
,fair
ness usual
lyr ef
erst oar ange ofmorall
ydefensi
ble
outcomesrathert
hanthediscoveryofasingl
ef ai
rone.

Pr
ocess

Afairindivi
dualgather
sandeval
uatesinf
ormat
ioni
nordert
omakedecisi
ons
i
nanopenandunbi asedmanner
.Fairi
ndiv
idual
sdon'
twai
tforthetr
utht
ocomet o
t
hem;inst
ead,t heyseekoutperti
nentinf
ormati
onandopposingvi
ewpoi
ntsbef
ore
maki
ngcri
ticaldecisions.

I
mpar
ti
ali
ty

Deci
sionsshoul
dbemadewi
thoutbi
asorpr
efer
ence.

Equi
ty

It
's crucial not t o take advant
age of other peopl
e'
s weaknesses,
di
sadv
antages,ori gnor
[Link]
obefair
,ani
ndi
vi
dual,
acompany,orasociet
y
mustr
emedymi stakesquickl
yandv ol
unt
ari
l
y.
 55

[Link]
ing

Cari
ngisattheheartofet
hicalbehavi
or.I
t'
sdiffi
cul
ttobecompl etel
yethi
cal
whil
ebei ngunconcernedaboutthewel f
[Link]'
sbecause,attheendof
the day,ethics i
s aboutourobligati
ons to ot
[Link] mustsomet imes i
nfl
ict
suff
ering ont hosewel ove,and cert
aindecisi
ons,whi l
emor al
,do causegr i
ef.
Howev er,nomor ehar
m shouldbedonet hani
sabsolutel
ynecessar
y.

[Link]
ti
zenshi
p

Theconceptofci
ti
zenshipencompasseshowweshoul dactasmember sof
a communi ty
.The good citi
zen notonlyknows and obey sthe laws,butalso
vol
unteersandkeepsupwi t
hcur r
entevent
[Link]
zenscontri
but
ef armorethanthei
r
"f
air
"shar etomakesoci et
ywor kt odayandi nthef ut
[Link]
izenshi
pcant ake
numerousf or
ms,incl
udi
ngr esour
ceconservat
ion,recy
cli
ng,publ
ictransi
tuse,and
l
itt
ercleanup.

Uni
ver
sal
Val
uesar
enecessar
yforhumansur
viv
al

Valuesthatareuni
versalar
ecl earthatweneedf orushumanbei ngst o
surv
ivebecauseitinf
ormsusourthoughts,acti
ons,andwor [Link]
ersalvaluesar e
hel
pingust ogrowourever
ydayasadi gnif
iedperson,ithel
pusal sotodev elopour
ski
ll
s,tal
entsandhumandi gnit
[Link]
ersalvaluesalsohelpingust ocreatebet ter
fut
[Link]
her i
ghtandresponsibi
li
tytomakegoodj udgment sev ery
day.

Ourv
aluesi
nfor
m ourt
hought
s,wor
dsandact
ions.
 

Ourv
aluesar
esigni
fi
cantbecausetheyenabl
eust
odev
elopandgr
[Link]
assi
stusini
magini
ngthefut
urewewantt oli
vein.

Everyday,ev er
ypersonandev eryor
ganizationisinvol
vedinhundr edsof
deci
[Link]
lectourvaluesandi
deas, andtheyarealwaysmadewi tha
speci
ficgoali
nmi [Link] i
sfact
ionofourindi
vidualorcoll
ecti
ve(organi
zati
onal
)
needsisthegoal.

Wemakeaconsci ousdeci
siontofocusonwhati simport
anttouswhenwe
makedecisionsbasedonourv al
[Link] oup'
sidealsar
eshared,itcr
eat
es
i
nter
nalcohesion.
I
ndiv
idualvalues,r
elati
onalval
ues,organi
zationalval
ues,andsoci
etalv
aluesaret
he
f
ourcategori
esofv aluesfoundinanorganizati
onalcontext
.

I
ndi
vidualval
ues

I
ndividualval
uesar etheideasyouli
vebyandwhaty oudeem vit
alforyourownsel f
-
i
[Link] oushowupi nyourlif
eandy ourindi
vidualdemands.
Enthusiasm,inventiveness,humil
i
ty,and personalful
fi
ll
mentar e examples of
i
ndividualval
ues.
 56

Rel
ati
onshi
pval
ues

Rel
ati
onshi
pv al
uesref
lecthow youinter
actwit
hother
siny ourl
i
fe,whether
t
heyarefr
iends,f
amily
,[Link],t
rust
,gener
osi
ty,andcareareall
v
aluest
hatcanbefoundinarelat
ionshi
p.

Or
gani
zat
ionalval
ues

Thewayy ourcompanypresent
sit
selfandfuncti
onsi
nthewor
ldisref
lect
ed
i
nitsv
[Link]
nanci
algr
owth,t
eamwor k,
producti
vi
ty,andst
rat
egi
cal
l
iancesareall
or
gani
zati
onalval
ues.

Soci
etalval
ues

Thewayy ouoryourcompanyint
eract
swithsoci
etyisr
efl
ect
ediny
our
soci
etalval
[Link]
uregenerati
ons,
envi
ronment
alawareness,
ecol
ogy,
and
sust
ainabil
i
tyareal
lsoci
etalval
ues.

ASSESSMENT

Onasheetofpaperanswert
hef
oll
owi
ng:

[Link]
ourunder
standi
ngofuni
ver
sal
val
uest
hroughadr
awi
ngoracol
l
age.

[Link]
ermi
net
hepr
ocessonhowuni
ver
sal
val
uescanbeuncov
ered.

[Link]
suni
ver
sal
val
uei
mpor
tant
?Expl
ain.

REFERENCES

Bal
dwi
n,T.(2010)
."Geor
geEdwar
dMoor
e."TheSt
anf
ordEncy
clopedi
aof
Phi
l
osophy.

Edwar
[Link] t
a,[Link]
labl
efr
om
htt
ps:
//pl
ato.
stanf
ord.
edu/ar
chi
ves/
sum2010/
ent
ri
es/
moor
 57

CHAPTER10
DEVELOPMENTANDSTAGESOFMORALCHARACTER
Mor alsareidealsandpr i
nci
plesbasedonwhatapersonorsoci et
yconsi
derstobe
thesui t
abl
e, pr
oper,oracceptabl
ewaysofact
[Link]'soragroup'
sval
uesare
themor alideasandbel i
efst
hattheybel
i
evear
eimportantinli
feandthatt
heyuseas
guidingpri
nciplesi
nt hei
rdai
lyli
ves.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hechapt
er,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
hemeani ngandsignifi
canceofmoralchar
act
erfor
mat i
on;
[Link]
ibet
hephasesofmor algrowt h;
and
[Link]
uetherel
evanceofunderstandingthest
agesofmoraldev
elopment.

Act
ivi
ty
Onapi eceofpaperinthreetofi
vesentences,di
scusst
heneedt
o know t
he
di
ff
erencebet
weenr
ightf
rom wr
ongandvi
cev er
sa.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Moralit
yisasetofbel ief sthatdi stinguishesbet weenwhati sr i
ghtandgood
and whati s wrong ort er r
[Link] algr owt h descr i
bes how a per son's mor al
conv i
ctionsev olveasheorshegr owsol derandmat [Link] alideasar er el
at edt o,
butnoti denti
calto,moralbehav ior:itispossi blet oknowwhati srightt odo, buti ti
s
notal way s possibl
et o do i ty etnotcar r yi tout.I t
's also nott he same as
under standingsoci alconv enti
ons,whi char ear bit
rarycust omst hatkeepsoci ety
runningsmoot hl
[Link] omsmayhav eamor alcomponent ,butt heirpr i
mar y
functioni spracti
[Link] ehi cles,forexampl e,t
raditi
onall
yst ayont hesamesi de
oft her oad (tot herighti nt heUni ted St ates,tot hel efti n Gr eatBr itain).The
conv entionensur esasaf eandseaml essf lowoft r
affi
[Link] her ulesincl udes
amor alcomponent ,asdr i
v i
ngont hewr ongsi deoft heroadcanr esul tininjur yor
evendeat [Link] hissense,pi ckingt hewr ongsi deoft hest reetiset hicall
ywr ong,
despi t
et hefactthatiti
sal sounusual .

Bi
ogr
aphi
cal
int
roduct
ion

Lawr
enceKohl berg'
swor kisanexempl aryexampleofPi aget
ian-
inspi
red
r
[Link]
berg hasconcent r
ated on mor
aldev el
opment,proposi
ng ast age
t
heoryofmoralt
hinki
ngt hatgoeswellbey
ondPiaget'
sori
ginal
concepti
ons.
 58

Kohlberg,whowasbor nin1927,gr ew r aisedinBr onxv il

l
e,New Yor k,and
wentt oAndov erAcademyi nAndov er
,Massachuset ts,apr ivatehi ghschoolf or
i
ntelli
gentandt ypicall
yweal t
hyst [Link] dnoti mmedi atelyenr ol
lincollege,
optinginsteadt oassi stt heIsraelicausebyser v i
ngast heSecondEngi neeronan
outdatedfreightertranspor ti
ngrefugeesf r
om Eur opetoI srael.
Het henenr oll
edint he
Universi
tyofChi cagoi n1948,scor i
ngsowel lont headmi ssionst estst hathej ust
neededt ocompl eteaf ew coursest oearnhi sbachel or'
sdegr [Link] i
shed
al
loft hisi
nasi ngley [Link] inuedhisst udiesi npsy chologyatt heUni v
ersit
yof
Chicago,initi
all
yi ntendingt owor kasacl inicalpsy [Link] ew inter
estedi n
Piagetquickly,though,andbeganquest ioni
ngchi ldrenandadol escentsaboutmor al
i
[Link] sdoct oraldisser t
ati
on( 1958a),t
heear l
iestversionofhi snewst agetheor y,
wast heout come.

Kohlbergisal ai
d-back,modestmanwhoi salsoat ruescholar
;hehas
ponderedawi derangeoft hemesi npsychologyandphi
losophyf ormanyyears,and
hasdone much t o help othersrecogni
ze the wi
sdom ofmanyoft he "classi
c
psychologi
sts,
"suchasRousseau,JohnDewey ,andJamesMar kBaldwi
[Link] ber
g
haswor kedasapr ofessoratt heUniver
sit
yofChicago(1962-1968)andhasbeena
HarvardUniver
sit
yprofessorsince1968.

Pi
aget
'sst
agesofMor
alJudgment

Piagetl ookedi nt ovariousel ement sofmor aljudgment ,buthisf i

ndi ngswer e
most l
yconsi stentwi t hat wo-stageappr [Link] l
drenundert heageoft enorel even
considermor al dif
ficul t
iesinoneway ,wher easolderchi l
drendosoi nadi fferentway .
Youngerchi l
dr en,aswehav eseen,seer ul
esassetandabsol ute.
Theybel ievethat
rul
esar egi vent ot hem byadul tsorGod,andt hatt heyar eunchangeabl [Link]
perspectiveoft heol derchi l
di smor erelati
v i
sti
[Link] eali
zesthati fev eryone
agrees, i
tisper mi ssibl etoamendt her ul
[Link] esarenei t
hersacr osanctorabsol ute,
butr athert ool st hathumansut il
i
zet owor [Link]
dren'smor alr easoning
experiencesv ar i
ousadj ustment saroundt hesamet ime( 10or11y ear s).Younger
chil
dren'smor alj udgment sar ebasedonconsequences,butol derchildren'smor al
j
udgment sar ebasedoni [Link],f orexampl e,theyoungchi l
dhear sabout
oneboywhobr oke15cupst r
y i
ngt ohel phismot herandanot herboywhobr okeonl y
onecupt ryingt ost ealcooki es,t hey oungchi ldthinkst hatthef ir
stboydi dwor se.
Thechi l
dpr imar ilyconsi derst heamountofdamage- -
theconsequences- -whereas
theolderchi ldi smor elikelytoj udgewr ongnessi ntermsoft hemot ivesunder lyi
ng
theact( Piaget ,1932) .

Piaget
'sworkon mor aljudgmentcontai
nsmanymor especi
fi
cs,buthe
di
scoveredaser i
esofchangesthatoccurbet
weentheagesof10and12,preci
sel
y
asthekidbeginstoent
erthegeneralst
ageoffor
malpr
ocesses.

Intel
lectualgrowth,ontheotherhand,[Link]
art
offormaloper ati
ons,whi chwil
lgoatl eastunt
ilt
[Link] esul
t,onemay
anti
ci
pat ethatmor althoughtwil
lcont i
nuetogrow [Link]
resul
t,Kohlbergconduct edint
erv
iewswi t
hbothchildr
enandt eenagersonmor al
 59

di
ff
icul
ti
es,andhedi scover
edstagest
hatgomuchbeyondPiaget
'[Link]
ered
si
xstages,butonl
ythefir
stthr
eehavemanysi
mil
ari
ti
est
oPiaget'
sstages.

Kohl
ber
g'smet
hod

Thecoresampl eforKohlberg'
s(1958a)st
udyincl
uded72boy sf r
om bothmi ddle-
andlower-cl
assChicagof amil
i
[Link],thi
rt
eeny earsold,and
si
xteenyearsol
datt het
[Link],
headdeddeli
nquent
s,youngerchil
dren,andboy s
andgir
lsfr
om otherAmericantownsandnati
onstohissample(1963,1970).

Thebasi
cint
erv
iewconsi
stsofasequenceofconundr
umssuchast
hese:

Hei
nzSt
eal
stheDr
ug
A womani nEur opewasont hev ergeofdy ingf r
om ar ar
ef orm ofcancer .The
physici
anst houghtt herewasonemedi ci
net hatcoul dhel pher .Itwasat ypeof
radium thathadr ecent l
ybeenf oundbyadr uggi stinthesamet [Link] cine
wascost lyt oproduce, yetthedr uggistwaschar gingt ent
imest hecostofpr oduction.
He boughtt he radium f or$200 and char ged $2, 000 fora si ngle dose oft he
medi ci
[Link] nz,thesickwoman' shusband, appr oachedev ery
oneheknewf oraloan,
buthewasonl yabl et ogetr oughly$1,000,whi chwasonl yhalfofthet [Link]
i
nfor medt hedr uggistthathi swifewasdy i
ngandr equestedthathesel litforalower
pri
ceoral low himt opayl ater
."No,Idi scov eredt hedr ugandI '
m goi ngt omake
moneyf rom i t,
"thedr uggistrepli
[Link] esult, Heinzbecamef r
anticandbr okeinto
theman' sst orei nor dertogr abt hemedi cinef orhi [Link] hespousehav e
actedint hi
smanner ?(1963, p.19)(Kohlberg)
Kohl
ber
g’smor
ali
tyofj
ust
ice

LawrenceKohl bergandhi scolleaguescr eatedoneoft hemostwel l

-known
account sofhowmor ali
tyandj ust
icearise( Kohl
berg,Levine,&Hewer ,1983;Power,
Higgins,&Kohl ber
g,1991).Kohlbergpost ulat
edsi xstagesofmor aldev el
opment,
divi
dedi nt
ot hreelevel
s,basedonast agemodelsi milartoPiaget'[Link] e
establi
shat ti
tudesaboutjust i
ce,theygot hrought hestagesinapr edictableorder
.
Preconv enti
on,conventi
onal
, and(yougoti t)post
conv ent
ionwerehislev el
s'names.

Pr
econv
ent
ional
just
ice:
Obedi
enceandMut
ual
Adv
ant
age

Thepr e-convent ionalst ageofmor aldev elopmentr oughl ycorr

espondst ot he
preschooly earsofl ifeandPi aget '
spr eoperati
onalst ageoft [Link] hi
sage,t he
youngster i s st i
lll ar
gel y sel f-
centered and unconcer ned about t he mor al
consequencesofhi sorheract i
vit
[Link] esult,mor ali
tytakesonasomewhat
skewedper [Link] nfantdev elopsanet hicsofobedi enceandpuni shmentat
fi
rst(Kohlberg'sStage1) ,
asor tof" mor ali
tyofst ay i
ngoutoft r
ouble.
"Whet herornot
acti
vit
iesar er ewar dedorpenal i
zedbyaut horiti
essuchaspar ent
sori nstructors
determinest heirright nessorwr ongness.I fhel pingy ourselftoacooki er esul
tsi n
warm smi lesfrom gr ownups, thent hecooki eismor ally" good."Ifiti
nsteadr esult
si n
areprimand, itismor all
y“ wrong. ”They oungst erdoesnotconsi derwhyanact iv
ityis
applauded orchast i
sed;i nf act,accor ding to Kohl berg,hewoul d beunabl et o
 60

consi
dert
her
easonsev
eni
fadul
tspr
ovi
dedt
hem.

The y oungst er event

ual l
yl earns not onl y how t or eact t of av orabl e
consequences, butalsohowt ocr eatet hem byt r
adingfav orswi thot hers.Stage2i s
createdbyt henew abi l
ity
,whi chi sanet hicsofmar [Link] hical l
y
"good"behav ioratt hispointi
sonet hatbenef it
snotj ustt hechi l
d,butal soanot her
persondi rectlyengaged.A l ackofr ecipr
oci tyisconsi dereda" poor "behav ior.I
f
tradi
ngy ourlunchsandwi chfory ourf ri
end'sl unchcooki esi smut uallyagreeabl e, the
dealismor al
lyaccept abl
e;otherwi se,itisnot .Fort hefirsttime,asenseoff airness
i
si nt
r oducedi ntothechi l
d'[Link] er,itconti
nuest oov erlookt hegr eat er
contextofact i
ons—t he consequences f orot hers who ar en'tt here ordi rect l
y
i
nv ol
v ed.
InSt age2,f orexampl e,pay ingacl assmat etocompl eteanot herst udent '
s
homewor k—or ev en t o prevent bul l
ying or per f
orm sexualf avors—woul d be
consideredmor al
ly"good"ifbothpar ti
essawt heagreementasf ai
r.

Conv
ent
ional
just
ice:
Conf
ormi
tyt
opeer
sandsoci
ety

Aschi l
drenent erschool,theirl
ivesgr owt oencompassabi ggernumberand
vari
etyofpeer s,aswel las( eventuall
y )t heent i
recommuni t
[Link] ftl eadst o
conventionalmor alit
y,orideasthatar ebasedonwhatawi dergroupofpeopl eagr ee
on—henceKohl ber g'
susageoft heterm" conv enti
onal .
"St
age3i sfrequent lyr ef
erred
toast heet hi
csofpeeropi nionbecauset hechi l
d'sr ef
erencegr oupi sinitiall
yhisor
herimmedi atecl [Link] sfeel,forexampl e, t
hatiti smorallyaccept abl
et o
benicet oasmanypeopl easpossi ble,thechi ldismor eli
kelyt oagr
eewi tht hegroup
and consi der pol it
eness as a mor al“ good” r ather than an ar bit
rar y soci al
pract
[Link] hechildisconsi deri
ngt her eactionsofmanypeopl er athert han
j
ustone, thisappr oachtomor al
beliefisal i
tt
lemor est ablet hanthemet hodi nSt age
[Link] er
, i
fthegr oupset t
lesonv iewst hatadultsdeem mor al
lyincorrect ,suchas
"Shopli
fti
ngf orCandyBar sisFunandDesi rable,
"itcanst i
llleadastray.

Ast hey oungstergr owsol derandhi sorhersoci alspher eexpands, heorshe

obtainsani ncreasingnumberofpeer sandf r
[Link] esul t,heorshei smor e
prone t of ace debat es ov eret hicalconcer ns and i [Link] y oung per son
progressivelydef i
nesmor alv i
ewsi nt ermsofwhatt hemaj orityofsoci etybel i
ev es
ast hecompl i
cationsar [Link] sleadstoSt age4, theet hicsofl awandor der,
i
nwhi cht hey oungper sonincr easinglyframesmor albel i
ef si nt ermsofwhatt he
major i
tyofsoci etyt hi
[Link],anact ioniset hicallydesi rabl eifitislegalor ,atthe
veryleast,wi delyaccept edbyt hemaj ori
tyofpeopl e,includi ngper sonstheki ddoes
notknow. Thisat ti
tudepr oducesamor est ablesetofbel iefst hant hepr eceding
stage,yetitisst il
lsusceptibletoet hicalerror
[Link] e, acommuni tyorsoci ety
mayagr eethatper sonsofagi venr aceshoul dbet reatedwi thpur posefuldisrespect,
orthataf act oryownerhast her i
ghtt odumpwast ewat eri nt oapubl i
clakeorr i
ver.
Furtherstagesofmor alevoluti
onar er equiredtocr eat eethi calr ulesthatdependabl y
avoidblunder slikethese.

Postconv
ent
ional
just
ice:
Soci
alCont
ractandUni
ver
sal
Pri
nci
ples

Asaper
son'
sabi
l
ityt
othi
nkabst
ract
ly(
or"
for
mal
l
y,"i
nPi
aget
'sdef
ini
ti
on)
 61

grows,et hi
calbel i
efsmov efrom accept anceofwhatt hecommuni t
ybel i
ev est ot he
processbywhi cht hosebel iefsarepr [Link] age5, theethi
csofsoci al
cont ract ,i
s
thenewf [Link],anact ion,belief,orpr acticei set hicall
ygoodi fitisther esul tof
fai
r,democr ati
cpr ocessest hatr espectt her i
ght soft [Link] dert he
rul
est hatfor cemot orcycli
ststowearhel met si ncer tainlocati
[Link] e
theregulationsgov erningt histypeofact ionet hical? Wasi tdevelopedaf tert alking
withandobt ai
ningt heconsentoft heappr opriatei ndivi
duals?Hav ebi ker sbeen
consulted,andhav et heygi venthei rconsent ?Whataboutdoct or
sort her elati
v esof
cycli
sts?Reasonabl e,t houghtfulpeopl ecan' tagr eeonhow t hor
oughandequi table
theseconsul t
ationsshoul [Link] i
duals,r egar dlessoft hei
rv i
ewpoi ntonwear ing
helmets,aret hinkingaccor di
ngt oSt age5,t heet hicsofsoci alcontract,byf ocusi ng
on the met hods bywhi ch the law was dev eloped.I nt hi
s sense,ev en though
opposingv iewpoi ntscont radicteachot her ,ethicallygoodopi ni
onsonbot hsidesof
anissuemi ghtexist.

Payingattentiont oduepr ocessappear stobeagoodwayt oav oidunt hinking

adherencet ot r
aditi
onalmor alideas.I tcan,howev er,fai
lasanet hicalt echni queon
[Link] ssuei st hatasoci alcontractet hicspl acesmor efai t
hi ndemocr at i
c
processest hant heydeser ve,anddoesnotpayenoughat t
enti
ont ot hecont entof
thedecisionsmade. Intheory( andr arel
yinf act),asoci etymaydemocr aticallydeci de
toextermi nateallmember sofar aci
almi nority,butwoul ddoingsot hroughdue
processmakei tethical?Somepeopl egot oSt age6,whi chist heet hicsofsel f-
chosen,uni ver
salst andards,af terreali
zingt hatet hicalmeanscansomet i
messer ve
unethi
calpur [Link] allygoodact i
v i
tyisf oundedonper sonal lyhel dbel iefs
thatapplybot ht otheper son'si mmedi ateexi stenceandt ot hegr eatercommuni t
y
andsoci etyatthisst [Link] i
efi ndemocr ati
cduepr ocess(Stage5et hics)isone
oftheuni versalvalues,butot hersincludet hedi gni t
yofev eryhumanexi st enceand
thesacr ednessoft henat uralenv ir
onment .Eveni ft heuniver
salpr i
nci plesent ail
occasionallydisagreeingwi thwhati susual( Stage4)orev enwithwhati slegal ,a
person'sbelief
swi l
l begui dedbyt hem inStage6.( St age5).

Gi
l
li
gan’
sMor
ali
tyofCar
e

Kohl ber
g' sstagesofmor aljustice,asr ati
onalast heysound,ar ei nsuffi
cient
forunder standingt heformat i
onofmor [Link] ollowingscenar i
o:y ou
have a st udentwho r equest s an ext ension to a deadl i
ne f oran assi gnment .
Kohlberg'st heor y
'sjusti
ceor ientat
ionwoul dl eadyout oquest i
onwhet hergr anting
ther equesti [Link]
lthel atest udentbeabl etoputi nmor eef f
ortthant heot her
pupilsont heassi gnment ?Woul dt heext ensionputast rainony oubecausey ou'd
havel esst i
met ogr adetheassi gnment s?Thesear ecriti
calconsi derati
onsf orbot h
studentsandt eacher s'r
ight [Link] er,therear eotherfactors,suchasy ourandt he
seekingst udent '
sr esponsibili
tytoeachot herandt [Link] hereav alidper sonal
reason fort hest udent'sl ateness( si
ckness,deat hint hef amily,etc.)?Wi l
lt he
assignment '
seducat i
onalval uebecompr omi sedifthestudenti sforcedt ot ur
ni tin
earl
y ?Thesel aterconcer nsar elessaboutj usticeandr i
ghtsandmor eaboutcar ing
forandassumi ngr esponsibi l
it
yf orpupi [Link] ull
yunder stood,theyr equirea
 62

f
ramewor
kot
hert
hanKohl
ber
g's.

CarolGill
iganhascr eat
edonesuchf ramewor k,basedonamor al
it
yofcar e,
orasetofbel i
efsabouthumanr esponsi bi
li
ti
es,care,andconsi der
ati
onf orot hers.
Gill
i
ganof f
eredthreemor alperspectiv
est hatrepresentv ar
iouslevelsofethicalcare
orbr [Link] l
li
ganhascr eatedonesuchf ramewor k,basedonamor ali
tyof
care,orasetofbel i
efsabouthumanr esponsibil
it
ies,care,andconsi derationfor
[Link] l
l
iganof feredthreemor alper specti
vest hatr epresentv ar
iouslev el
sof
ethi
calcar eorbr eadth.I
nt hi
sr egard,herappr oachi scompar ableto Masl ow' s
mot i
v at
iontheoryi nthatitis"semi-development al
"( Brown&Gi l
li
gan,1992;Tay l
or,
Gill
i
gan, &Sul l
i
van, 1995).

Posi
ti
on1:
Car
ingasSur
viv
al

Asurvivalori
entati
onist hemostbasi cform ofcaring,i
nwhi chaper soni s
pri
mar il
yconcer nedwithhisorherownwel l
-bei
[Link] eenagegirlwiththi
set hi
cal
perspecti
vei sdebat i
ng whet herornott o havean abor t
ion,shewi llbet otal
ly
concernedwi t
ht heaborti
on'srepercussionsonherself.
Theet hi
cal
lyjustdecisi
onwi l
l
bet heonet hatcauseshert hel eastamountofst ressandcausest heleastamount
ofdi sr
upti
oni nherl i
[Link]'responsibi
l
iti
es(thebaby ,herfather,orherfami l
y)
pl
ayl it
tl
eornor oleinherdecision-making.

Asur vi
valattit
udei sobv iouslyunsuitableforclassr oomsonal argescaleas
amor alperspectiv
[Link] assroom l i
fecanbecomepr ettynast yi feachst udentsolel
y
l
ookedoutf orhimsel forher self
!Howev er,therearetimeswhenconcent rati
ngsolel
y
ony oursel
fisbot hasi gnofgoodment alhealthandusef ultot eachers.I
tisboth
healt
hyandmor al
lydesi rableforay oungst erwhohasbeenbul l
i
edatschoolor
sexuall
ymol estedathome,f orexampl e,tospeakoutabouthow t hebul ly
ingor
abusehasaf fectedthev i
cti
[Link] ssimpl yent ai
l
spr i
orit
izingt hevictim'sownneeds
overtheneedsofot hers,includi
ngt hebully'
sorabuser '
s.I nt hi
sscenar io,speaki
ng
updemandsasur v
ivalmi ndsetandi sbenef i
cialbecauset hey oungst eristaki
ngcare
ofherself
.

Posi
ti
on2:
Conv
ent
ional
Car
ing

Cari
ngf orot her sisamor ecompl exmoralv i
ewpointinwhichaper soni s
concer nedaboutt hehappi nessandwel lbei
ngofot hers,aswellasr econcil
ingor
i
ntegr ating conf l
i
cting [Link] consi der
ing an aborti
on,forexampl e,t he
adol escentint hissi tuati
onmi ghtev aluatewhatot herpeoplewoulddesi re.
Isher
father,parents,and/ ordoct orinfav orofherkeepingt hechil
d?Whati smor all
yr i
ght
becomeswhat everwoul ddelightt hemostpeopl [Link]
onismor edif f
icul
t
ethicall
yandi ntel
lectuallythanPosi t
ion1si nceitdemandscoor di
natingtheneeds
andv aluesofmul ti
plepeopl [Link] er
,itisfr
equentlymorall
yinsuff
ici
entsi nceit
over l
ooksonei mpor tantperson: thesel f
.

Studentsthatoper
atefrom Posi
ti
on2int
hecl assr
oom canbequi t
edesi
rabl
e
i
nsomer espect
s,suchast heireager
nesstoplease,consi
derat
ion,andabil
i
tyto
bl
endi
nandwor kcooperat
ivelywit
hother
[Link] emptedt or
eward
 63

studentsf ordeveloping and empl oyi

ng t hese skil
ls because they are usuall
y
appreciat
edi nacrowdedcl [Link] er,emphasizingPositi
on2et hi
cshast he
drawbackofnegl ecti
ngt hest udent'sdevelopment —hi
sorherownacademi cand
personalai ms and ideal
[Link] sonalobjectives,beli
efs,and identi
ty al
lr equi
re
attenti
onandcar eatsomepoi nt,andinstructorsarer esponsi
bleforsuppor ti
ng
pupilsindi
scoveri
ngandcl arif
yingthem.

Posi
ti
on3:
Int
egr
atedCar
ing

I
nGi l
ligan'sappr oach,integratedcare,ort hesy nchronizati
onofper sonal
needsandi deal swi ththoseofot hers,isthehighestdevel
opedf orm ofmor alcari
ng.
Now, themor allyjustdeci si
onconsi dersevery
one, i
ncl
udingy ourself
,ratherthanjust
yourself
.Ify ou' ret hi
nkingabouthav inganabor ti
on,awomani nPosition3woul d
considernotonl yt hef at
her's,unbornchild'
sandf amil
y'srepercussions,butalsot he
ramifi
cationsf orher self
.Whati mpactwoul dhav i
ngaki dhav eonherowndesi r
es,
val
ues,andpl ans?Thi sper specti
vel eadstomor ebroadmor albelief
[Link] er
,
becauset hegr eatestpossi blespectrum ofpeopleisbeingconsi der
ed,theyar ealso
morepr onet odi lemmas.

Whent eacher sal l

owki dsal otoff r
eedom t omakedeci sions, i
ntegr atedcar e
i
smor el ikelyt o emer gei nt hecl assr [Link] ei sl i
ttl
epl acef oraddr essi ng
any one' sneedsorv alues,whet hert heirownorot hers',ifstudent shav elimi ted
freedom i nt heiracti
v i
[Link] elysay s: Wheny outellsomeone, "Dot he
homewor konpage50andt urniti nt omor row mor ning,"thei mpor t
anti ssuei s
compl iancer athert hanmor alchoi [Link] fshesay ssomet hingl i
ket hi
s
i
nst ead:" Ov ert henextt womont hs,dev i
seani nqui rypr ojectonourt own'sut i
lization
ofwat err esour ces."Or ganizeitwhat ev eryouwant —t al ktopeopl e,readwi delyabout
i
t,andshar ei twitht hecl assi nawayt hatwi llbei mpor tanttoallofus,i ncl uding
your self."Becausei tasksst udentst omakev al uej udgement s,anassi gnmentl i
ke
thisr aisesmor alissuest hatar ebot heducat i
onalandmor [Link] ?Forst ar ters,
student smustdet ermi newhi chaspect soft hei ssuear emosti mpor t
antt ot hem.A
deci sionl i
ket hisisl argelybasedonper sonalpr inci [Link] t
hermor e,student smust
consi derhowt omaket heissuer el
ev antandi mpor t
antt ot herestoft hecl [Link] rd,
becauset hedeadl i
nei ssof araway ,st udentsmayhav et ochoosebet weenper sonal
commi tment s( such as spendi ng t i
me wi thf riends orf amily)and educat i
onal
prioriti
es( wor kingont heassi gnmentabi tmor eont heweekend) .Asy oumayexpect ,
somest udent smayst rugglet omakeappr opriatedeci sionswhengi vent hisl ev elof
autonomy- -andasar esult
,theirprof essor smaybehesi t
anttoassi gnsuchat ask.
Thechal l
engesi nmaki ngdeci sionsar e,howev er ,par tofGi ll
i
gan'spoi nt:i ntegr ated
carei smor edemandi ngt hancar i
ngbasedsol elyonsur viv
alorconsi derat i
onof
other [Link]'
spossi blethatnotal l
student sar epr epar ed.

Char
act
erDev
elopment
:Int
egr
ati
nget
hical
under
standi
ng,
car
e,andact
ion

Alloft
het heoriesdi
scussedthusfarprovi
deframeworksforunderst
andi
ng
how chi
ldrendevelopintoadolescent
sandadul t
[Link],Kohl
berg,andGill
i
gan'
s
aremor epart
icul
art hanEri
kson'sinthattheyconcentr
ateonthedev el
opmentof
 64

ethi
calunder st
andi [Link] er,fr
om theper spectiv
eofat eacher,thetheori
esar e
allconstrainedint woway sOneconcer nisthatt heypl aceagr eateremphasi son
cognit
ion—whaty oungstersbelieveaboutet hi
cali ssues—than on emot i
onsand
[Link] herist hattheydon'tspeakany thingabouthow t opr omoteet hical
growth. Teacher s'j obs include encouraging pupi l
s,and doi ng so pr operly
necessitatesanawar enessofnotonl ywhatst udent sknow aboutet hi
cs,butal so
whatt heydon' tknow notonl yhow peoplef eelabouti t,butalsowhatet hicalacts
theyarewi ll
ingtodo.

Manyeducat orshav eident if

iedt heseeducat ionaldemands,andsomehav e
devisedpr acticalpr ogr amst hatcombi neet hicalawar eness,care,andact [Link]
programsar ecommonl yr eferredt oaschar actereducat ionasawhol e,howev er
i
ndiv i
dualprogr amsgobyav arietyoft it
les( mor aldi l
emmaeducat i
on,integr ated
ethi
caleducat i
on,soci alcompet enceeducat ion,andav ari
etyofot hert opi
cs) .The
programsdi fferi ntheirspeci f
ics, buttheyal way scombi neaconcent rati
ononet hi cal
knowl edgewi thanawar enessofet hicalf eelingsandact s(Elki
nd&Sweet ,2004;
Berkowi t
z&Bi er ,
2006; Nar vaez ,2010).Char act ereducat ionprogramsgof arbey ond
simplyeducat ingpupi lst of ollow et hicalnor msl ike" alwaysspeakt het ruth"or
"al
way sdowhatt het eachersay s."Suchr ulesneedl it
tlethoughtont hepar toft he
student,yetther eareof tent i
meswhenanost ensi blyuni v
ersal r
ulemustbechanged,
"bent,
"orev eni gnored. (Iftell
ingt hewhol et ruthcoul dhar m someone' sf eelings,i t
mightbemor econsi der ate—andhencemor eet hical—tosof tent het r
uthal i
ttl
e,or
event osaynot hingatal l
.)

Charactereducat i
on,on t he ot herhand,i s aboutencour aging pupilsto
considerbi gconcer nsi ntheirli
ves,suchas“ Whatt ypeofper sonshoul dIbe? ”or
“Whati st hebestwayf ormet ol i
vemyl if
e?”Answer i
ngsuchbr oadquest i
ons
thoughtfull
y hel ps to addr ess a slew ofmor e speci fic problems wi t
h ethical
ramifi
cations,suchas" Shoul dIpayattentiontot heteacherr ightnow, evenifshe'sa
l
itt
ledul l
,orshoul dIj usttuneout ?"or“ ShouldIof fert ohel pmyf ri
endwi thher
homewor kifshei shav i
ngt roubl
e,orshoul dIwai tunt ilshel earnst odoi tonher
own? ”Mostoft het i
me,t hereisn'
tenought i
met odel i
ber ateori ntentionall
yreason
aboutsuchi ssues.I nt
uiti
ve,insti
ncti
v e,andembodi edanswer sar erequi r
ed,which
meanst heymustbebased onf ai
rlyi mmedi ateemot ionalr esponses( Narvaez,
2009).Charactereducat i
onai mst oimpr ov estudents'abi l
it
iest orespondt oethical
decisi
onsonadai l
ybasisnotonl yconsci ouslyandr ationally,butalsoi ntui
ti
velyand
emot i
[Link] scanl i
veagood, ethical
lyresponsi bleli
fet otheext entthatthi
s
goal i
saccompl ished.

School
widepr
ogr
amsofChar
act
erEducat
ion

Despit
et heenor mousv ar
iabi
li
tyamongst udents,themostcompr ehensi ve
approachest ochar actereducati
oncommi tawhol eschoolt obuildi
ngst udent s'
ethi
calchar acter(Minow,Schweder ,& Markus,2008).Allmember soft hest aff,
i
ncluding teachers and administrat
ors,as wellas custodians and educat i
onal
assi
stants,arededicatedtobuildi
ngheal t
hyrel
ati
onshipswi t
hkids.
Theov erarching
i
deaemer gesasoneofcooper at
ionandmut ualcare,rat
herthancompet i
tiveness.
 65

Fairness,respect,andhonestyperv
adecl assr
oom andschoolacti
vi
ti
es;forexample,
rathert hanr ewardingobedienceorpuni shi
ngwr ongdoer
s,disci
pli
nef ocuseson
resolvingdisagreementsbetweenst udentsandbetweenstudentsandteachers.
The
strategynecessi t
atesaheav yemphasi sondemocr ati
cmeetingsanddi scussi
ons,
bot hinclassroomsandel sewherei
nt heschool.

ASSESSMENT:

Onasheetofpaper
,wr
it
ethel
ett
eroft
hecor
rectanswer
.

[Link] nst agesofmor aldev elopmentar ether e?

a.1 b.3
c.5 d.7
[Link] evel sofmor al dev elopmentar ethereineachst age?
a.2 b.4
c.6 d.8
[Link] ery oneachi evethel aststageofmor aldevelopment ?
[Link] [Link]
[Link] hisst age, childrenaregoodsot hatt heycanbeseenasgoodt oot herpeopl e.
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e
[Link] l
di sgoodbecauset heydonotwantt oav oidpuni shment,whi chstagear e
thestudent si n?
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e
[Link] hisst age,i ndi vi
dualj udgmenti sbasedoni ndiv i
dualr i
ghtsandj usti
cef ort he
greatergood.
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e
[Link] hisst age, thechi l
di sawar eofwi derr ul
esofsoci ety
.Att hi
spoi nt,astudenti s
goodbecauseofwhatsoci et ysay s.
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e
[Link] ldatt hisst agebegi nst ounder standt hatdifferentindivi
dualshav edifferent
viewpoints.I not herwor ds,t heymayunder standt hatwhat“ dad”thinksisr i
ghtand
maybedi ffer entf rom whathi s/hert eachert hinksi sright.
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e
[Link] eatt hisst agedev elopt heirownsetofmor alguidelinesthatmayornotf i
t
i
nt ot
hel [Link] ngsl ikehumanr i
ght s,just i
ce,andequal i
tyaremosti mpor tantev enif
theyhav etogoagai nstsoci etyandhav et of aceconsequences.
[Link] ent ional /Premor al [Link] enti
onal
[Link] ent i
onal [Link] heabov e

[Link]
ding t
o Kohl
ber
g,mostpeopl
e wi
l
lreach t
he hi
ghestst
age ofmor
al
 66

devel
opment
.
[Link] [Link]

REFERENCES

Berkowi
tz,
M.&Bi
er,
M.(
2006)
.Whatwor
  ksi
nchar
act
ereducat
ion:AResear
ch-
dri
ven
Gui
def
orEducat
[Link]
.Loui
s,MO:
Cent
erf
orChar
act
erandCi
ti
zenshi
p.

Br
own,L.&Gi
l
li
gan,
C.(
1992)
.Meet
  ingatt
hecr
ossr
oads:Women’
sPsy
chol
ogyand
Gi
rl
s’
Dev
elopment
.Cambr
idge,
MA:
Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

El
kind,
D.&Sweet
,F.(
2006)
.Howt
  odochar
act
ereducat
[Link]
uar
y1,
2011

at
 ht
tp:
//www.
goodchar
act
er.
com/
Art
icl
e_4.
html
.

Kohl
ber
g,L.
,Lev
ine,
C.,
&Hewer
,A.(
1983)
.Mor
  alst
ages:ACur
rentFor
mul
ati
onand
a
Responset
oCr
it
[Link]
:[Link]
ger
.

Minow,
M.,
Shweder
,R.
,&Mar
kus,
H.(
Eds.
).(
2008)
.Justschool
  s:Pur
sui
ngEqual
i
ty
i
n
Soci
eti
esofDi
ff
[Link]
k:Russel
lSageFoundat
ion.

Nar
vaez,D.(2010)
.Mor
alcompl
exi
ty:
TheFat
alAt
tract
ionofTr
uthi
nessandt
he
I
mportance

ofMat
uremor
alf
unct
ioni
ng.
 Per
spect
ivesonPsy
chol
ogi
calSci
ence,
5(2)
,
162–181.

Tayl
or,
J.&Gi
l
li
gan,
C.,
&Sul
l
ivan,
A.(
1995)
.Bet
  weenv
oiceandsi
l
ence:Womenand
gi
rl
s,
RaceandRel
ati
onshi
[Link]
idge,
MA:
Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.
 67

CHAPTER11:
PERSONALGROWTHANDSTAGESOFDEVELOPMENT
From birththrough adul t
hood,mor aldev elopmenti sconcer ned wi
tht he
emer gence,change,andcompr ehensionofmor ali
ty .Mor ali
tydev el
opsdur i
ngt he
courseofaper son'
slifeandi sinf l
uencedbyt heirexper i
encesandconductwhen
confronted wi t
h mor alconcer ns atv ari
ous st ages ofphy si
caland cogni t
ive
development .Inanut shel
l,mor al
ityref erstoani ndi v
idual'
sdev elopingsenseof
goodandwr ong:Asar esul
t,youngchi ldrenhav emor aljudgmentandchar act
erthat
dif
fersf r
om t hatofanadul t
.Mor ali
tyisf requentlyusedi nter
changeabl ywi t
ht he
ter
ms" r
ightness"and"goodness. "I
tisapsy chological phrasethatr eferstoacodeof
conductt hatisdrawnf rom one'sculture,rel
igion,orper sonalphi l
osophyt hatdir
ects
one'sact i
onandbehav i
or.
Socialdev el
opment ,phy sicaldev elopment ,andcognit
ive
developmentar eexampl esofdi f
ferentt y
pesofdev el opment .

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ami
net
heet
hical
dimensi
onsoft
hest
agesofmor
aldev
elopment
;

[Link]
ff
erent
iat
ethest
agesofmor
aldev
elopment
;and

3.r
ecogni
zet
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsofper
sonal
growt
handst
agesofmor
aldev
elopment
.

Act
ivi
ty

Onasheetofpaper,makeati
meli
neony
ourper
sonalj
our
neyasast
udent
.
Hi
ghl
i
ghtthei
mportantdeci
sionsy
oumade.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

ForReidenbachandRobi n'smodelofcorporatemor algr

owth,t
hef oll
owing
cl
assif
icator
yv ar
iablesar eemployed.“Managementphilosophyandatt
it
udes,proof
ofethicalidealsrepr esent
ed inthecul t
ureoft hefirm,and theexistenceand
pr
oli
ferati
onofor ganizati
onalcul
tural
ethi
csandartif
acts.”

Themodelisdi
videdint
ofivestages:amoral
,l
egal
isti
c,responsi
ve,emergentethi
cal
,
andethi
cal
.LawrenceKohlberg'
sstagesofmoraldevel
opmenti nspi
redtheidea.
Accordi
ngtoRedenbacherandRobin,adir
ectappl
icati
onofKohl ber
gmodel sisnot
viabl
esi
ncepeopledonotev ol
veinthesamewayt hatorganizat
[Link]
l
,
theKohl
bergmodel i
sasfoll
ows:

Lev
el1:Pr
eConv
ent
ional
Mor
ali
ty

Stage1:Obedi
enceandpuni
shment
:Behav
iordr
ivenbyav
oidi
ng
puni
shment
 68

St
age2:I
ndi
vi
dual
Int
erest
:Behav
iordr
ivenbyi
nter
estandawar
ds

Lev
el2:Conv
ent
ional
mor
ali
ty

St
age1:I
nter
per
sonal
:Behav
iordr
ivenbysoci
alappr
oval

Stage2:
Aut
hor
it
y: Behav
iordr
ivenbyobey
ingaut
hor
it
yandconf
ormi
ngt
o
soci
alorder.

Lev
el3:PostConv
ent
ional
Mor
ali
ty

St
[Link]
alCont
ract
:Behav
iorDr
ivenbybal
anceofsoci
alor
derand
i
ndi
vi
dualr
ight
s.

St
age2:
Uni
ver
sal
Ethi
cs:Behav
iordr
ivenbyi
nter
nal
mor
alpr
inci
ples

Accordi
ngtoReidenbachandRobi n,notallindi
vi
dualsgot hr oughthesix
stages,and nei t
herdo corporat
e organizat
[Link] addi
ti
on,cor por at
e moral
developmenti snotnecessari
lya conti
nuouspr [Link] organization'
sethi
cal
cl
imat echangesdramati
call
yasnewmanagementormer gerstakepl ace,si
gnal
i
ng
ei
ther pr ogr
ess or r
egressi
on inits mor alev ol
uti
[Link] st ages of mor al
development

St
[Link]
alor
gani
zat
ion

Thissty l
eoforgani zati
onischaracteri
zedbya“ winatallcosts”ment alit
y.I
ts
mai ninterestisnotet [Link]'
sabusi nessthat'
sent i
relyfocusedonef fi
ciencyand
l
ikeli
hood.I tonlyconsiderset hi
cswheni tiscaughtinsomesor tofwrongdoi [Link]
onlysoci alobl i
gat
ionofabusi nessi nthisform ofor ganizationist opr oducea
profit
.Topmanagementr ulesbypowerandaut hority
,aswel last hroughar eward
structur
et hatencour agesgoal ongconduct .Thosewhof ollow ther ul
eswi t
hout
questionar er ewarded,wher easthosewho cr i
ti
cizemanagementar eev ent
uall
y
kickedoutoft [Link] i
ewedasnot hingmor et hanadev i
ce
toincreasepr oducti
onandpr ofi
tforthecompany .

St
[Link]
egal
i
sti
ccor
por
ati
on

Compani esi nst agetwo”f oll

owt hel et
teroft hel awr atherthant hespi
ritof
thelaw.I nthi
sst ageofmor aldevelopment ,anor gani
zat ionshowsar egardforrules,
codes,and r [Link] s corporation i s concerned wi t
h adher i
ng to state
regulations,pri
or i
ti
zing t he l
egality ofan act ion ov eri t
s mor ali
[Link]
aces a
signi
ficantamountofr esponsi
bili
tyoni tslegalteam t oensur et hatbusinesspoli
cies
arecar riedoutinl inewi thstatelegislationi nor dertoav oi
dl egalent angl
ement s.
Whati sl egalcorrespondst owhati srightf rom t hi
sst andpoint .Whil
est ageonei s
concer nedwi t
ht hel egali
tyofhow pr of i
ti smade,st aget woi sconcer nedwi t
ht he
l
egalityofhowpr ofi
ti smade.

St
[Link]
esponsi
vecor
por
ati
on
 69

Thist y
peofbusi nessbeginst ov aluethingsot herthanprof i
tandl egali
[Link]
s
i
nt hesecompani es'bestinter
eststodot herightthing, buttheyseei tasameanst o
anendr atherthananendi ni t
sel
[Link] herwor ds,thesecompani esar emor eli
kelyto
cavei nt opublicpressuresandt husr ecognizet hatbusi nesshasar esponsibil
ityto
functionwi thsociet
yinmi nd.
Theyhav eanet hicalcodet hatai
mst oali
gncompany
objectiveswi t
[Link] snascentconcer ni smot i
vatedbyaknowl edge
oft heor ganizati
on'
swi dersocialf unction,rathert hanasenseofdoi ngt her i
ght
thi
ngf ort hesakeofdoi ngt herightt [Link] hispoi nt,successi samat t
erof
conv enience.

St
[Link]
gentet
hical
organi
zat
ion

Thi stypeofcompanywor kshar dtost rikeabet terbalancebet weenear nings

andet hics.I tacknowl edgest hatbusinessandsoci etyhav esoci alinteracti
[Link]
companyact i
oni sgi venwei ghtbasedoni tset hicalimpl i
cationsaswel lasi ts
potenti
alf orpr ofit
.Manymeasur esar einpl acet oensur et hatthecompanyandi t
s
vari
ousagent sconductbusi nessi nanet hicalmanner .
Todemonst ratewhathappens
atthisst age,Rei denbachandRobi nuset heexampl esofBoi engandGener alMi ll
s.
Empl oyeescanr eportet hi
caltransgressionsbycal l
ingat oll
-fr
eenumbersetupby
Boieng,whi chf acil
it
ateset hicst r
ainingsessi [Link] alMi ll
shi respeopl ewho
sharet hecompany '
sv al
uesint ermsofcul tureandet [Link] ncludesasetof
rul
esf ori nteracti
ngwi thvendor sandcompet itorsandcust omer [Link] leresponsi v
e
fi
rmsar ebegi nningt oest abl
ishet hi
calpr ocessest oboostt hel ikeli
hoodofet hical
acti
on,Rei denbachandRobi npoi ntoutt hatt heseor ganizationsar enoty ettotally
comf ortablewi ththeirexecution.

Inotherwor
ds,whi l
est agef
ourcompaniesappr
eci
atetheneedofet hi
cs,
theylacktheexper
ti
ser equir
edt oadmi
nist
erandmaximizetheeffect
ivenessof
ethi
calsyst
[Link]
ess,therei
saconcert
edeff
ortt
oensurethatear
ningsare
madei namor al
manner.

St
[Link]
hical
organi
zat
ions

Normat ivemor alt heor i

esar ebei ng used asagui det o dev elop di verse
organizati
onalact ivi
tiesatt hispoi [Link] sal so an ongoing et hicalt raining
program thatisi nterwov enwi tht het echnicaltr
aini
ngoft heempl [Link] scul ture
hasast rongf eelingofr esponsi bil
ityandcommi tmenttodowhati sr i
ghtandf air.
The
pri
mar y diff
er ence bet ween st ages f ourand f i
vei sthe cor poration'sl ev elof
commi tmentt o channel i
ng i tsr esources towar dt he object
ive ofmaki ng t he
organizati
on compl etely et hicali n every way .These f i
ve stages show how
compani esdiff erintheirunder standi ngandper cepti
onofet hicsandhowi tr
el atest o
[Link] a company adv ances t hr
ough t he stages,et hi
cs becomes mor e
i
ngrainedi nit soper ati
[Link] sst ageex plai
nshow manycompani esat temptt o
i
nstil
lethicalbehav i
ori ntheirdeal ingswi thdiversestakeholders.
 70

ASSESSMENT
Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER11:
PERSONAL
ETHI
CS
GROWTHANDSTAGESOF
DEVELOPMENT

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link]
zat
ions/
agencies/
offi
ceet c.,ei
therpri
vateorpubli
cand
rat
ethem accor
dingtothefi
vestagesofmor [Link]
hescale1,
2,and3wher e1isthelowestand3,thehi [Link] ourownconclusion,
basedontheresult
s,wherei
nthefivestagesofmor aldev
elopmenttheyfall
.

[Link]
fonwhatst ageofmoraldevel
opmenty
ouar
eexper
ienci
ng
ri
[Link]
ipt
ionsf
ity
[Link]
scuss.
 71

REFERENCES

Hasnas,J.
,TheNor
mat
iveTheor
iesofBusi
nessEt
hics:AGui
def
ort
hePer
plexed,
’Busi
ness

Et
hicsQuar
ter
ly

Rei
denbach,
R.,[Link] Donal
d,R.“A Concept
ualModelofCor
por
ate Mor
al
Devel
opment,
”

Jour
nalofBusi
nessEt
hics

Vel
asquez,
M.(
2012)Busi
nessEt
hics; [Link]
Concept sey
:

Pear
sonEducat
ion,
 72

CHAPTER12:
REASONANDI
MPARTIALI
TYASREQUI
REMENTSFOR
ETHI
CS

Philosopher smaydi scussi mpar tial

i
tyast houghi tweret hesameasmor al
i
mpar tiali
[Link] ,attheveryleast,thef ormerwor disfrequentl
yempl oyedwi thoutthe
qualif
ier‘mor al,'evenwhent hei ntendedmeani ngi sapar ti
cularlymor [Link]
misleading, becausei mparti
ali
tyini tsbr oadestsensei sbestunder stoodasaf ormal
i
dea,butmor ali mparti
ali
tyisasubst antiveconcept,andoneaboutwhi cht hereis
muchdebat [Link] spostwillmost lyfocusonmor alimpar t
ial
ity,specifi
cal
lyt hekind
of i mpar ti
ali
ty t hat is t ypi
cal l
y f ound i n nor mative mor al and pol it
ical
theori
es. I
mpar tiali
ty(al
soknownasev enhandednessorf ai
rness)i sapr incipleof
j
usticet hatstat esthatchoicesshoul dbemadebasedonobj ect i
v estandardsr at
her
thanbi as,prejudice,orf
avoringonegr oupov eranotherforimproperr easons.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hechapt
er,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
inei
mpar
ti
ali
tyasf
air
,equi
tabl
e,unpr
ejudi
ced,
unbi
asedt
oacer
tai
nsi
tuat
ion;

2.r
ecal
li
mmedi
ater
esponset
omor
aldi
l
emmas;
and

[Link]
plai
nthet
otal
impor
tanceofi
mpar
ti
ali
ty.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Ar
ightt
ogoodadmi
nist
rat
ion:

Ever
ypersonhastheri
ghtt
ohav ehi
sorherbusi
nesshandl
edbyt
heunion'
s
i
nst
it
uti
ons,bodi
es,
off
ices,
andagenci
esinanunbi
ased,
fai
r,andt
imel
ymanner
.

Ar
ightt
oanef
fect
iver
emedyandaf
airt
ri
al:

Ev
eryonehastheri
ghtt
oaf ai
randpubli
cheari
ngbef
oreanindependentand
i
mpar
ti
altr
ibunal
establ
i
shedbylawwithi
nareasonabl
eti
meframe.

Pr
inci
pleofi
mpar
ti
ali
ty

[Link]
inci
pleofimparti
ali
ty–Member smustensurethatbi
as,conf
li
ctof
i
nter
est
,orunduei nf
luenceofothersdonotcompromise,andcannotr
easonablybe
deemedtocompromi se,t
hei
rprofessi
onal
judgment.
 73

[Link]
cisi
ngProfessi
onaljudgement-Amemberusi ngprofessionalj
udgmentmust
dosoinawayt hatisfreeofpr ej
udi
ce(realorper
ceived)andguar ant
eesthatt
hey
ar
eabletoprov
ideadvisethatisnoti
nfl
uencedbypersonalfeel
ingsorinter
est
s.

[Link] vedesi stfrom acting-Member smaybeputi ncircumstanceswher etheir

obj
ectivi
tyisj eopardi
[Link] heconditi
onsofani nstructi
on, amember '
srelati
onship
wit
hauser ,orot herfactorsenhancet hepossibi
lit
yofamember '
spr ofessi
onal
j
udgmentbei ngcompr omi sedt hr
oughoutt hecourseofapi eceofwork,themember
maybebet t
erof fdecli
ningt heinstr
uction.I
famemberdi scov er
scir
cumst ancesthat
compr omise,orappeart ocompr omi se,thei
rprofessionaljudgmentafteraccept i
ng
an instr
[Link] membermustr efrai
nf r
om i ntervening,which could entail
cl
ari
fying the pr oblem t ot he user and assisting them i n making al ter
nate
arr
angement s.

4. Whatwoul daf ai
rminded obser
vert
hink?-When consi
der
ing i
mpar
ti
ali
ty,
membersshouldconsi
deri
fther
ei saconf
li
ctofi
nter
estbet
weentheadvi
cethey
gi
veandthedeci
sionst
heymake.

[Link]
calbi
as–Member scanr educetheri
skofacti
nginabi
asedmannerbybei
ng
awareofthepossi
bil
i
tyforbiasandf act
ori
ngitinwhenmaki
ngdeci
sionsorgi
vi
ng
advi
setoensur
ethattheyar
eoper ati
ngimpart
ial
l
y.

2. I nsti
tut
ionalbiasorgr oupt hi
nk-Member sshoul dbeawar eoft hepotenti
al
i
nfluence of" gr
oup t hought"on thei
rdeci si
on-making as anotherdangert o
i
mpar t
ial
ity
.Thet endencyforone'sownj udgmenttobei nf
luencedbyt heapparent
maj ori
tyv i
ew ofassumpt i
ons,methods,processes,orapproaches,resul
ti
ngi na
reductioninthevariet
yofideasinthemarket,i
sknownasgr oupthink.

Oneoft heri
sksofgroup t
hinkisthatitcan lead t
o poorbehavi
oror
systemati
cbusinessfai
l
uresasaresultofaworkenvi
ronmentwhereperspecti
ves
arenotquest
ionedandpeopleoper
ateinthesamewayasot herswit
houtsuff
ici
ent
rat
ional
e.

[Link]
ctofi
nterest
-canbecompli
catedandnecessit
ateprofessi
onalj
udgment
.
Thi
shandbookisdesignedt
ohelpmember sunderst
andthei
rdut i
eswhenitcomes
toconf
li
ctsofi
nter
estandhowtouseprofessi
onal
judgmenti
nt hosesit
uat
ions.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER12:
REASONAND
ETHI
CS I
MPARTIALI
TYASREQUI
REMENTS
FORETHICS
 74

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link]
ert
e:4Psbenef i
ciar
ies,soldi
erstogetCOVID-
19vaccineprior
it
y(headli
ne
ofPhil
ippi
ne Star,October14,2020) .Commenti ft his deci
sion ofthe
pr
esi
denti sfair,equitabl
e orunpr ej
[Link]
te any oft he Pri
ncipl
es
I
mparti
ali
tydi
scussedint helesson.

[Link]
eanexper
iencei
nlif
et hatwoul
ddemonstr
atethef ol
lowi
ngconcept
s
bel
owandi
ncl
udethel
essonsyouhavel
ear
nedoutofthoseexper
ience:

2.
1Fai
r

2.
2Equi
tabl
e

2.
3Unpr
ejudi
ced

2.
4Unbi
ased

[Link]
syourst
andont
hemor
aldi
l
emmasofi
mpar
ti
ali
ty?

[Link]
sthei
mpor
tanceofi
mpar
ti
ali
tyandobj
ect
ivi
ty?

REFERENCES
 75

Zal
ta,
E.,
(Febr
uar
y6,
2017)
impar
tai
l
ity
.,
Stanf
ordEncy
clopedi
aofPhi
l
osophy

ht
tps:
//pl
ato.
standf
ord.
edu.
,Ret
ri
eved23June2020.

I
nst
it
uteandFacul
tyofAct
uar
ies.
,
Sect
ion5:
Pri
nci
pleht
tps:
//www.
act
uar
ies.
urg.
uk.

Ret
ri
eved23June2020.

CHAPTER13:
FEELI
NGSANDREASON:UPSURGEOFFEELI
NGSI
S
NATURALANDWHATWEDOWI THTHEM ISWHATMAKESUS
ETHI
CALORUNETHI
CAL

Inf act,wemustwor kt opromot emat ure,ser i

ousconsi derationonhol yand
secularet hical i
ssuesandi [Link] sisdonewi thawor ldwi degoal inmi nd, t
ryi
ngt o
appealt oev erybodyint erestedi net [Link] emot ivatednotj ustbyouradmi rat
ion
fornon- Chr i
stianet hicalv iewpoi nt
s,butal sobyourconv i
ctiont hatChr isti
answho
arecommi ttedt oethicalr efl
ectionmustl ikewisev alueot hert radi ti
[Link] come
submi ssionst hatar ebot hcompar ativeandsecul ari nnat ure,aswel lasonest hat
aredistinctivet oanet hicaltraditi
on( suchasChr i
stianit
y ,Buddhi sm, andsoon) .Ona
sociallevel,et hicalincident scanl eadt otheoppr essionoremanci pationofent i
re
[Link] aver
yi nt heUni tedSt ateswasj ustifi
edont hebasi sofanumberof
theologicalandphi losophi caljusti
[Link] r
ican-Amer i
canper secut i
onhasbeen
mot i
vatednotj ustbyeconomi candpol it
icalfactor s,butal sobyf aul t
y,poisonous
i
deasofGod' swi ll
.Oppr essioni nthemoder nwor l
di sstillaccept edphi losophicall
y
andt heologi cally
.

Ethi
calthoughtcanalsoaidintheprocessofl
iber
ati
[Link] Mart
inLuther
KingtoCor nelWest,Chri
sti
anethi
cshasbeenusedt ochal
lengesoci
aloppressi
on.
Wehopet hatbycont i
nui
ngt oaddresst
hisissue,wewil
lbeablet ocont
ributeto
soci
aljusti
ce,equal
it
y,andli
bert
y.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hechapt
er,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
yzeone’
sper
sonal
feel
i
ngsi
namor
alexper
ience;

[Link]
ermi
net
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenr
easonabl
eandemot
ional
responses;
and

3.r
esol
vet
ogethol
donone’
sper
sonal
feel
i
ngsi
namor
alexper
ience.

Act
ivi
ty
 76

Onapieceofpaper,recountarecentper
sonalexper
[Link]
eofy
our
per
sonal
feel
ingsdur
ingt
hatexperi
ence.

Feel
i
ngsandReason:

Reason and emot ion aref r

equent
ly seen t o be i ncompat ibl
[Link] one
perspecti
ve,ouremot ionsar eli
kerambunct iousi nfants,demandi ngandf anci
ful,
whoneedt oberestrai
nedbyt [Link] ati
onalmi nd,ont heotherhand,is
col
dandcal cul
ati
ng,andi tneedthewar mthoft hef eeli
ngst ogr aspwhatact uall
y
[Link]'tbelieve eitherof these viewpoi ntsi si ncorrectwhen pr operl
y
[Link]
heyi mpl yt
hatemot i
onsandr easonar etwoi ndependentf ormsof
agencyf i
ghti
ngformast ery
, t
heymaybeper plexing.

Plato'
st r
ipart
it
enot i
onoft hesoulcont ributest ot hisper plexity([Link]
Republic)
.I
nt heCriti
queofPr acti
calJudgement( [Link] ,Ch. 3),Kantassumes
that the l ogical compr ehension of mor al i mper ati
ves can i nspire conduct
i
ndependent l
yofourpassi onateemotions,ev eni nt herej
ect i
onoft hem. Unli
kePlato
andKant ,wemustr emembert hathumans( andot heranimal s)ar esi ngleagents
whohav eev olvedther esourcesofemot ionandr easont osaf eguar dt hethingswe
careabout ,nott obat t
leagainsteachot her.I nlightoft his,Ibelievei tiscor r
ectto
stat
et hatreasonel aboratesemot i
on.

Toexpl ain:Nowaday s,mostemot ionphilosopher sandpsy chologi

stsbel i
evet hat
emot i
onsser v
eadescr iptiv
er ol
e( al
ongsidet hei rmot iv
ati
onalf uncti
on) .Emotions
gi
veusi nformat i
onaboutt hest ateoft hewor ld,suchaswhet heritisdanger ous,
enviabl
e,ornast [Link]
y,t het r
aitswe' r
et alking aboutar edependentont he
personcar ingaboutpar t
icularthings;they'reper sonalint hisway .Howev er
,i fa
personisconcer nedaboutcer t
ainthings(forexampl e,theintegri
tyofhisbodyort he
well-
beingofhi slovedones) ,itisabsolutelypossi blethatascenar iot hreat
ensor
benefit
shi [Link] li
tyt omaker easonedi nferencesi snowaddedt ot hemi [Link] s
permitsemot i
onst ov astl
yi ncreaset hei
rcapaci tyt otrackthet hingsthatmat tert o
anindividual,toassesswhet herthei ni
ti
alemot i
onalr epresentati
oni sright,t
oi nfer
consequences,andt ohav eaddi ti
onalemot ionst owar dthoseout [Link] s,I
bel
ieve,isreason'sbasi cgoal .

Att hesamet i
me,asHumef amousl
ydeclaresinATr eati
seofHumanNat ure,
sayi
ngt hatr
easoni sasl av
etopassionsi
smi sl
[Link], Isuggestt
hatour
basi
chomeost aticregulat
orysystemsprovi
det hemot i
vati
ngj ui
cethatdrivesal l
cognit
[Link] ions are one t
ype ofcogniti
ver esource forconstruct
ing these
syst
ems,wi thr easonableinf
erencesbei
nganot [Link]
si ndi
catesthatwhereone
concern-r
egul
ating system islogical
l
yelaborat
ed and t heot herisnot,onecan
overt
urntheother .

Asar esult
,wemayrati
onall
yconcludethatacti
ngrashly(f
orexampl e,
byf l
eei
ng
f
rom giv
inganimport
antspeech)coul
dj eopar
dizeone'sreputat
ionand,asar esul
t,
werefr
ainfr
om doi
ngso.
Asar esul
t,t
here'spotent
ialf
ormot i
vati
onalconfl
ict
,butit
'
s
 77

notasstrai
ghtf
orwar
dasreasonv [Link]
[Link]
lycl
aimt
hatone
feel
i
ngi scontrol
l
inganot
heremot ionorthatonewayoft hi
nki
ngiscont
rol
li
ng
anotherwayofthi
nki
ngint
hissi
tuati
on.

Althoughther
eisnouni versall
yaccept eddefini
tionofreason,iti
scommonl y
empl oy edasacontr
astorcompl ementtof ait
[Link], i
nthi
sperspecti
ve,
ref
ersto
thef acul
ti
esofr at
ionalcontempl ati
on,sensationsandexper ience,memoryand
i
nf erence,aswellasanyapr ioriorposteriorij
udgmentt hatcanbemadewi t
hout
rel
y i
ngonanunsubst ant
iat
edr el
i
giousconv ict
ion.I
nt hi
sscheme,f ai
thisbeyond
reason, buti
tmayormaynotbei ncompatiblewithreason.

Conscience-Theabili
tytodetectwhatappear stobemor all
yr i
ghtorwrong,a
vi
rtueorv i
ce,i
sknownasconsci [Link]
giousethici
stsdisputetowhatextent
aper son'
sconsciencei snormat i
ve:aper son'sconsciencepr omptsthem t o
considerwhatisethi
call
yrequi
red,aswel l
ast heresponsibi
l
itythatcomeswit
hi t
.
Probl
em casesar epeoplewhoseconsci encesaremessedupbutnotasar esult
ofanywr ongdoi
ngont heirpar
t.

GuiltandShame-Ther eisadi f
ferencebetweenobject
ivegui
ltandguiltfeeli
ngs.
Iti
spossi bletobeguil
tyofanact( bet
rayalofafr
iend)butnotfeelgui
lty
.Shame
i
sgener al
lyregardedt
odifferfrom guil
tinthesenset hatyoumayf eelshame
aboutt heEur opeancol
onizat
ionofAf ri
ca,eventhoughy ouarenotper sonal
ly
responsible.

Cour age-I nEnglish,classical

,medi ev al,andsomemoder nappl i
cationsoft he
phrasepresumet hatcourageent ail
st aki ngariskf
oragood, oratl
eastal legedly
good,[Link] hef r
amewor kofAr ist otl
e'
sdescr
ipt
ionofanexcesst hatf ail
s
toachieveagol denmean,r i
sk-
taki
ngt hatisnotforthegoodhast raditionall
y
been def ined usi ng various adject i
v es such as dar i
ng or r ecklessness
(moder at
ion).Currentusagei nEngli
shi sv agueandambiguous.

Reasonandemot
ioni
nanci
entsour
ces

Whi
lethecurr
ent,and,i
nouropinion,mostplausibl
e,accountofemoti
ons
construesemotionsi
ntermsofcogniti
vejudgments(angercannotbesuccessf
ully
analyzedsolel
yinter
msofphy siol
ogi
calsensati
ons,becausesensati
onscanexist
withoutanger)
,emoti
onswerefr
equentl
yregardedasdisti
nctfr
om reasoni
nAnci
ent
Greece.

1. Ethicsarenott hesameasourf eeli

[Link] i
onsar en'
talway sreli
able
predi
ctorsofwhetherornotagivenbehavi
orisunet
hical(
e.g.,t
aki
ngal onglunchor
spendingtoomuchper sonalt
imeontheInter
netwhi
leatwor k)
.Topr ot
ectoursel
ves,
weal lbuil
ddefensemechani sms,sowemaynotf eelhorri
bleaboutapar ti
cular
unethi
calbehav
ior.I
t'
spossibl
ethatsomepeopleenj
oyact i
ngunethical
ly.

[Link]
csarenotthesameasrel
i
[Link]
houghmostr
eli
gionspr
omot
ehi
ghet
hical
nor
ms,notever
yonefoll
owst
[Link]
sboundbyet
hics.
 78

[Link] hi
csarenotnecessaril
ysy nonymouswi t
[Link]
ethi
calacti
onandt helaw coi
ncide(e.g.
,inthecasesofmur der,discri
minati
on,
whistl
ebl
owerpr ot
ecti
on,andf raud)
.Suchexampl esdemonstrat
et hev al
ueofa
soundlegalsy
[Link] er,t
herewillbeoccasi
onswhenthelawov err
idesethi
cs,
resul
ti
nginethicalcorr
upti
ont hatservesexcl
usiv
elyt
heinter
estsofaf ew small
groups.

[Link] enotaboutfoll
owingcul
[Link] hicalciv
il
izati
onscanbenefit
from foll
owingculturalnor
[Link] vil
izationswoul dpr efert
othinkof
themselv esasethi
cal,al
lsoci
eti
eshaveandwi llcontinuet obeaf fl
ict
edbyunet hi
cal
conventions(e.
g.,slaver
yintheUnit
edSt atespri
ort otheCi vilWarandsweat shops
i
ndev elopingcountri
es).

[Link]
csarenotsy nony
mouswi t
[Link]'
trel
yonsciencetotel
luswhat
[Link]
ideusinsi
ghtsint
ohumanbehavi
or,butet
hicsgi
vesus
ther
easonsforwhatweshoulddoandhowweshoul ddoit.

[Link] hicsar enott hesameasv [Link]

thoughet hicsandv aluesar ei ntert
wined,
theyar enott hesamet [Link] elong-hel dconv i
cti
onst hatapar ticularaction
orresul [Link] tedi nWay [Link] erandDebor [Link] nnis,
ConsumerBehav ior(Bost on:Hought onMi f
flin,2001) ,[Link] l
tonRokeach,The
NatureofHumanVal ues( NewYor k:FreePress, 1973),5,asci t
edi nWay [Link] er
and Debor [Link] nnis,ConsumerBehav ior( Boston:Hought onMi ffl
in,2001) ,
[Link] ernalj
udgement sar ef or
medasar esultoft hem,andhowaper sonbehav es
i
sdet er mi nedasar esultoft [Link] chidealsshoul dbepur suedandwhi chshoul d
beav oi dedar edetermi
nedbyet hicalconsi
der ations.I
mpor tanceofPhi l
osophy ,2001,
retr
iev edOct ober7,2011, JeffLandauerandJosephRowl ands, "
Val ues.
"

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER13:
FEELI
NGSAND
ETHI
CS REASON:UPSURGEOFFEELI
NGSIS
NATURALANDWHATWEDOWI TH
THEM I
SWHATMAKESUSETHI CAL
ORUNETHICAL

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link]
it
eanessayaboutaper
sonalexper
iencewher
eyouremot
iongott
he
 79

bet
terofy
ou.

[Link]
hery
ourr
esponsesont
hatper
sonalexper
iencer
easonabl
eor
emot
ional.

[Link]
it
eanexampl
eoft
hecr
it
eri
abel
owwher
eitcanbeconsi
der
edunet
hical
.

Exampl
eofanactundert
hecat
egor
y Whyi
situnet
hical
?

Exampl
e: Ev
ery human per
son has the same
di
gni
tyandmustbetr
eatedequal
ly
Cul
tur
alnor
m:Subor
dinat
ionofwomen

[Link]
i
ng/emot
ion:

[Link]:

[Link]
i
giousbel
i
ef(
anyr
eli
gion)
:

[Link]
ence:

[Link]
tyv
alues:
 80

REFERENCE

Vel
asquez,[Link]
.,
(2010)Whati
sEt
hics,
?Sant
aCl
araUni
ver
sit
y,Mar
kul
a; Cent
er
For

Appl
i
edEt
hics.

CHAPTER14:
SEVENSTEPSOFMORALREASONI
NG

Humanbei ngsintoday 'sgener ati

onar ecompl excr eat
[Link] iencethe
env ir
onmenti nanumberofway st hr
oughar angeofper cept i
v ecapacities,unli
ke
otheror ganismswhoar emer elymot i
vatedbyt hesur vi
v [Link] er
iaare
primar i
l
y mot iv
ated by f ood. Bact eri
a ar e onl y mot ivated t o r eproduce
themsel ves:pl
antsar esolel
yi nterestedinf oodandgr owth, wher easani malsareonly
i
nt erest
edi nfeedingt hemsel vesandr epr oduci [Link] r
om ourl ogicalabili
ty,
whi challowsust oreckonr ealityv i
aimagi nati
v eandcal culati
vel enses,ourmoods
playani mportantr oleindef ininghow wenav igatethroughdi versesi t
uat i
ons.
We
don' tj
ustknowaboutt hewor ldandot herpeopl e;weal sosenset heirexi
stenceand
wor th.

Whenot her scommendusonaj obwelldone,wear epositi

[Link] e
accusedofsomet hingwedi dnotdo,webecomeenr [Link] ethreat
ened
bysomeone,wegett err
ifi
ed,andweexper iencesorrow anddespairinthefaceof
seeminglyinsurmount abl
edi f
fi
culti
[Link] hetimebasedonhowwef eel.
Thisissomet hingwehav eincommonwi thanimalst osomeext ent
.Whenwear e
hungry,weseekf ood,andwhenwear elonely,weseekconnect i
on.
Unli
keanimals,
whoar enat ur
all
yhar dwiredtor espondinlinewiththeirfeel
ings,wehavetheabil
ity
torefl
exi
velyassessasi t
uationbef or
eactinginaccordancewi thourf
eeli
[Link]
i
tanotherway ,whi l
esent imentsprovideuswi thaniniti
alassessmentofasituat
ion,
theyshouldnotser veast heprimarybasisforourmot i
v at
ionsandacti
ons.
 81

Aper sonwhoi senr agedataper ceivedriv

alorcompet i
torisunli
kelytobeabl et o
analyzethepotentialramifi
cationsofhi sorherrashact
[Link]
ngsy ear
nf orquick
grati
ficati
on,andi tisourr easont hatkeepst [Link]
ingst hat
aren'tbasedonl ogicar [Link] tisnotthemai ndetermini
ngel ementi n
maki ngsuchdeci sions,reasoningset stherouteformaki ngethi
calandunbi ased
decisions,par
ti
cularl
yi nmoral contexts.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hechapt
er,
youwi
l
lbeabl
eto:

[Link]
aint
hesev
enst
epsofmor
alr
easoni
ng;
and

[Link]
ear
eal
li
fecaseusi
ngt
he7-st
epmodel
.

Act
ivi
ty

Onapi eceofpaper
,shar
eone’
smemor
abl
eexper
iencewher
eyouusedmor
al
r
easoni
ng.

STEPSI
NMORALREASONI
NGMODEL

[Link] opandthink-Befor
emaki nganyj udgment
s,t
hinkaboutt heci
rcumstance,
your
placeinit,andot herrelevantaspects,suchasthei ndi
vidualsi
nv ol
vedandt he
potenti
ali
mplicati
onsofy ourdeci
[Link]
sent ai
l
st aki
ngast epbackfr
om
theissuetoensurethatyoudonotactr ashly
.

[Link] arif
ygoal
s-I t
'sequal
lyimport
anttodefineyourshor t-t
erm objecti
[Link],
onemakesadeci si
on based on whatsheorhehopest o achi
ev [Link]-
term
ambitionscansomet imesgeti nthewayofl ong-term goalsint heheatoft he
moment .Asar esult
,youmustdeci dewhet hery ouar ewi l
li
ngt of orego more
essentiall
if
egoal
sinordertoatt
ainyourshor
t-
term object
ives.

[Link] act
s-Makesur eyouhavealloft hefactsbefor
emaki ngadecision.A
wisedecisioni sonethatisbasedonf actst hatcanbeconf ir
[Link] i
rst
determinewhet herwhatyouknow i ssuf f
ici
entt owar r
[Link]
decisi
on wi t
houtchecking facts,y
ou may come t or egr
eti tlaterwhen new
i
nformat i
onaboutt hecasebecomesav ai
lable.
Nev ermakeadeci sionbasedon
[Link] eyoursourcesaret
rust
wor thyandhonest .

[Link]
ons-
Onceyouhaveaf i
rm underst
andingofy ourobj
ecti
vesanddat a,
br
ainst
orm otherstr
ategi
es t
o exhaustallfeasibl
e [Link] pressure ofa
ci
rcumstancemakesyoubeli
eveyouhavef eweroptionsthany ouact
[Link]
 82

yourmi
ndandconsideraddi
ti
onali
nnovat
iveapproachest
oclari
fyyourobj
ect
ives
andcar
ryouty
ouract
swiththel
eastamountofethi
calcompr
omise.

[Link] derconsequences–Fil
teryouroptionsanddisti
nguishbetweenet hi
caland
unethi
cal ones,keepi ng i
n mi nd bot h your mot i
vati
ons and t he potenti
al
consequencesofy [Link] helong-
termr epercussi
onsandacti n
accordancewi t
hj ust
iceandfai
rnessprincipl
[Link] ehistor
icalfacts
thathaveani mpactonot herpeople'
sli
f [Link]
ont r
ansformsat houghtintoa
real
it
y.

6. Choose–Makeachoi [Link]'
rehavi
ngt roubledecidi
ng,seekadv i
cefrom
i
ndiv
idualswhomayhav eknowl edgeorexper
iencewi thyouri
[Link] orpeopl
e
whohav eagoodr eputati
onandcompar eyourr easoni
ngt oyourmor alanalysi
s.
Onceyou'vemadey ourdecisi
on,summont hecour agetodot heri
ghtthing,evenif
i
t'
sdiff
icul
tandcounter
-i
ntuit
ive.

[Link] torandmodi f
y-Aft
erseeingwhathappensasar esul
tofy ourdeci
sion,be
humbleenought ochangeyouracti
[Link] eventyou
fr
om recognizingthatyoumaynothav egivenenoughthoughttoadeci si
[Link] ou
becomemor econsciousoftheimpli
cati
onsofyourbehavi
or,part
icul
arl
yont heli
v es
ofothers,must ert
hecourageanddriv
etomakenecessar [Link] raid
torevi
sey ourdecisi
onsinli
ghtofnewinfor
mationaboutt
hescenar i
o.

Thesesev enstepsmi ghtassistyouinmaki ngmor aldeci

sionsthatarenott
aken
l
ightl
[Link] i
ghtont henumerouscomponent sofmor ali
ssuesthatmustbe
consideredbeforedecisi
onsar [Link] er,yourwill
i
ngnesst ocommittoan
acti
vi
tybasedonmor albeli
efsiscri
ti
cal
.Aft
eral ongper i
odoft hought
,youmust
havet heessent
ialr
esolvetoputyourdeci
sionint
oact i
on.

ASSESSMENT:

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER14:
SEVENSTEPSOF
ETHI
CS MORALREASONI
NG

AssessmentQuest
ions:

1. Makearefl
ecti
onont
hei
ssueofmer
cyki
l
li
ngbyappl
yi
ngt
hesev
enst
epsof
moral
reasoni
ng.

2. Defendyouri
deai
nthi
squot
abl
equote:
”Whenweshrinkfr
om t
hesi
ghtof
somethi
ng,whenweshr
oudi
tineuphemism,t
hati
susual
l
yasignofi
nner
 83

confli
ct,ofunset
tl
edheart
s,asignt
hatsomet
hinghasgonewr
ongi
nmor
al
reasoning.
”(200words,Ar
ial
,si
ze11)
 84

REFERENCES:

Pasco,Mar
cOliverD.
,Suar
ez,Ful
l
ent
[Link]
iguez
,Agust
inMar
ti
nG.”
Ethi
cs”
,C&E
Publi
shi
ng,
Inc.
,
2018

Kohlberg,Lawr
ence:Power,Clar
k( 1981).“
MoralDevelopment ,Reli
giousThinki
ng,
andt heQuesti
onsofaSev enStage”.I
nKohlber
gLawr ence(ed).EssaysonMor al
DevelopmentVol.1Phi
losophyofMor al
devel
[Link] ancisco,CA:Har
perand
RowI SBNp78000047605

CHAPTER15:
THEDI
FFERENCEBETWEENREASONANDWI
LL

Reasonandwi llarety pi
cal
lythoughttobedi ametri
cal
[Link]
stemsf rom t
heev oluti
onofnat ur
allaw andl egalpositi
vi
sm doctri
nesthroughout
hi
[Link]
allawwasor i
ginal
lyconceivedasaconceptt hatdescr
ibedthenature
ofmor alit
yratherthant henat ur
eofl [Link] evel
ati
onoft heGodscoul dbe
understoodbyman( usingreason).Hewasabl et ocompr ehendhowheshoul dtreat
otherpeoplei
nhi senvironmentasar esultofthis.2017(Minnevi
ck).

Legalposit
ivi
stbeli
efshavelongbeenr egar
dedasderi
vingfr
om thehumanbei ng's
fr
[Link]
hatifalawiswr i
tt
enbyman, i
tisl
egalevenifiti
sdevoid
ofalll
ogicandmor als.
Wecanper ceiv
et woopposi
nglegalpr
inci
[Link]
rst
conceptisnaturall
aw (andreason),whil
ethesecondislegalposit
ivi
sm (andfree
wil
l)
.2017( Minnevi
ck).

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES:

[Link]
ineReasonandWi
l
l;
 85

[Link]
ff
erent
iat
eknowi
ngandact
ual
l
yexecut
ingagoodmor
aldeci
sion;
and

[Link]
albehav
iori
nter
msofpl
anni
ngandexecut
ioni
nimpor
tant
moralexper
iences.

Int heclassi calnaturallaw tr

aditi
on,t heconceptofr easonwasi mpor t
ant.
Peopl e needed r eason t o under stand t he naturalr ul
[Link] ato claimed t hat
under standinghisi deaofI deasr equi
redt heuseofr [Link] heconcept
ofr easonev enf artherbycl aimingthatr easonwasaGod- givengift
.Asar esult
,
reasonwasessent i
ali ntheinteracti
onbet weenmanandGod. Nat
urallaw became
availableandappl i
cabl etoallhumanbei ngsasar esultofr eason(whichhadbeen
givent oallindiv
idual s).TheRoleofReasonandWi llinSuárezandFi nni
s' Theori
esI n
thischapt er,we'l
llookatt wocompet ingviewpointsonr easonandwi l
[Link]árez,one
oft hemosti nf
luent ialexcl
usivelypenall aw scholars,presentsthefirst,whereas
Finnispr esentsthesecond. .

Suárezwasoneoft hemosti nfl

uentialsol elycr i
mi nallawphilosophersofal l
ti
[Link] abl
ishedaphi losophyont hepr inciplesofr easonandwi l
lthatFi nnis
woul dev entuall
yr ejectsev eralcenturi
esl at
[Link]ár ezdescr i
bedf r
eeandpur posef ul
humanact i
v i
ti
esasasequenceofi nterconnect edel ement [Link] ai
nedt hatt he
human mi nd was sophi st i
cated enough t o under stand and see a pr obable
consequence att he end oft hatchai n ofev ent st hrough t he use ofr eason.
Further more,Suár ezst atedt hateveni faper sonmi ghtenv isionapr obable" good"
concl usionf r
om aser i
esofev ents,theci rcumst ancest illneededt hattheper son
acti
v elydesi rethat" good"out comef orhi msel f.I
nt heend,Suár ezbel i
evedt hat
desiret obet hehumanmi nd'sfree"will
."Suár ezdef inedt he‘reason'ast hethought s
thatf ol
lowed t hatdesi r
e( forexampl e,an i ntelli
genthuman mi nd's abili
tyt o
contempl at
emul t
ipleconsequencesv i
adi ff
erentchoi ces).Sof ar
,Suárezhasagr eed
withStThomasAqui nas'i
deas.

I
ncont r
astt oStThomasAqui nas,Suárezbel ievest hatone'sdeedsbegi n
withone'[Link] smeantt hathumanact iv
itywasmot iv
atedbyt he‘wil
l'ofa
superior
,andt hatthepol i
ti
calar enawasr uledbyt he‘will
'ofahi [Link]
Aquinasmadeadi stinct
ioni nt [Link] oaper son' s
decisi
on-makingpr ocesst hathenamed" command. "Hewasr eferr
ingt oanor der
thatcamef r
om one' sr [Link] dserv easamodelf orhowoneshoul dbehav e.
This'command'coul dbeexpl ainedast her esul
tofone' si nt
elli
gencegui dingone' s
decisi
onsand,asar esult
,[Link] ntenti
onoft he‘ command'wast ocompel
onet otakeanact ionwi t
ht hegoalofachi ev i
ng‘thegoodofanend' andt aki
ngi nto
accounttheappr opriatenessoft [Link] herthant hef r
eewi ll
,theset wogoal s
shouldbeat tri
butedt o" r
eason. "Howev er,thefree‘wi l
l'waspr esupposedbyt he
‘
command, 'becauseone' sdesiref oraspeci f
icgoalguidedone' sact i
ons.

The f
oll
owi ng wi
llbe mentioned t
o summar i
ze whatSuár ez has said
regardi
ng the concepti
ons ofreason and wil
l,as wel
las to demonst ratethe
diff
erencesbetweenSuárez'
[Link]ár ezand
StThomasAqui nasbothagr
eedthatthehumanmi nd'
sfr
ee"wi
ll
"wasr efl
ectedinthe
 86

desir
esthatpeopl ehadwhi l
edeci di
ngbet weenopt i
onsi nsi t
uati
onswi thmul tipl
e
[Link] hatthoughtsar isingf rom thatdesire,suchaswei ghing
thebenefi
tsanddr awbacksofacer t
ainoption,wer egi v
ent [Link]árez,ont he
otherhand,fel
tthathumanact i
vi
tywasdr ivenbyt he‘ wil
l'
ofasuper i
orandthatt he
poli
ti
calarenawascont roll
edbyt he‘wil
l'ofahi [Link] er
,StThomasAqui nas
added a componentt o a per son's deci sion-maki ng process t hathe dubbed
"command. "He was r efer
ri
ng t o an or dert hatcame f rom one' [Link]
'
command' ser
vedasagui delineforpeople'sact ions.

Ov er
all
,reasonhasbeenamaj oraspectofnat urallaw sy stemssi ncet he
[Link] ebeenabl etocompr ehendt heunder ly
ingmor al
soft he
naturallawst hankst oreason.106Reasonwascr ucialtoPl at
obecausei tallowed
thehumanmi ndt ocompr ehendgoodandev i
lideasaswel lasr ecogni zespeci fi
c
subjectsthatexistedi nreali
ty.
Reason, accordi
ngt oCi cero,wasagi ftfr
om t heGods
tohumani ty
.Thisgi ftwasgi vent oal lpeopleinor derf orthem togr aspwhatt he
naturallaw wasandt obeabl etoenj oycer t
ainr i
ghtsder iv
edf rom i [Link]
Aquinaswentmuchf urt
her,explainingwhyhebel i
evesr easonandGodar eoneand
thesame. Healsosai dthatunet hicalandill
ogicallawswer enotlawsatal l
.Nat ural
l
aw was an abst ractconceptt hatt he human mi nd mi ghtunder stand through
reasoningdur i
ngPl ato'
sday .Natur all
awev olv
edi ntoamor eunder standablei deaof
acol lect
ionofnor msanddut iest hatcompr i
sedt hel aw ofnat i
onsasar esultof
Grotius'works.

Suárezal sopr oposedt heori

est hatwer er elevanttobot ht heprinci
plesof
reasonandf reewi ll
.Reasonandwi ll
,inhisopi nion, weretwodi sti
nctcomponent sat
oppositeendsofachai nofhumanact i
v iti
[Link] ntell
ectt
hathumanspossessed
wasr epresent edbyr [Link] hisintelligencetoev al
uat etheresult
sof
vari
ousact [Link]'desi retochooset hemostdesi redoutcomef orthemsel ves
wasanexpr essionoff reewill
.Suárezclai medt hathumanbei ngs' desir
ewasgui ded
[Link] rlogicnecessit
atedaspeci f
iccour seofactionand, asaresult,a
specif
icr esul t
.Finni
sr efi
ned naturallaw t heor i
es i nto a basic pict
ure ofwhat
humani tyregar dedt obegoodi nhiswor [Link] acticall ogi
cmightexpl ainthisgener al
understandingofwhatwasgood.( Randal l,2009)

Agai n,weobser v
eal inkbet weenr easonandwi llinthepr ecedingpar agraph.
Theyar e,howev er,dist
inctel ement swi thdi fferentl egalt radit
[Link] evi
ousl y
stated, reasonhasbeenex pl
or edinthecont extofnat ur allawt r
[Link] ural
l
awandl egalposi ti
vism school shavebot hdi scussedf reewi l
l.
Aspr evi
ouslyst ated,
thenat urall awandl egalposi ti
v i
sm tradit
ionsar edi amet ri
call
[Link] esult,
thisi mpl iest hatr easonandwi l
larebot hconf licti
ngnot i
[Link] l
lhav e
quitedi ffer entdef i
niti
onsatt [Link] ali
tyandr easonhav eal way sbeenl inked
i
nhi story .Aswecanseef rom Kel sen'sar gument s,fr eewi l
lhasnotbeenl i
nkedt o
mor [Link] rdRei chi nGermanypr ov i
dedar ealexampl eofal egalregimei n
whi chf reewi llstoodoni [Link] tunately,f oll
owi ngl egaltheor i
escr eatedby
i
nt ell
ect ual slikeasFi nnis,Dwor ki
n,andRazhav ehi ghl i
ght edthei mpor tanceoff ree
willbeingi nf l
uencedbyr easonaswel l.
 87

Foll
owi ngar eview ofhistor i
calperspecti
vesont heconcept sofr easonand
wil
l,i
tisobvioust hatbothar eessent i
alcomponent sofany‘ good'l
egal [Link]
alegaltheoryshoul dalway sbet hef oundati
onofawel l-
functi
oninglegalsy stem.A
goodlegalsy stem requir
esbot ht heprinci
plesofr easonandwi ll
.
Theyar er eli
anton
eachot [Link] simpliest hattheconcept sofr easonand wi l
lar edi amet ri
call
y
[Link] derabat terywitht wopoles, onenegativ
eandoneposi ti
[Link] e
bothnecessar yforthebat t
erytofunct i
on,yetthei
rpolari
tiesarecompl etelydi f
ferent.

ASSESSMENT:

Gi
venName: M.
I.
:
Sur
name:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er:
ETHI
CS CHAPTER15:THEDI
FFERENCE
BETWEENREASONANDWI LL

AssessmentQuest
ions:

1. Dist
ingui
shr easonf r
om willt
hroughareal
-l
ifeexper
[Link]
be
how yourper sonalwillpr
evai
ledovery
ourr easonandhow r eason
tookprecedenceov eryourwil
l
.

2. Ci
teal if
e-changi
ng experi
ence i
nt he past whi
ch made y
ou
al
ter
/changey ourv
iewofyourmoralbehavi
orinthepr
esent
.
 88

REFERENCES:

Fr
anci
scoSuár
ez,
DeLegi
busDeoLegi
slat
ore(
fi
rstpubl
i
shedi
nCoi
mbr
a1612)Book
I
,ch9.

JohnMi
tchel
lFi
nni
s,Nat
uralLawandNat
uralRi
ght
s(Cl
arendonPr
ess1980)
.

Minnevi
k,Nat
ali
e,ReasonandWi
l
lAHi
stor
icalRev
iewf
rom t
hePoi
ntofVi
ewoft
he
Theori
es

ofNatur
alLaw,LegalPosi
ti
vi
sm andt
heAnal
yti
calPhi
l
osophi
esofLaw
Pr
esent
edby

Dwor
kinandRaz.

StThomasAqui
nas,SummaTheol
ogi
caI
a-I
Iae,5v
ols(
fi
rstpubl
i
shed1485,Fat
her
s
oft
he

Engl
i
shDomi
nicanPr
ovi
ncet
rs,
Chr
ist
ianCl
assi
cs1948)

CHAPTER16:
MORALTHEORI
ESANDMENTALFRAMES:
Whyt
heyar
e
impor
tant

Mor altheor
iesaren'tj
usttheor
iesinthesensethatt hey'
redi
[Link] ,
too,ar
ef oundedonr epeatedobservat
ions,ar
el i
kel
ytoincorporat
ehypotheses,and
seekt o explai
n and just
ifya vari
etyofmor alorethicaljudgmentsin specifi
c
i
nstances.

Mor altheori
es,ont heotherhand,arenott hesameassci enti
fi
ct heori
es.
Observati
on ofnat urepr ovi
destheev i
dencet hatscient
if
ict heori
esat t
emptt o
expl
[Link] alj
udgmentsarethefactsthatmoraltheori
esattemptt o
expl
ain;judgementst hathave,wemi ghtsay,passedthetestofcompet entl ogi
cal
andcr i
ti
[Link]
ncti
[Link] oyourconsi dered
j
udgment st ogivethedat abywhichweappr ai
set headequacyofmor altheoriesin
thecaseofmor alt
heories.

Evenwitht
hisdi
sti
ncti
onacknowledged,moraltheori
esareused,andt
hey
ar
ety
pical
lyusedi
nver
ysimil
arwaystothei
rscient
if
iccounter
par
ts.

Ausef
ult
heor
ygi
vesaf
ramewor
kfort
hest
rat
egi
stt
ogr
aspt
hedy
nami
csoft
he
 89

complexstr
ategi
cenvi
ronment
,aswell
asrecognizabl
esignsorwarni
ngsignal
sof
changeandagreed-
uponwaystocopewit
[Link]
ssimplyone'
sint
erpret
ati
on
ofcauseandeffect
.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES:

[Link]
aint
her
oleofment
alf
ramesi
nmor
alexper
ience;
and

[Link]
assi
fyt
hedomi
nantment
alf
rames.

Mor
alTheor
ies

Throughouthi
stor
y,avari
etyofmoralt
heori
esandtradi
ti
onshavear
[Link]'l
lgo
overeachonei ndetai
lbel
ow,wit
hexplanat
ionsandcompari
sonstoot hermoral
theor
ies.

Consequent
ial
i
sm

Unli
kev i
rt
ueanddeont ol
ogical
theori
es,consequent i
ali
sttheor
iesmaintai
nthatonl
y
theresul
ts,oroutcomes,ofact
ionsaremor all
ysignif
[Link]
sareregarded
ethi
call
ycorrectpurel
yonthebasisoftheirresul
ts,accordingt
othi
sv i
ewpoint.
Util
i
tari
anism i
sthemostpopularvari
antofconsequent i
ali
sm.

Deont
ology

Deontologicalvi
ews( deri
vedf r
om theGr eekterm deon,whichmeansduty )
clai
mt hatcertai
nbehav i
orsareintri
nsical
lyri
ghtorwr ong,thati
s,ri
ghtorwrongin
and oft hemselves,regardl
essoft heconsequencest hatmayr esul
tfrom such
acti
ons. Theconf ormanceofachoi ceoractiontoamor alnormiswhatmakesi t
ri
[Link] esult
,anactorhasamor alobli
gati
ont oactinli
newi t
hamor alst
andard,
regardl
essofthe( possi
blyposit
ive)consequencesofdoingso.

Parents,f
orexampl e,maybesai dtohavear esponsi
bil
i
tytocarefortheir
chi
ldr
[Link] ologi
calbasis,parent
smustf ulfi
llt
hiscommi t
ment,eveni f
fai
l
ingtodosowoul dresul
tinasignif
icantbenef
itt
ot heparents(i
ncr
easedfi
nancial
savi
ngs,forexample).

Someactions,
accor
dingt
ot hedeont
ologi
cal
viewpoint
,cannotbej
ust
if
iedby
thei
[Link],theendsdo notj usti
fythemeansf orthe
deontol
ogi
st.

Indeed,I mmanuelKant ,per haps t he most well-

known proponent of
deontol
ogicalethics,obser
ved,"
Actsot hatyourespecthumanity
,bothinyourown
person and int he person ofanother,always as an ai
m and neveronlyas a
means."Kant,li
ke ot herdeontologi
sts( Thomas Hobbes and John Locke,f or
example),beli
evedt hatourmor alobli
gati
onsaref oundedonal ogi
[Link]
 90

standar
dinKant'
scaseisacat egori
cali
mper at
[Link]
ssi
ngl
erat
ional
i
typr
inci
ple
encompassesal
lofourspeci
fi
cresponsi
bil
i
ties.

Just
iceasFai
rness

Just i
ceasf air
nessi saconceptofj ust icepr oposedbyJohnRawl si nhis
book A Theor y ofJust [Link] sv iew ofj ustice i s concer ned wi th soci et
y'
s
fundament alstructure, or"society'
skeypol i
tical,const i
tuti
onal ,social,andeconomi c
i
nstitutionsandhow t heyf ittogetherov ert i
met obui l
dacohesi v ef ramewor kof
socialcooper ati
on. "“
Just i
ceasf ai
rnessi snotacompl etecont actt heor y,
”say s
Rawl s,whoconst ructsj usticeasf airnessinar elativel
yr estri
ctiv
ef ramewor [Link]
s
goali stodemonst r
at ehowacooper ativesur plusofr esourcesshoul dbedi str
ibuted
toindi v
idualsi nsoci [Link] esult
,justiceasf airnessi spr edi
catedont woi mpl i
cit
assumpt i
onsaboutt hecul tur
esi nquest i
on:f i
rst,t hatsoci alcooper ationi sv iabl
e
and can benef i
tev eryone;and second,t hatt her ei sar easonabl e sur plus of
accessi bleresour cest odi str
ibute.
Whenr esour cesar escar ce,justiceasf airness
cannotbeut il
izedt odet erminet her i
ghtdi st r
ibutionofsacr ifi
cest obemadeby
society'smember s.I tcannot ,mor e broadly ,assi stusi ni denti
f yi
ng j ustsoci al
poli
ciesi ncul tureswher ebackgr oundconst raints( e.
g.,lackofnat uralr esour ces,
cult
ur al bar r
iers,war) hav e r ender ed mut ually benef i
cial soci al cooper ati
on
i
mpossi ble.

Themet hodf orestabli

shinghow t hebasi cf ramewor kshoul dbel aidoutis
basedonat houghtexper imenti nwhi chr ational ,mut ual
lydi sinterestedpersons
adoptpri
nciplesofjust i
cewhi l
ehiddenbehi ndav eilofignor ance,whi chmeanst hey
areunawar eofspeci fi
cdetail
saboutt hemsel ves( e. g.
,personal  
values, r
ace,gender,
l
evelofincome)ort hesocietyinwhi chtheylive( e.g.,societalstageofdev el
opment ,
economicci r
cumst ances).Howev er,whendeci dingont hesepr i
nciples,theparti
es
haveabr oadunderst andi
ngofsoci al
,psychologi cal, andeconomi cissues, aswellas
anunderstandingoft hecir
cumst ancesofj usticei nt hesociet ytowhi chtheybelong.

Theseindivi
dualswi llprobablyembr acet wopr inci
plesofj ust
icebasedon
thi
shy potheti
calbeginningcondi t
ion,whi
chRawl sreferstoast he"ori
ginalposit
ion.
"
Thef i
rstistheequall ibertypri
nciple,whichstatest hat"eachper sonhasanequal
ri
ghttot hemostcompr ehensi
veschemeofbasi cliberti
esconsistentwithasi mil
ar
schemeofl i
bert
iesf orothers.
"Thesecondi st hat"socialandeconomi ci nequal
iti
es
aretobeor gani
zedi nsuchawayt hattheyarebot hr easonablyexpectedt obet o
every
one' sbenefi
t,andt i
edt ooffi
cesandpost sopent oeveryone."

Thewhol eimpl ement at i

onofjusti
ceasf airnesscanbet houghtofasaf our-
steppr [Link] irstst agei nvolv
esdel i
berat
ionsov erthet wopr [Link]
establ
ishing the two pr inciples,the parti
es graduallyl i
ftthe veilofi gnorance,
determining mor e par t
icularpr inci
ples ofjustice as t hey have mor e detail
ed
knowledgeaboutsoci etyatl aterphases.
Thepar t
ieslear nmoreaboutt hepol it
ical
andeconomi csituat
ionsofsoci etyinthesecondst age, andthendraftaconst i
tuti
on
thatisconsi stentwi tht het wo pri
ncipl
[Link] t
iesagr eeonl egislati
onand
 91

poli
ci
est hati
mplementt het wopri
nci
pleswi
thi
nt heagr
eed-uponconst
itut
ional
fr
amewor kinthethi
[Link]
ti
eshaveallav
ail
abl
einformati
onabouttheir
soci
etyatt hi
spoint,and theyappl
yt heexi
sti
ng l
awsand polici
esto speci
fi
c
i
nstances.

OneofRawl s'mai ngoal

si npr esentingj usticeasf air
nessi stodemonst rate
thatt hesoci etyitproducesmayl astendl essl y.
Rawl saccompl ishest hi
sgoalby
empl oyi
ngt hej ustsav ingsprinciple,ani nt ergener at
ionalsav ingsr ul
eai medt o
ensuret hatf ut
ur egener ati
onshav eenoughr esour cest omai ntainjustinsti
tuti
ons.
Rawl sfurtherclaimsthatt hesocietycr eat
edbyt het wopr i
nciplesiscompat i
blewith
cit
izens'interestsandt hatpersonscandev elopt her equir
edwi ll
ingnesst ofoll
ow
thesepr i
[Link] esult,t
hesoci etyt hatr esultsf r
om theappl icati
onofj usti
ceas
fai
rnessi sstableandcanbeant i
cipat edt olastper pet uall
y.

Howev er,t he ar guments presented by Rawl si n A Theor y ofJust ice

supportingthest abili
tyofj usti
ceasf airnessar enotcompel l
[Link] sf ai
lst o
accountf ort
olerableplurali
ty,whi
chisanecessar ycomponentofanyconst i
tut i
onal
democr acywithguar anteedliber
ti
es.
Asar esul
t,inPoli
ti
calLiber
alism,Rawlsr ecasts
hisargumentsf orthest abil
i
tyofjust
iceasf air
ness,att
empt ingt
oshowt hat,despite
reasonabledisagreementonmanyi ssues,ci t
izenswillagreeonal imit
ed,pol i
ti
cal
conceptionofjusti
cet hroughanov er
lappingconsensusoft heiri
ndi v
idualvi
ewpoi nts.

Ut
il
it
ari
ani
sm

Accordingtout i
l
itari
anism,acti
vi
tiesaremoral
lycorr
ectifandonl yifthey
maxi mizet hegood ( or,alt
ernati
vel
y,mi ni
mizesthebad).Manyut il
it
ari
ans,l i
ke
JeremyBent ham andJohnSt uartMil
l(aswel lasmanycontemporar
yut i
l
itari
ans),
considerpleasureorwel l
-bei
ngt oconsti
tute"t
hegood.
"Thus,act
ivi
ti
esareet hi
call
y
correctifand onl yi fthey enhance pleasure orwel
l-
bei
ng orl i
mitsui ci
dali
ty,
accordingtot hi
sviewpoint.

Hedonist
ic ut
il
it
ari
anism isat er
m used to descr
ibe t
his appr
[Link]
ri
ghtnessofouract i
vi
tiesisdeter
minedonl
ybyt heconsequencesofpl easur
eor
painforhedoni
sti
cuti
li
tari
ans.

Other goods may be consi

der
ed in util
i
tar
ian t
heor
ies. Prefer
ence
uti
l
itar
iani
sm,forexampl
e,consi
der
snotonl
ypleasur
esbutalsot
hef ul
fi
llmentof
anyprefer
ence.

Uti
l
itari
anism canbedi videdinav ari
[Link]-
uti
li
tar
iani
sm asser
ts
thateachandev er
yindiv
idualactionrequi
resautil
i
tar
iananal
[Link]
the moralr i
ghtness orwr ongness ofeach acti
on we propose to conductby
perfor
mingthiscomput at
ion.

Bydefi
ningmor alst
andardsthat
,whenfollowed,producetheopt
imalresul
ts,
r
ule-uti
li
tar
iani
sm al l
eviat
es the l
oad thatact-uti
li
tari
anism pl
aces on pr
act i
cal
t
[Link]"donotkill
"isanexampleofr
ule-uti
li
tari
anism.
Asageneralr
ule,we
 92

wouldbebet
terof
f,t
hati
s,wewoul
dachi
evet
hebestr
esul
tsorst
ateofaf
fai
rs,
ifwe
al
lfol
lowedt
herul
e"don'
tki
ll
."

Vi
rt
ueEt
hics

Focusesont
hechar
act
eroft
heagent
. Av
irt
uousagentwi
l
lactmor
all
y.

TheancientGr eekphil
osopherAr i
stotl
eiscreditedwithestabli
shingvi
rt
ueethi
cs.
Ethi
cs,accordingtovirt
uet heor
ies,i
saboutact ors,notact
ionsorconsequences.
Havingtherightcharacterquali
ti
es(vir
tues)and, asaresul
t,havingtheappr
opri
ate
moralcharacteriswhati tmeanst oli
veanethical,orgood,li
fe.

Ment
alFr
ames

Pet erSenger eferst o assumpt ionsr egardingcauseandef fectasment al

model sinhislandmar kbookTheFi f
thDi [Link] s,accordi
ngtoSenge,
are"deepl yest abli
shed beliefs,gener alizati
ons,orev en ideas and i mages that
i
mpacthow weseet hewor ldandact "(Senge1990:8) .Ment almodel sar
ehelpful
and,insomecases,necessar yWef ormv iewsaboutcausat ionandconsequence
thr
oughnat [Link] son'
sment almodelmaybet hatthepr omiseofmonet ary
rewardsmot i
vatesot herstodot heirbestwor [Link] soncoul dbel
iev
et hat
theintri
nsi csatisf
act i
onoft heef fortitselfi sthebestdet er minantofgoodand
conscientiouswor [Link] almodel scanbedescr i
bedi nt er
msofcauseand
eff
ect.A goodment almodeli sonet hatcanbedi [Link] s,wecant est
model sandhy pothesesbyexper i
ment sorsi mpl ybycontinui ngt oobserv
eev ents
andout comes.

Weempl oyamet hodknownassy st

emst hinkingtoputt heoriesorment al
model sto work. Whi le str
ategi
ct hinki
ng considerst he l
arge pict
ur e,systems
thinkingstart
swi thar eal-
worldoccur renceandadesi retocompr ehendt hecause-
and- eff
ectinteract
ionst hatdef i
nea" syst
em."A sy stemst hinkerconsi derst he
element sofanor ganizati
onasdy nami cfeat
uresoft hewholeinor dertounder stand
how i tfunct
ions. The sy stems t hinkerisf ascinat
ed by the i nt
errelat
ionships
bet weentheelement sofanor ganization.

Thoughament almodel
—at heoryaboutcauseandef f
ect—mayhelpusgr asp
thedy namicsandwor ki
ngsofthewor ldaroundus,bl indl
yfoll
owingestabli
shed
model scanbeper i
lous. Wehavefail
edassy st
emst hinkerswhenwecloseourey es
tocont r
adi
ctor
yf actsandf ai
ltoperceiv
et heflawsinourbel i
efsaboutcauseand
effect
.Ofcourse,historyisl
it
ter
edwi t
hexampl esofpeopl edoggedl
yholdingtool d
paradigmsi nthef aceofov erwhelmingev i
dencet hatanew wayoft hinki
ngi s
requir
ed.

Ment
almodelsserveasthelensesthr
[Link]
onwhatishappeninginsi
deourf r
ames,ignorantt
owhatishappeni
ngoutsideof
them,whi
chcanleadtodeadlybl
[Link]
uli
nthatt
heyguideour
 93

at
tenti
ontothei nfor
mat i
onwe'relooki
ngfor.
Howev er
,theycanli
mitourperi
pheral
vi
sion,pr
eventi
ngusf r
om spotti
ngv i
tali
nfor
mat i
onand,potent
ial
ly
,opport
unit
ies.
Mentalmodels,onceli
berated,
canbecomechai ns.

ConsiderDonal dSchon'sconceptofagener ativemet aphorasanexampl eof

how ment almodel sandf ramescangr ow outofhand.  
Agener ati
vemet aphorisa
"i
mpl i
citmet aphort hathasthepowert ocastaspel loveragr oupofpeopl e."Ev ery
soluti
onisi nterpret
edi ntermsoftheimpl i
edmet aphor.
”Somewor kplacecultures,
forexampl e,empl oysportsasagenerati
vemet aphor,character
izingev entsinspor t
s
j
ar gonandpr esenti
ngr emediesas"gamepl ans.
" Thisty peofgener at
ivemet aphor
canbebenef ici
al,butitcanalsolimitcreati
vi
tyandpr oblem-solvi
ngbecauset he
"team"mayl oseoutoni deasandsol uti
onsthatar en'
tuniquet ot hemet aphorical
wor l
dathand.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER16:
MORALTHEORI
ES
ETHI
CS ANDMENTALFRAMES:
Whyt
hey
ar
eimpor
tant

AssessmentQuest
ions:

1. Analy
zet hegi v
ensit
uat
ion:Ast udentofMr .Jarv
is’classwasabsentfora
weekwi thoutnoti
[Link] hef ol
lowingweek,thest udentr
epor
tedtoclass
wit
hbr ui
[Link] his,explai
nt hepossi
bil
i
tyofwhathappenedt othe
chi
ldusingy ourment
alf
ramesasbasi s.

2. Cl
assi
fythefol l
owingsit
uationsbyusi ngt hedifferentment alframes:
a. Jarwinasawaf emalecol l
eaguer i
dingamot or
cyclewi thanunknown
man. Jar wi
na assumed t hatt his man i sthe boy fr
iend ofher
coll
eague.
b. Mikaelaal waysleavest heof f
icelat eint heafter
[Link] don
dutyassumedt hatMi kael aisahardwor kingempl oyee.
c. SecretaryAny ossaidt hataf termar r
yingsomeoney ouwi l
lhav ea
beautifull
ifefor
[Link] i
zenassumedt hatheisst upid.
d. Marcel a always comes t ot he of fi
ce wi th a messy hai r
. Her
offi
cemat es thoughtt hatMar celai s hav i
ng a pr oblem wi th her
husband.
e. Edwar da alwaysf eelsl ike vomiting everymor ni
ng. Hermot her
assumedt hatherdaught erispregnant.
 94

3. SubmitaRefl
ecti
onPaper
.Whati
sthebi
ggercont
exti
nwhi
chImakemy
i
ndiv
idual
deci
sions?

REFERENCES

JohnRawls,Pol
  it
icalLiberal
ism:ExpandedEdi ti
on (
NewYor k:Col
umbiaUniv
ersit
y
Press,
2005),xl
i(fn7) .
JohnRawls,ATheor
  yofJust i
ce:RevisedEdit
ion 
(Cambridge:
TheBelknapPressof
HarvardUniversi
tyPress,1999) ,15.
JohnAustin,
 Lectur
esonJur isprudenceandthePhi l
osophyofPosit
iveLaw 
([Link]
r
Shores,
MI:Scholarl
yPr ess,1977)

JohnFinni Nat
s,
  ur
alLawandNat ur
alRi
ghts 
(Oxf
ord:Clar
endonPress,1980)
JosephRaz, TheAuthori
tyofLaw:EssaysonLawandMor al
i
ty 
(Oxford:Clar
endon
Press,
(1979)
MichaelMoor e,
“LawasaFunctionalKi
nd,
”inGeorge,
 Natur
alLawTheor y,188-242
 95

CHAPTER17:ARI
[Link]
NASONVI
RTUEETHI
CS
Prudence,orpr acticalwisdom,accor di
ngt oAr i
stotl
e,i
sav irt
ueofmi ndthat
i
spr acticalr
atherthant heor eti
cal,aswel lasdeli
berati
ver at
herthani ntuiti
v e.I
tisthe
i
nt ell
ect ualvi
rt
uet hatper fectsthinkingint hearenaofhumanact iondeci sion-making.
Thi sv i
rtueentailsbeinggoodatt hinkingabouthowt ohav eaf ulfi
l
ledl if
ei ngener al
andbei ngsuccessf ulindoi ngso. Onl ythepr udentpersoncanbet r
ulyjust ,bold,and
temper ate,and onl yt he pr udentper son can be t ruly [Link] ei s a basic
relationshipbet weenpr udenceandmor alvir
tue,accordingtoAr i
[Link]
cont ingenton t he pr esence of speci ficinherentchar acterist
[Link] tet he
significanceofpr udenceand t heet hicallif
e,Ar i
stotl
ebel i
ev est hatt hehuman
i
ndi vidual,equippedwi tht hedivineel ementofr eason,i
scapabl eofabet termanner
ofl i
ving.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
 96

Thest
udentshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ti
cul
atewhatv
irt
ueet
hicsi
s;

[Link]
it
iquev
irt
ueet
hics;
and

[Link]
irt
ueet
hics.

Thisisthelifeofcont empl ation, thel ifededi catedtotheappr eciati

onoft ruth,
theli
femostaki ntot [Link] i
st otleisSt .ThomasAqui nas'Philosopher .In
his Comment ary on Ar ist
otle'
s' Ni comachean Et hics,
'Aqui nas carefull
yf ollows
Arist
otle'saccountofpr [Link] udence,het eaches,i sapr acticalintelli
gence
vir
tuet hatispar ti
cularl
yl i
nkedt ot hemor alvirt
[Link] hi
call
yexcel lent ,one
mustpossess mor alchar acteristics t hatnecessi tate prudentj udgment .Ot her
famousexper t
sofhi st i
me, parti
cul ar l
ySt .Al berttheGr eat,advocatedmor eaccur ate
i
nterpretati
onsofAr i
stotle'
snot i
onofpr udencet hanAqui nas'inhi
sSuperEt [Link]
changesanddeepenspar tsofAr istot l
e'sv iewsonpr udencei nbothhi sComment ary
onAr i
st ot
le'
s"NicomacheanEt hics"andot hermor et heol
ogicalwriti
ngs,suchashi s
SummaTheol [Link] e,Aqui nasf eelsthatAr i
stotl
e'
sdef i
niti
onoful timat e
end orhumanf l
ourishing,asdef ined byAr i
stotlehi mself,canonl yber eal i
zed
i
mper fectlyi
nt hi
swor l
d.

Thebasi cconcer noft hevir

tuet heoristis:howcanIl iveagoodl if
e?Thebest
existence, accor dingt oAr i
stotl
e,wast hatofacompl etelyreali
zedhumanbei ng:one
whoexcel l
edi nal lhumancapaci ti
es,suchast hecapaci t
yf oremot i
on,pr acti
cal
reason,andt heor eticalr ati
onali
ty.
Thiswasal ifefullofhumanachi evement .The
virt
uesofaper sonar et het rai
ts(kindness,gener osit
y,cour age. .
.)thatenabl ei tto
excelasahumanbei ng,justast hev i
rtuesofat ool(e.g.,apen)ar et hosef eat ures
(e.g.,hav i
ngf lowi ngi nk)t hatenabl et hetoolt oex ecutei t
sr ightfulpur pose( e.g.
,
wr i
ti
ng) .Vi
rtuesar et endenci esto acti n speci f
icway sf orspeci f
iccausesand
feeli
[Link] heat t
ri
buteofcour agei fshei swill
ingt ot akecal culated
ri
sksf orthesakeofv i
talgoal swi t
houtbecomi ngpani [Link] fersf rom t he
viceofcr uelt
yi fsheenj oysi nj
uri
ngot herswi thoutr egardf ortheirwel l
-being. Vi
rtue
ethics,unl i
keut ili
tarianism anddeont ology,doesnotpr ovideaf ormulaf ordeci ding
howt oact .Rather ,itcanonl yserveasamodelf orhowweshoul dwantt obe, forthe
type of char act er we shoul d stri
vef or:possessi ng t he char act erist
ics t hat
char acteri
zeaf ull
ydev elopedhumanper son.

Theeternal
law'spreceptsthatcontr
olthebehaviorofbeingswithreasonand
freewil
lareknownast henat ur
[Link]
ngtoAqui nas,thefi
rstcommandment
oft henatur
allaw i
st herathervacuousi mperat
ivetodogoodandav oi
dev il
.It'
s
wor thmenti
oningthatAquinasbel i
evesinnat ur
allaw asabasi sf ormor al
it
y:The
rati
onalessenceofhumanbei ngs,accordi
ngt oAquinas,determineswhati sgood
[Link] esul
t,bothgoodandev i
lareobj
ecti
veanduni versal
.

Aqui
nas,ont heot
herhand,
isanatur
all
awl
egal t
heor
ist
.Accordi
ngtohim,a
humanl aw (
thatis,oneenactedbyhumans)isl
egit
imateonlyi
fitssubst
anceis
consi
stentwiththecontentofnatur
all
aw;asAquinasputsit
,"[
e]v
eryhumanl aw
 97

possessespr eci
sel
ysomuchoft henatureoflaw asi
sderiv
edf r
om thelaw of
nature."Butifitdev
iat
esfrom t
henatur
allawinanyway,i
tisnolongeralaw,buta
perversionoflaw.”(
STI-I
I,
Q.95,
A.I
I).

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER17:ARI
STOTLEAND
ETHI
CS
[Link]
NASONVI
RTUEETHI
CS

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link],
discussy
ourownv i
rt
ueethicswhi
chmadey
ouexcel
asaGod-
fear
inghumanbei
ngbyciti
ngpersonal
exper
iences.

2. Rol anda,agov ernmentempl oyeeisknownt obeadedi cat

edandcommi t
ted
publi
cser [Link] ,
shewasof f
eredtodoaf av
orbyforgi
ngthesignatureofthe
headofof f
icewher eshewasassi gnedinexchangeforP100,000.00. Shesecretl
y
agreed and got t he money as pr omised. Two weeks af t
er,cr i
minaland
administrati
vechar geswerefil
edagai nstherandnowshei sdoomedt oanswerher
l
iabil
it
ies. Cr i
tiquet hestr
engthoft hev i
rt
uesofRolandaincompl et
elyyiel
dingto
doingthecr i
mi nalandadmi ni
str
ativeacts.

[Link] ngt
hesamesit
uati
on,makeaReact
ionPaperassert
ingt
hevi
rtueethi
cst
hat
Rolandacoul
dhaveappli
edandthepossi
blewayswhi chshecoul
dhav edoneto
avoidcommit
ti
ngsuchact
.
 98

REFERENCES

Aquinas,
 [Link], Morali
tyandPolit
ics 
(I
ndianapolis:Hacket tPublishi
ngCo.,
1988)
Bentham, Jer
emy .OfLawsI nGeneral
 (
London: At
hlonePr ess, 1970)
Bentham, Jer
emy .ThePr i
nci
plesofMor al
sandLegi sl
ation (NewYor k:HafnerPress,
1948)
George,Robert,“NaturalLaw andPositiv
eLaw, ”inGeor ge, TheAut onomyofLaw,
321-334
George, 
[Link]:ContemporaryEssay s 
(Oxf ord:ClarendonPress,
1992)
CHAPTER18:
Immanuel
Kant
’sTheor
yofRi
ght
s
Kant '
sright s-basedl i
beralism i sfrequent lycontrastedwi thl aterFi chteand
Hegel'scommuni tarianaut horitarianism,andt heconceptofaut onomyi swi dely
regardedast het heor et i
calfountofKant '
st heor yofnat ur alrights,pr ov i
dingthe
analyti
callinkbet weenKant 'smor alphilosophyandhi spoli
ticalandl egalt heory.
The
authorcont endst hatt hisv i
ewpoi nti sincor r
ect:Wi thoutKant '
ssubst antiveaccount
ofhumannat ure,whi chspeci f
iesbot ht hel egi
timat emor alobj ectivest hatpeopl e
shouldai mf orandt heant hropol ogicallimitsofhumanper fecti
bi l
it
y ,theconceptof
autonomybecomesl esscont entandi ncapableofof f
eringpr acticalpol iti
caland
l
egalpr escripti
[Link] 'sri
ghtst heor yisinfluencedbybot hset sofconsi derat
ions.
Inhislaterwr i
ti
ngs, Kantdev el
opsasoci all
ysensi tiveaccountoft hesel f,
andcomes
tobel i
evet hati ndividuall ibert
yi sdependenti ngr eatpar tont heachi evementof
parti
cularf avorablesoci ocult
uralandpol i
ti
calar r
angement s,cont raryt opopul ar
beli
[Link] i
ght s,l ike human l i
berty,are notahi stori
cal ,uni versalcr iter
ia of
poli
ti
calj usti
cef orKant ,butrathert hehi stori
calconsequenceofal ongenl ight
ened
[Link] esul t,whati scor rectwi l
lbedet erminedbywhati st i
mel [Link] s
mor eclosert oFicht eandHegel thani scommonl yr ecognizedi nt hisar ea.
 99

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Af
tert
hisl
esson,
thest
udentshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ti
cul
atet
her
ight
stheor
y;

[Link]
ff
erent
iat
eal
egal
andamor
alr
ight
;and

[Link]
her
ight
stheor
y.

Unli
keMi l
l,Kantfel
tthatcer t
ainacti
v i
ti
es( suchasmur der,t
heft,andlyi
ng)
shouldbeout lawedatanycost s,evenift
heconductwoul dproducemor ehappiness
thantheal t
ernati
[Link] i
onsKant iansmustaskt hemselvesanyti
me
theydecidet oact .
: 
 ICanIr ati
onall
ywishf orever yonetodoasIpr opose?Ifthe
responsei sno,wemustr ef
rainf r
om carr
yingoutt heactiv
ity.(
ii
)DoIacti naway
thatrespectshumangoal sratherthanexpl
oi t
ingt hem formyper sonalgain?Ifthe
responsei sno,weshoul dnotcar r
youttheact ion.( Kantthoughtthesequestions
wereinterchangeable.)

Kant'
sthesi
sisanexampl eofadeontologi
calmor
alt
heory
,whichhol
dsthat
theright
nessorwr ongnessofactionsisdeterminedbywhet
hertheysati
sfyour
obl
igati
onsrathert
hanthei
rconsequences.

Kantfel
tthatthereexi
stedasupr ememoralpr
incipl
e,whi
chhecal
l
edThe
Cat
egor
ical
Imperati
[Link]
atesourmoral
obli
gat
ions.

Moral
i
tyandi
mper
ati
ves:
 
 Whatdoesi
tmeanwhent
hecat
egor
icali
mper
ati
ve
det
ermi
nesone'
sdut
y?
Whati
sani mperat
ive?
 A commandiswhatanimperati
veis."Payy our
t
axes!
"aswel
las"
Stopki
cki
ngme!"and"
Don'
tmur
derani
mal
s!"areall
imperat
ives.

Hypothet
icalImper
ati
ves:thesecommandsar econdit
ionalony ouhavi
nga
rel
[Link],“st
udybi ol
ogyincollegeifyouwantt ogot omedical
school.
”Thi sdir
ectivedoesnotappl ytoy ouifyoudonotwi shtoat tendmedical
[Link] ourfathersays,
"Ify
ou'r
ehungry,eatsomethi
ng!"-
i
fyou'renothungr y,
youcanignorethedemand.

Cat
egori
calImperati
ves:
  
Thesecommandsaregiv
en wi
thoutreser
vati
on.
“Don'
tcheatony ourtaxes,
”forexampl
[Link]
mit
tedtocheat,evenif
doingsomightbenef
ityouri
nter
ests.

Whatisthe connect
ion between mor al
it
y and categor
icali mperati
ves? 
Moral
it
ymustbef oundedont hecategor
icali
mper at
ive,si
ncemor al
i
t yissucht hat
youarecompel
ledtofol
lowit
,andy oucannotrefusetodosoorsayt hatitdoesnot
appl
ytoyou.

Howdoesthecategori
cali
mperat
ivewor
k? Ther
ear
ethreedi
fferentv
ersi
ons
ofthecat
egori
cali
mperati
[Link]
stosay,t
her
earethr
eewaystoexpresswhatiti
s.
Kantbeli
evesthatal
lthreesayt hesamet hi
ng,butwhet
herthisisaccur at
eis
 100

curr
entlydebatabl
[Link]
ati
onisthemoststr
aightf
orwar
d,
thefi
rstisdef
init
elyacategor
ical
imper
ati
[Link]
nit
ial
for
mulat
ioni
sasfoll
ows.

1)Fi
rstf
ormulati
on(TheGlobalLaw For
mula):"Actsol
elyonthatmaxi
m bywhi
ch
youcani
ntendthati
tbecomeauniver
sallaw[ofnatur
e]atthesameti
me.
"

a)Whatisthedefi
nit
ionofamaxim?Amaxi misaruleorpri
ncipl
ethatgui
desyour
acti
ons.
 Forexample,Imightmakeitarul
etodonateatleastasmucht ochari
ty
eachyearasIspendoneat ingout
,ortodojustwhatwil
lassistamemberofmy
famil
y.

b)Basicconcept:Thedir
ecti
veessenti
all
yindi
cat
esthatyouarenotper
mi t
tedtodo
anyt
hing t
haty ou would notwill
ingl
yal l
ow ever
yone el
se t
o do. You are not
per
mittedtomakeper sonalexcepti
[Link] ol
low t
heir
commi t
ments,forexample,
youmustal sohonory
ourownpr omi
ses.

c)Mor especifi
call
y,itst
atest hateverymaximy oufoll
owmustbesucht hatyouar e
wil
li
ng t o make t he case t hat every
one f ol
l
ows t hat maxi m in i dentical
ci
rcumstances. Forexampl e,ifIwant edtogetwhat everIwant ed,I'
dhav et obe
wil
li
ngt omaket hecaset hatev er
yoneusuallyl
iedtogetwhatt heywant ed-butno
onewoul dbelieveyoui fthathappened,sot heliewouldnotwor kandy ouwoul dn't
getwhaty ouwant [Link],i
fyouwant edsuchamaxi m(oflying)tobecomeauni versal
l
aw,y ou'dbet hwarti
ngy ourownai m -so,ly
ingi sforbiddenbyt hecat egorical
i
mper ati
[Link]'
sill
egalbecauset heonl ywaytogetawaywi thlyi
ngi stoest abli
shan
excepti
onf oroneself
.

KantonMor
alWor
th

TheMor alWor thofPer sons: Kantalsoof f

erssomet hought sonwhatchar acteri
zes
adecentper [Link] nmi ndthatKanti ntendedt hist of i
tinwi t
ht herestofhi s
theory,andt hecat egor i
calimper ati
vewi l
ldefinewhatone' sr esponsibi
li
[Link]
someext ent ,though,onecani nterpretthi
sasasepar at
et heoryandassumet hat
one's obligat i
on is determined bya di ff
erentcr i
teri
on.  Keep i n mind thatt he
foll
owingdi scussi onisabouthowonev iewspeopl erathert [Link] son's
acti
v i
ti
esar eeitherri
ghtorbad,andheorshei smor all
ywor t
hyorunwor t
hy( i.
e.,is
mor al
lybase) .Themor alvalueofaper soni sdetermi nedbyheract s,butt herei s
mor etoitt handet erminingifthebehav i
orsarerightorev i
l
.

a)
 Backgr
oundconcept
s: Thi
schar
tshoul
dhel
pexpl
aint
hebasi
cs.

OurPerf
ectobligati
ons(j
usti
ceduti
es)ar
enegati
veinthatt
hey
for
bidusfrom performi
ngcertai
nbehavi
orsandcanonlybe
accompli
shedinv erypar
ti
cul
arways.

-
 101

Ourimper f
ectr
esponsi
bil
i
ties(vi
rtueduti
es)ar
eposit
ivei
nthat
theyforceustoexecut
epar t
icul
artypesofact
ivi
ti
eson
occasion.
 

Il
l
ustr
ati
on:
  
Wehav eaf lawlessresponsi
bil
i
[Link]
catesthatwe
mustnever
,ever,ever,ev er
,ever,ever
,ever
,ever
,ever
,ever
,ev er
,ever,Wehav ean
i
mperfectr
esponsibil
it
yt [Link]
smeanst hat
,wheni tdoesnot
cont
radi
ctwit
hourf ault
lessduties,weshoulddosoonoccasion.

Exampl
es:

Dut
ies 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 Per
fect
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 I
mper
fect

ToOt
her
s  
  
  
  
  
  
 t
ell
trut
h  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 assi
stot
her
sinneed

don’
tbr
eakpr
omi
ses 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  hel
pot
her
sachi
evegoal
s

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
don’
tst
eal
,mur
der
,ensl
ave

ToSel
f 
  
  
  
  
  nosui
cideor
  
  
  
  
  
  
 

dev
elopt
alent
s

 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
 ot
herf
ormsofsel
f-
dest
ruct
ion

b)Thebasi ci
dea: Kantcl ai
mst hataper son'sgoodnessorbadnessi sdetermined
bythemotivefortheiracti
v i
ti
es,notbythegoodnessoft heact i
ons'[Link]
Imeanby" motiv
ation"iswhatdr oveyout otaketheacti
on(i.
e.,yourreasonfordoing
i
t).Kantcl
aimst hatmor alwor t
h( i
.e.
,beingagoodper son)canonl ybeachi evedif
oneisdrivenbymor al
it
y. Toputi tanotherway ,ifaperson'
semot ionsordesires
dri
vethem toaccompl i
shany thi
ng,thatacti
oncannotbeconsi deredmor al
l
yv al
uable.
Alt
houghitmayappearst r
ange,thereisstrongreasontoagreewi thKant.

c)Whymot ivati
oni swhatmat [Link] ou'
vewont hejackpotandar eunsur e
whatt odowi thy [Link] dbet hemostenj oyablethingt o
dowi t
hi t:pur chaseay acht,tr
av elaroundt heworldinf i
rstclass,hav ethatknee
oper at
ion,[Link] det hatgi v
ingthemoneyt ochar it
yandenj oy i
ngt hat
uniquef eelingy ougetf rom maki ngpeopl ehappywoul dbemor efun,soIdonat eal l
ofmyl otterywi nnings.
Accor di
ngt oKant ,Iam notamor all
ygoodper sonsi nceIdi d
this;afterall,Isimpl ydidwhatIt houghtwoul dbet hemostenj oyable,andt herei s
not hi
ngnobl eaboutsuchasel f
-[Link] it
y
thatIf eltdonat ingmoneywasent ertai
[Link] oudosomet hingbecause
youknowi tisy ourjobandy ouwoul ddoi tr
egardl
essoftheconsequencescany ou
claim mor al merit.
 102

d)Whyconsequencesdon' tmatter: Thef oll

owingexampl edemonst rateswhyKant
i
sunconcer nedwi t
[Link] dertwoper sonswhoar eoutl ateoneni ght
drinkingatapub,andeachoft hem deci destodr iv
ehomequi teinebr i
[Link] '
re
drivinginopposi t
edi r
ectionsi nthemi ddleofnowher [Link] hem encount ersno
oneont heroadandt husmakesi thomesaf el
y ,
despi tedr iv
ingr [Link] her
alcohol i
chasabadl uckandr unsov eraper sonwhi lewal kingatni ght,ki
ll
ingt he
pedest rianwithhi saut omobi l
[Link] darguet hatbot hdr unksar eequallybad
basedont heiracts,andt hatthef actt hatonegotl uckydoesnotmaket hem any
bet t
ert han theot her.
Afteral l
,t heybot h madet hei denticaldeci sions,and t he
differencesint heirbehav iorshadnot hingt odowi thei theroft heircont rol
.Peopl e
whobehav ef orther ightr easonsf ol
low thesamel ogi [Link] hpeopl earemor all
y
respect ableift heybehav ef ort her ightmot i
ves,ev en ifoneoft heiract i
vi
ties
happenst oresultinnegat i
v eoutcomesduet opoorl uck.

e)Thewr onginterpr
et ati
on:  Considert heexampl eoft hel ott
erywi
nnerwhodonat es
tochar it
[Link] est oachar it
ywi t
ht hegoalofsav inghundr edsof
starvingchi ldr
eni naf arawaycount ry
.Thef oodar ri
vesi nthevi
llage,butwhena
groupofr ebel
sl earnst hatt heyhav ef ood,theycomet ogr abit,kill
ingalloft he
vil
lage'schi l
drenandadul ts. Thepl annedr esultoff eedinghungryy oungst
er swas
positive,butt heact ualr esul t
swer enegat i
[Link] sn'targui
ngt hatweshoul d
consi dert heintendedconsequenceswhi l
emaki ngmor aljudgment [Link] ai
ms
that,i ndependentoft he pl anned orr ealef fects,mor alworthi s appropriat
ely
appr aisedbyexami ningt her easonf ortheact i
on,whi chmaybesel f
isheveni fthe
i
nt endedconsequencesar egood.

f)Kantdoesnotf orbidhappi ness: Anat t

ent i
ver eadermaynot icet hatoneoft he
self
ishper son'sdesi r
edout comesi nt hecaseabov ei stomakehi mselfhappy ,and
ther
ef oreitmayappeart hatintendedconsequencesdomat t
[Link] dappeart hat
Kanti sst at i
ngt hati foneofmygoal si st omakemy selfhappy ,mybehav iori s
unwor thy. Thi sisabl [Link] enaccor dingt oKant ,t
her esultofmaki ngmy self
happyi sagoodr [Link] ai
nlybel i
evest hathappi nessi saposi ti
vet hing.
There'snot hi
ngwr ongwi thdoi ngsomet hingonl yforthesakeofmaki ngonesel f
happy ;thisisn'tselfishness. Youcangai nmor alwor thbydoi ngt hingsy ouenjoy ,
but
youcan' tdot hem becauset hey '
ref un;y ouhav et odot hem becauset hey'
rerequir ed
bydut [Link] so,therei sapopul armi sconcept iont hatKantbel i
evesi tisalway sbadt o
doany t
hingt hatjustmakesy ouhappy , suchasbuy i
ngani cecr eam [Link] si
snot
corr
ect . Kantbel iev est hatyoushoul ddot hingst omakey ourselfhappyasl ongas
theyar enoti mmor al( i.
e.,agai nsty ourdut y)andt hatyouwoul dst opfrom doi ng
them ift heywer e.I tisnotsi nf ultoeati cecr eam,sogoaheadanddoi t.
 Itwon' t
makey ouamor al
lygoodper son,buti talsowon' tmakey ouabadone.I nt his
approach,manybehav i
orst hatar eaccept abl ebutnotcompel l
edbyobl igati
onar e
neutral.
 103

g)Summar y:
 Adecentper son, accordingtoKant, i
sonewhoal waysdoest heirdut y
becauseitistheirresponsibil
i
ty.I t
'sfineiftheyenj oydoingit,butt heymustbe
will
i
ngtodoi teveniftheydidn'
[Link]
adecentperson,onemustbegoodf orthesakeofgoodness. Perf
ectresponsibil
it
ies
(duti
esofjusti
ce)canbeef fecti
v el
yenf or
cedbyt hepubli
c,legaluseofcoer ci
on,
accordi
ngtohi m,whi leimperfectdut ies(duti
esofv i
rt
ue)ar esuitableformor al
j
udgmentbutnotf orcoercion.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER18:
Immanuel
Kant
’s
ETHI
CS Theor
yofRi
ght
s

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link] en-y
earoldgirlwhoi ssuf feri
ngfrom Pol
i
[Link] sgoby ,t
he
doctordeci
dedt oisol
ateSandabecauseofapul monarycompl i
cat
ionand
needstobebr oughttoasecl udedplacesomewher ei
nt hemiddleofafarm
thefamil
yowns. Hermot herdisapprovesoft hedoctor’
sdecisi
onast hi
s
wouldaffectthegirlphysicall
yandemot i
onall
y. Assessanddeci dethe
mother’
sactusingKant’
sTheor yofRi ghts.

[Link]
ngt
hat“al
awmaybel egalbutnotnecessar
il
ymor
al.
”
Cit
ear eal
lawthati
smoral
l
yquest
ionabl
[Link]
ainwhy.

[Link],asal esagent ,of fer

edahouseandl ottoherf riendswhoar enewly
mar ri
ed,whi cht hel atteragr eedtobuyont hecondi ti
ont hatt hepropertywill
bepai df or5y ear soni [Link] terthreey ear s,thecoupl efail
ed
topayt heremai ningbal ancebecauset hewi f
ehadanai lmentwhi chmade
them pr i
orit
izehospi tali
zat i
onsandot hermedi cal
-[Link] es
agentdeci dedtocont i
nuet hepay mentwi t
houtthecoupl e’sconsentandl at
er
forcedthem t osi gnawai verf orthesubjectpropertyasser ti
ngt hatthesame
i
s st i
pulated int he agr eement . The agentsuccessf ul l
yt ransferr
ed the
propertyi nhernamewi thoutpay i
ngt hecoupl eallt hepr eviouspay ments
alr
[Link] ainedt hatthereisneedt ot ransf erthepr opert
yso
thatowner shipwi llnotber eturnedtoJer i
caRealSt ateCompany . Writ
ean
AnalysisPaperhi ghli
ght i
ngwhyt heopt i
ontakenbyt heagentmaybel egal
butnotmor al.
 104

REFERENCES

Kant,Immanuel
,:Cat
egor
icalI
mper
ati
v .I
e” n Gr
oundwor
koft
heMet
aphy
sicsof
Morals,
t
ransl
atedbyH.
[Link]
on,162-
[Link]
k:Har
perandRowPubl
i
sher
sInc.
,
1964

CHAPTER19:
UTI
LITARI
ANI
SM
Et
hicalnormsar esomet i
mesov erlookedwhi lemaki ngdecisions,despi
te
thei
rimpor t
anceasagui deformaki ngdecisi [Link] smor al
lyri
ght
orbadi sknownaset [Link] eat endencyt omi sr
eadt hemotiv
at i
onanddesire
toperformt hi
ngsinourdailyli
[Link] sionsmusthav eapositi
veimpactont he
[Link] hegreatestutil
i
tarian’
sar eJer emyBent ham (1748-1832)andJohn
StuartMill(1808-
73)whopr omi nentlycontributedtheimpacti nunderstandi
ngwhy
agentsactinaccordanceoft hemaj ori
ty.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ineut
il
it
ari
ani
sm i
ndi
ff
erentphi
l
osophi
cal
per
spect
ives;

[Link]
ff
erent
iat
ethequant
it
ati
veandqual
i
tat
ivepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y;and

[Link]
ythepr
inci
pleofut
il
it
y.

Act
ivi
ty
 105

St
udyt
hesi
tuat
ionbel
ow:

Thisisacl assictrol
leydil
emmasi [Link] heover
weightguy,
thetraindri
vercani mmediatel
yapplyt heemer gencybrakeaft
erhit
ti
nghim,saving
thefiveothersonboar d.I
sit,t
her
efore,f orthegr
eatergood?Whataboutthelat
ter'
s
side?Asar esult
,thereareramif
icati
onst oever
yactionthatwetypi
cal
lyoverl
ook.
Exami neandev al
uate.

[Link]
i
sttheor
y,asubclassoftel
eologi
calmoralt
heory
,isthemost
popul
armoralphi
l
osophyinthel
asttwocenturi
[Link]
ial
i
sttheor
yjudges
theri
ght
nessofanacti
ntermsofanexternal
goalorpurpose.

[Link]
istt
heory,acti
ons,l
aws,orpolici
esshoul
dbet aken
aft
erweighingthepotent
ialconsequences,r
atherthanbasedonanagent'
spurpose
orpersonaldesir
[Link]
uti
sts,ontheotherhand,arguethati
fanacti
oniswrongin
thefi
rstpl
ace,itshoul
dnotbedoner egardl
essoftheoutcome.

3."
Uti
l
itar
iani
sm"i
sthemosti
nfl
uent
ial
consequent
ial
i
stt
heor
y.

Whati
sUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm?

[Link]" uti
li
tari
anism"comesfrom theLat
inword"ut
il
ize,
"whi
chmeani
ng"
to
use.
"Itbasi
cal
lyst at
est hatwhatisgoodi susef
ul,andthatthemor
alval
ueof
acti
vi
ti
esi
sdecidedbyt heuti
li
tyoft
heirr
esult
s.

[Link]
sideacanbeusedt
oappl
ytospeci
fi
cact
ivi
ti
esaswel
lasgener
all
aws.

ActUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm (
Classi
cal
Uti
l
itar
iani
sm)

1..I
neachgivensi
tuat
ion,
youshoul
dtaket
heact
iont
hatwoul
dbenef
itt
hegr
eat
est
numberofpeopl
e.

Forinstance,
ifadr i
verisstoppedatacheckpoi nti
nahi gh-
tr
affi
clocationanddoes
nothav ehisr egi
str
ati
onordr i
ver'
sl i
cense,butthetraff
iccopsl ethim go(aft
er
taki
ngsomemoneyf rom him),
Thedr iver
si nthecarsbehindhim,aswel lasthe
driv
erhimselfandt hepoliceoffi
cers,areallpl
[Link]
typrovi
desthe
greatestamountofj oytot hegreat
estnumberofpeopl ei ntheshortestamountof
ti
me.

Rul
eUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

[Link]
sionoft
hetheorythatst
atesthatweshoul
dlivebyl
awst
hat
,ingener
al,
wil
l
l
eadt
othegreat
estgoodforthel
argestnumberofpeopl
e.

Exampl e:Cheati
ng and r ef
using to actbyaccepting br
ibes,asi ntheprevi
ous
examplef oractutil
it
arianism,wi l
lresulti
nav erynegativesociet
[Link]
acceptablei
nr ul
eutil
it
arianism becausethemot i
vesarequestionabl
eandtheyare
notjudgedassi ngl
eact i
ons,butr atheraslong-
ter
m consequencesi funi
ver
sall
y
fol
lowed.

Or
igi
nsandNat
ureoft
heTheor
y
 106

Theideaofut
il
it
ari
ani
sm wascreat
edbyJer
emyBentham,butJohnSt
uar
tMi
l
llat
er
syst
emati
zedandchangedpar
tsofBent
ham'
sut
il
it
ari
anpri
ncipl
es.

Jer
emyBent
ham JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
l

Thepr i
nci
pleofuti
li
tythusstatesthatanAdvocates the gr eat
est happiness
acti
on isr i
ghtinsofaras i ttends topri
nci
ple’which stat
es that i
ti st he
produce t
he gr
eatesthappiness forthegreat
est happiness of the greatest
great
estnumber. numbert hati
sthemeasureofr i
ghtand
wrong.

Quanti
tati
ve hedoni
st or quant i
tat
iveQuali
tat
ivehedoni
st-
uti
l
itar
ian-
--Thephysi
cal,t
hemor al,t
he
Lowerpleasure-canbebothexperience
rel
i
gious and t
he pol
it
ical
-the physi
cal
byhumans and ani mal
s such as f
ood,
source
dri
nksandsex .

Higher pleasure- Mil

lbasical
ly means
i
ntell
ect
ual , which i ncl
udes ar ti
sti
c,
poli
ti
calandev enspir
it
ualpl
easures.

Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link]
g

AnAnal
ysi
sofUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm

[Link] il
i
tar
iani
sm appearstobeadi r
ectcounter-
responsetoKanti
anEt hi
[Link] l
e
Kantcontends thata person'
s mot i
vat
ion t
o execute hi
s dutyjust
ifi
es an act,
Bentham andMi l
larguethatactionsareassessedbasedont hei
rconsequences.
Uti
li
tari
ani
sm appear
st obeadirectcount
er-
responsetoKanti
anEthics.

[Link]
li
tar
iani
sm appearstobeappeal
ingasamor al
phi
[Link]
ial
lybasedon
thepr
inci
plesofpleasur
eandsuffer
[Link]
ther
more,t
heutil
it
arianconcepti
nspir
es
andurgespeopl
etoactmor al
ly
.

Under
standi
ngUt
il
it
ari
ani
sm pr
inci
plei
not
herper
spect
ive

Forexample,aphar maceuti
calcorporat
ionmayoper ateont hepr emisethatitwil
l
i
ssueanof fi
cial
l
yappr oveddrugwithsomesideef fectsifi
thelpsmor epeopl
ef i
ght
aspecif
icconditi
ont hanthenumberofpeopl ewhoar econcer nedbyami norside
eff
ect.I
fthebenefit
sar esuf
fi
cientl
ysubstant
ialandt hedif
ficul
tieswithsi
deeffects
areappropr
iat
elyrest
rict
ed,t
hent hephar
'sbehaviorisjust
if
iedonut il
i
tari
angrounds.

ASSESSMENT
 107

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER19:
UTI
LITARI
ANI
SM
ETHI
CS

AssessmentQuest
ions:

1. Make an out li
ne oft he dif
fer
entmeaning ofut i
l
itar
ianism inthe dif
ferent
phi
losophicalperspecti
ves.
[Link]- SquareTabl eandwr it
ethediff
erencesofquant i
tat
iveandqualit
ative
pri
ncipl
eofut i
li
tari
anism.
[Link] yi
ngt heut i
li
typri
ncipl
e,giv
ey ouropini
onaboutt heconstit
uti
onali
tyor
l
egalinf
irmity
, i
fthereisany,oftheAnti
-Ter
rorl
[Link]
nanddef endyourview.
 108

REFERENCES

DeGuzman,JensMi
cah,etal
.Et
hics(
Pri
nci
plesofEt
hicalBehav
iori
nModer
n
Soci
ety
)

ht
tps:
//ar
eebahashi
[Link]
y.
com

CHAPTER20:
JUSTI
CEANDFAI
RNESS
Just
iceandf ai
rnessar edif
fi
cultconceptsornotionstodef i
newithoutthe
assist
anceoftheother
.Justiceandf ai
rnessareoftenusedint
erchangeabl
y,andwe
havecomet ounderst
andt hatwhati sr ightisalsofai
r,andt hatinordertobe
percei
vedasfair
,wemustbej ust
.Howev er,notal
lj
usti
ceisequal,andnotallj
ust
ice
i
sequal .

Just
ice,inawi desense,isact i
ont akeni nl
inewi t
hthepr ovi
sionsofal aw
(Vi
ce,1997).Somepeopl ebelievethatjusticei saresultofGod'swi l
lormandat e,
whil
eothersfeelthatjusti
ceisinherentinnat [Link]
hersbeli
evethatjusti
ceconsi
sts
ofuniv
ersal
lyapplicablerulesthatcomef rom somef or
m ofconsensus. Thi
stypeof
j
usti
ceisf r
equentlyregardedasbei ngsuper iortoasociety'
[Link] e
morepronet olabelany t
hing"unjust"wheni tappearstocontravenesomeuni versal
rul
eofbehav i
our.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES
 109

Uponcompl
eti
onoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
cconcept
sacr
osst
hedomai
nsofknowl
edge;

[Link]
ocat
erespectf
orhumanr
ight
s;and

[Link]’
sknowl
edge,
ski
l
ls,
andv
aluesf
orr
esponsi
bleandpr
oduct
ivel
i
ving

Act
ivi
ty

TheFai
rEggs-
per
iment

(
Mater
ial
s:a cleardri
nki
ng glass f
il
led wi
th one cup ofwater
,a f
resh egg,a
t
abl
espoonofsalt,
apermanentmarker,andapermanentmarker
.)

Placetheeggi ntheglassofwat erwit

[Link]
hepupi l
sthattheegg( youmay
callit"Eddi
e")"r
epresent
ssomeonewhoi sbeingt r
eatedunfairl
y."
Sinki
ngtothe
bottom depi
ctshow mi serable,despondent
,defeat
ed,unappreciated,andunlov
ed
someonewho hasbeenl eftoutorabusedmi [Link] heeggasi deafter
remov i
ngitf
rom [Link] tt
othewateronetablespoonatat ime.

Explainthatthesal trepresentsdifferentway stobef airtoot hersasy ousti

rineach
spoonf ul
.Considert hefollowingexampl e:accor dingtot her ules.
Explai
nthatthesalt
representsdifferentway st obef ai
rt oot hersasy oust iri neachspoonf ul
.For
i
nst ance,whenpl ay i
ngagame,obey ingt herules,taki ngturnsandshar i
ng,tr
eating
peopl ewithhonest yandr espect,andi nterveningt ohel psomeonewhoi sbei ng
treatedunfairl
[Link] ot hewat eronceal loft hesal thasbeenadded.( I
f
youwant ,
uset heper manentpent odr awasmi leyfaceont heegg. )Itwil
lnowf l
oat.
Explainhow " Eddie"isnow bei ngsuppor tedwi thki ndnessand" heldup"byot her
peopl e'
sfair
nessandaccept ance.(10-Minut eLifeLessons, byJaimeMi l
l
er.

1. Whati
s“fai
rness?”
2. Howdoyouknowwhensomet hi
ngisunf
air
?
3. Whatmakesaper sonfair
?
4. Whatdoesbeingfairhavetodowit
hone’schar
act
er?

Just
iceandf ai
rnessar edi
ffi
cultconceptsornot i
onst odef i
newi thoutthe
assist
anceoft heother
.Justiceandf ai
rnessareoftenusedi nt
erchangeably,andwe
havecomet ounderst
andt hatwhati sr ighti
sal sofair
,andt hatinor dertobe
perceiv
edasf air
,wemustbej ust
.Howev er,asyouwillseeaf t
erreadi
ngthi slesson,
al
ljusticeisnotequal,andal lj
usti
ceisnotequal .Letust akeacl oserlookatt he
statement.

Moderncult
uresandci vi
li
zati
onsar eboundt ogetherbythemor alfabri
cof
j
usti
[Link]
samor alandethicali
deai nwhichwhati sethi
call
ycorrectisregardedas
j
[Link]
usti
ce,whichisanegal i
tari
anideathataimsf orequalr i
ght
s
foral
lmember sofsoci et
[Link] hi
ssense,j ust
iceentail
sgi v
ingeachi ndividuali
n
soci
etywhatheorshei sent i
tl
[Link]
iceforallhasbecomeaf ashionablemot t
o
 110

i
nal lsoci
eti
es,anditi
sanor mthatal
lsociet
iesstr
ivetoaccompli
[Link]
eis
notalwaysfairtoal
l,t
heconceptofjust
icestri
vesforequal
ityf
orall
.Justi
ceisoften
seenasaqual it
yofbeingjustorf
air
.Inthefi
eldoflaw,just
icei
sseenasmet i
ngout
punishmenttot heculpr
itwhohasdoneacr i
meorhar medanotheri ndi
vidual
.In
broaderter
ms, j
usti
ceisgivi
ngapersonhisdue.

Gi
vingeachper sonwhatheorshedeser ves,or
,inmor econv entionalter
ms,
gi
v i
ngeachper sont heirdue,iswhatj usti
ceentail
[Link] airnessar etwo
phrasesthatar ecommonl yusedi nterchangeabl
ynowaday [Link] er,therehave
beensomemor edi verseinterpr
etati
onsoft hetwonames. Fai
rnesshasal sobeen
usedt oref ertot heabi l
itytomakej udgementsthatar enotundul ygener icbut
preci
seand uni quet o agi vencircumst [Link]
cenor mal l
yr eferstoa
standardofr i
ghtness,f ai
rnessoftenr eferstotheabil
i
tyt ojudgewi t
houtr egardto
one'sfeel
ingsori nt
[Link] ent,theideaofbei ngr egardedl i
keonewho
deservesitisappeali
ng.

Fairness i
s concer
ned wit
h moral
l
y cor r
ect,honorabl
e,and equalact s,
processes,[Link]
ueoffai
rness,inessence,cr
eatesmoralcri
teri
a
fordecisi
onst [Link] hebasisofrelevantcr
it
eri
a,fair
decisi
onsar emadeinanappropr
iat
emanner.

Fai
rnessrefer
stohowmanager sandcoworkerst
reatpeopl
er egar
dlessofthei
rage,
col
or,gender,
nat
ional
ori
gin,
disabi
li
ty,
rel
i
giousbel
ief
s,orsexualori
entat
ion.

Gener
ali
zat
ion

Theconcept sofsoci alstabi l

i
ty ,inter
dependence,andequaldi gnityar et he
under pi
nningsofj ust
[Link] abili
tyofasoci ety—oranyor ganization,f ort hat
mat ter—dependsont heextentt owhi chi tsmember sbel ievet heyar ebei ngt reated
fair
ly,aset hicistJohnRawl shaspoi ntedout .Whensomepeopl eofsoci et ybelieve
theyar ebeingt reatedunfai
r l
y,thegr oundwor kf orsocialunr est,upheav als, andst ri
fe
hasbeenest [Link] sofasoci ety,accordingt oRawl s,aredependent
ononeanot her ,andt heywi l
lonl ymai ntainthei rsoci
aluni t
yi ftheirinstitutionsar e
j
ust .
Fur t
hermor e, asphil
osopherI mmanuelKantandot hershav epointedout , human
beingsar eallequali nthisregard:t heyal lhavet hesamedi gnity,andt heyal ldeser ve
tober egardedasequal sasar esultoft hatdi gnit
y.I ndividuals'inher enthuman
dignityisbr eachedwhenev ert heyar et r
eatedunequal l
ybasedonar bitr
ar yand
i
rrelevantattribut es.

Asa r esult,justice isan essentialcomponentofet hicsand shoul d be

pri
ori
tizedinourmor all i
[Link] herouract ivi
ti
est r
eatallpeopl e
equi
tablywhi l
eev aluatinganymor aldecisi
[Link],wemustconsi derift
hedi sparit
y
i
nt reatmenti sj ust i
fied:ar ethe standards we're applyi
ng appr opri
atef ort he
si
tuation?Howev er,whenmaki nget
hicaldecisi
ons,fairnessisnott heonl yf
act orto
[Link]
cepr inciplesmayneedt obeov ercomeonoccasi oni nfavorofot her
moralcl ai
ms,suchasr ightsorthewel fareofsoci [Link],just
icei sa
 111

refl
ecti
onofourmut ualawarenessofeachother
'sessent
ialdi
gni
ty,aswel
lasan
acknowledgementthatwemustr especteachotherasequalsifwear etoli
ve
togetheri
nanint
erdependentcommunity.

But,
wheni tcomest omakingethicaldeci
sions,justi
ceisn'
ttheonlyfact
orto
consider.
Princi
plesofjusti
cemustsomet i
mesbesetasi deinfavorofothermor al
clai
ms,such as r i
ghts orthe well-
being ofsoci ety
.Nonet heless,j
usti
ce isa
manifestati
onofourmut ualawarenessofeachot her'sfundamentalunit
y,aswellas
anacknowl edgementt hatwemustr especteachot herasequal si fwearet oli
ve
togetherinaninter
dependentcommuni ty.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER20:
JUSTI
CEAND
ETHI
CS FAI
RNESS

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link] hatt
her
eisf
air
nessi
njust
ice?Expl
ainandci
teexampl
es.I
s
j
ust
iceandf
air
nesst
hesame?

[Link]
ngf
airmeanyoual
wayst
reatpeopl
eequal
ly?Expl
ainyouranswer
.

[Link] earesomeexamplesofbeingf
airandjustandofnotbei
ngfai
randj
ust.
Drawat abl
eandal
i
gny ouranswer
sappropr
iat
elyt
owhichthefol
l
owi
ngexampl
es
belong.

pl
ayi
ngbyt
her
ules

wi
despr
eadeconomi
candsoci
ali
nequal
i
ty

al
l
owi
ngev
ery
oneanequal
oppor
tuni
tyt
osucceed

oppr
essi
onofcul
tur
alandr
eli
giousgr
oupst
hroughoutt
hewor
ld

bei
ngopen-
minded

v
iol
enceagai
nstwomen

t
hei
nfant
ici
deofbabygi
rl
sinI
ndi
aandChi
na

shar
ingandl
i
steni
ngt
oot
her
s

i
ncl
udeconsi
der
ingal
lthef
act
sinasi
tuat
ionbef
oremaki
ngadeci
sion
 112

t
aki
ngt
urns

REFERENCES

beyondi
nter
act
ibi
li
ty.
org/
essay/
pri
nci
ples_
of_
just
ice

goodchar
act
er.
com/
middl
e_school
/fai
rness/

school
.cms.
k12.
nc.
us/
bever
lywoodES/
Document
s/Janj
ust
ice.
pdf

r
efer
ence.
com/
wor
d-vi
ew/
exampl
es-
bei
ng-
fai
r-
ed338b02c3968581

r
efer
ence.
com/
wor
ld-
view/
cur
rent
-exampl
es-
inj
ust
ice-
e60f
d86902426f
a9

di
ffer
encebet
ween.
com/
dif
fer
ence-
bet
ween-
just
ice-
and-
vs-
fai
rness

scu.
edu/
mcae/
publ
icat
ions/
ii
e/v3n2/
homepage.
html
.

j
osephsononbusi
nesset
hics.
com/
2010/
12/
fai
rness/
 113

ht
tps:
//yout
[Link]/
18hBt
-JY458

ht
tps:
//cubegr
oup.
com.
au/
why-
equal
it
y-and-
fai
rness-
mat
ter
s/

ht
tps:
//quot
esgr
am.
com/
qout
es-
about
-j
ust
ice-
and-
fai
rness/

ht
tps:
//www.
pint
erest
.com/
pin/
174584923029374330/

ht
tp:
//www.
sli
der
base.
com/
spi
tet
em-
371-
[Link]
ml

https:
//[Link]
[Link]/
the-
dif
ference-
between-
educat
ional
-equal
it
y-equi
ty
-and-j
usti
ce-
and-why-i
t-
matt
ers-
by-
joseph-l
evi
tan/

CHAPTER21:
GLOBALI
ZATI
ONANDI
TSETHI
CALCHALLENGES

Globali
zationhasbeeni ntheairforawhilenow.I npoli
ti
csandeconomi cs, i
t
hasbecomeoneoft hemostcommonl yusedt [Link] ngpr omotedasa
univ ersalgoalf orallofhumani t
[Link] i
ves,t
hewaywemakeal iving,
andt hewaywer elate,thedy namicforceofglobali
zati
onwi l
lcont i
nuet omodif
your
per [Link] c,technical,cult
ural
,andpol iti
caldevelopment sar eal
ltaking
place. Et hics per spectiv
es on mor al decisi
on-making t end t o emphasi ze
saf eguar di
ngt hebesti nterestsofglobalcommuni ti
es,i
nwhi chet hi
calconduct
sar e
i
nt egr at
edt oachi evebot hnationalandglobalgoal
s.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES:

Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
thel
ear
neri
sexpect
edt
o:

1.I
dent
if
ythei
mpor
tantmor
alchal
l
engesofgl
obal
i
zat
ion.
 114

Whati
sGl
obal
i
zat
ion?

Wefrequent
lyheart
het er
m" gl
obal
izat
ion"usedi
nav ar
ietyofset
ti
ngsto
r
efert
oincr
easedtr
ade,for
eigncorpor
ati
ons,andeventheongoingeconomiccr
isi
s.

Gl
obal
izat
ion has been fuel
ed pr
imar
il
y by t
echnol
ogi
caladv
ancement
s.
Adv
ancesi
ninfor
mationtechnol
ogyhavehadasigni
fi
canti
mpactont
heeconomy.

Sour
ce:
en.
wiki
pedi
[Link]

“Gl
obali
zati
on is bot
h an acti
ve process ofcorpor
ate expansi
on
across bor
ders and a struct
ure of cross bor
derf aci
li
ti
es and
economicli
nkagesthathav
ebeenst eadi
lygrowi
ngandchanging.”
-- Edwar d S.
Herman

I
nmanyci r
cumst ances,
gl obalizati
onentail
spolit
ical
decisi
onsabout
deregulati
on,
f reet r
ade, andmar ketintegrati
[Link]
ter
speopl e'
sli
fest
y l
esandli
ving
conditi
onsallacr osst heworld,
pr ovi
di ngnewoppor tuni
tiesforsomewhi leposi
ng
ri
sksandchal lengest oother
[Link]
dual s,busi
nesses,governments,and
multinati
onalor ganizati
onsthatar efreedf r
om theconfinesofthenationstatef
ace
thesamechal lenges.

Reasonsf
orGl
obal
i
zat
ion

Ther
ear
esev
eral
impor
tantv
ari
abl
est
hathav
einf
luencedt
hegl
obal
i
zat
ionpr
ocess:
 115

[Link]
ovement
sintr
ansport
ati
on–Improv
ementsi
ntr
ansport
ati
onal
soi
mpl
ythat
pr
oduct
sandpeopl
ecantrav
elmoreswi
ft
lyandatal
owercost
.

[Link] oft
rade–Or gani
zat
ionsli
ketheWorl
dTradeOrgani
zat
ionpromot
efr
ee
tr
adebetweencountr
ies,
whichhelptoremovebar
ri
ersbet
weencountr
ies.

3. Impr
ovement
s ofcommunicat
ions – Peopl
einv ar
ious nati
ons may now
communi
catemor
eeasi
l
ythankstot
heinter
netandmobi
l
etechnology.

[Link]
li
tyandski
l
ls–Clothingandotherlabor
-i
ntensi
vesect
orscanbenef
it
fr
om l
owerl
aborcost
sandl
esslegall
imit
ati
ons.

Sal
i
entFeat
uresofGl
obal
i
zat
ion

Hereunderarethegeneralchar
act
eri
sticsofgl
obal
i
zati
on:
1.
Liberal
izat
ion.I
trepresentsthefreedom ofentr
epr
eneur
stostar
tanyindust
ry,
tr
ade,orcommer cialendeavortheywant ,whet
herit'
sinthei
rown count
ryor
el
sewhere.

2. Fr
eeTr [Link]
est
rict
edfl
ow oftradebet
weenallnati
[Link]
adv
ocatesforindustryandtr
adetobefreeofover
bear
ingregul
ator
yandprotect
ive
l
awsandr estr
ict
ions.

3. Globali
zati
onofEconomicAct i
vi
[Link]
icandint
ernat
ionalmar
ketsboth
i
nfl
uenceeconomicacti
vi
ty.I
treferstothepr
ocessofhomeeconomiesbecoming
moreintegr
atedwi
tht
heglobaleconomy.

4. Liber
ali
zati
onofI mport
-ExportSy
[Link]
erst
otheli
ber
ali
zat
ionofimport
-
exportacti
vi
ty,whichinvol
vest hefr
eeflow ofcommodi
ti
esandser v
icesacr
oss
i
nternati
onalborder
s.

[Link]
vati
zati
[Link]
izat
ionrefer
stot her
emovalofthestatefr
om theownership
ofmeansofpr oducti
onand di st
ri
buti
on,aswellast hef r
eef l
ow ofindustr
ial
,
commerce,andeconomi cact
ivi
tybetweenpeopl
eandtheirbusi
nesses.

6.I
ncr
easedColl
aborat
[Link]
obal
i
zat i
onisthati
tencour
agescompany
col
l
aborat
ioninordertoensurequickmodernizati
on,devel
opment,andtechni
cal
i
mprovement.

7. Economi c Reforms. Globali

zati
on adv ocates for t he integrat
ion and
democrat
izati
onofthewor l
d'scult
ure,economy ,andi nf
rast
ructurethroughglobal
i
nvest
ment s,andi
tencouragesfiscalandf i
nancialchangesinor dertost r
engt
hen
fr
eetr
ade,freeent
repr
eneurshi
p,andmar ketfor
cesar oundthewor l
d.

Gl
obal
i
zat
ionandI
tsEt
hical
Chal
l
enges
 116

Global
i
zation'
sdemandsf oraf undamentalshi
ftinvalues,wit
hafocuson
humansecur i
ty,democr acy,andeconomicjusti
ce,haveputmor ali
tyt
othetestall
[Link] sonmustchanget hei
rideasandact i
onstocont
ri
buteto
thecreati
onofamor ecompassi onat
e,humane,andpeacef ulsociet
ybythinki
ng
global
lyandacti
ngcollectiv
ely.

Thr oughcommuni cation, tr

anspor t
ati
on,andt rade, globalizati
onhasr esul t
ed
i
nt hei nt egr ati
onofr egi onaleconomi es,civi
li
zations,andcul tur
[Link] obal i
zation,on
theot herhand, i
sf requent lyf uel edbyami xofeconomi c,technol ogical,sociocultural
,
politi
cal ,andbi ological el ement s.
I
tal soencompassescr oss- nati
onalpr ocessessuchasi nternat i
onali
zat i
on,
l
iber alizat i
on, uni versal ization, and west ernizati
on, whi ch hav e r esulted i n
global izat i
onofnotj ustcor por at eoper at i
onsbutal sopol it
ical,educat ional,cultural
,
andsoci alact iv
iti
[Link] emov ingacr ossbor dershasmadei tsi mpl ertoi mpact
ethical i
ssuesi ncr oss- cul tural situations.
Meanwhi l
e,et hi cspl ay sa si gnifi
cantr olein peopl e'
sl ives.I tmakesan
attemptt odi scri
mi natebet weenr ightandwr ong,aswel lasgoodandt erri
[Link] th
the emer gence of i nter nat ional i
zat i
on i nt ackli
ng et hicalconcer ns posed by
i
nt ernat ionalt err
or i
sm,cy ber cr i
me,i nternat
ionalsy ndicates,gl obalwar ming,and
cli
mat echange,amongot her s,st rategiesi nresolvi
ngnat ionalmor alissuest hatwi l
l
conf latehav ebeenshaped.

Asa r esultofthe aforement i

oned phenomenon,ethicalperspecti
veson mor al
deci
sion-making t
end t of ocus on safeguar
ding the besti nt
erests ofgl obal
communi ti
es,inwhichet hi
calconductsareintegr
atedt oatt
ainbot hnationaland
gl
obal goals.
Ethi
cal I
ssuesofGl
obalizati
on

Global
izati
on i
ncludest he expansion ofthe gl
obaleconomy,buti talso
i
nvolv
esnor mat i
vedi
ffi
culti
[Link] ol
lowingaresomeoft heet
hicaldi
ff
icul
ti
esthat
wereidenti
fi
ed:

[Link]
ngprotecti
onism i
sinequi
tabl
eunlessi
tisdoneequitabl
y .Prot
ecti
oni
sm i
s
aneconomicpol i
cyofl i
mit
ingimportsfr
om othercountr
iesbyt ari
ff
soni mport
ed
goods,i
mportquotas,andarangeofothergover
nment-i
mposedr estri
cti
ons.

2. Inequali
tyofpower,exampl
ewi
thnoorf
ew t
radeuni
onsl
eadst
omassi
ve
expl
oitat
ionbymult
inat
ional
s.

[Link]
idebetweenaff
luentandpoorconti
nuestowiden.Only5%oft he
wor
ld'
spopulat
ionli
vesonlesst
han$2adayandr ecei
vesonly5%ofglobalr
evenue.

[Link]
cgl
obal
i
zat
iondi
senf
ranchi
sest
hepoor
,dev
ast
atest
heenv
ironment
,and
 117

har
mscul
tur
e.

5.I
nequi
tyandpov
ert
yamongt
hepoorar
eexacer
bat
edbygl
obal
i
zat
ion.

[Link] l
dwidei ssues,suchaspollut
ionorresourcescarci
ty;gl
obalwar
ming;
globalt
ourism expansion;thespreadofAIDSandot herheal
thdangersenabl
edby
globaltr
ansportati
on;onl i
nef r
aud;and ter
ror
ism,areby -
productsoft hegl
obal
economy '
sexpansion.

[Link]
ert
[Link]
ear
est
il
ltoomanypeopl
ewhodi
ebecauset
heyar
etoopoort
oli
ve.

[Link] hwit
hinandbet weencountr
ies,
incomedispari
ti
eshav
ewi [Link]
ngto
ar ecentUNst udy,gl
obalcommerceboost sweal
th,butt
hebenefi
tsoft r
adearenot
evenlydist
[Link]
tutesaj ustdi
str
ibuti
onofanincr easi
ngpie?This
presentscertai
nethical
concer
ns.

[Link]
l
ed,semi ski
l
led,andtr
adi
ti
onall
yskil
l
edper sonnelar
einshor
tsuppl
yasa
resul
tofint
ernat
ionalcommerceandtechnol
ogical
progress.

[Link] ound180mill
ionpeoplearemalnouri
shed,over850mill
i
onar eil
l
iterat
e,and
nearl
yev er
yonel
acksaccesst obasi
csanitat
[Link]
eryday,300,000chi
ldrenunder
theageoffivedi
efr
om prevent
ablecauses.

[Link]
dTr
adeOr
gani
zat
ion(
WTO)di
sregar
dsl
aborr
ight
sandenv
ironment
al
concer
ns.

[Link]
ndrain–Anotherethi
calissuei sthe“brai
ndrai
n”effectofgl
obali
zat
ion,
whi
chref
erstobr
il
li
antoreducatedpeopl efrom Thi
rdWorl
dcount r
iesl
eavi
ngtheir
homecountr
iesf
orbetterpossi
bil
iti
esi nFirstWorl
dcountri
[Link] esul
t,Thir
d
Worl
dcount
ri
esareshor
toneducatedl ocals.

13. Nat ur
alResources– Tropicalrai
nfor
est
sarebeing cutdownforf
ueland
l
ivest
ockgr azi
ngmeadowsal lov ert
hewor l
[Link]
slossi
nr ai
nfor
est
swil
lhav
ea
si
gnif
icantimpactonglobal
oxygenlevel
s.

Sol
uti
onst
oEt
hical
Probl
emsofGl
obal
i
zat
ion

Someoft
hesol
uti
onst
othepr
obl
emsofgl
obal
i
zat
ionar
e:

[Link]
esmustt akesharedresponsi
bil
it
iesforcont
rol
l
ingthehazardsthathave
resul
ted as a r
[Link] r
ies shoul
d getassi
stance f
rom wealthy
countri
esinor
dertohelpthem achi
eveeconomicgrowthanddevelopment.
 118

[Link] vetheglobalchal
lengesofpov
ert
yandmalnut
ri
ti
on,coordi
natedact
ioni
s
requi
[Link]
edt
otheissuesathand.

3.I
nthecaseofpandemics,themostimpor
tantt
hingi
stosuppor
tcountri
eswher
e
out
breaksoccurandt
oassistindi
vi
dual
swhoaremostvul
ner
abl
etoil
lness.

4. Wi despr
eadt hr
eats,suchasclimat
echangeoramajorfi
nanci
alcrisi
s,may
necessit
ateint
ernati
onalcooper
ati
[Link]
mostever
yti
me,anint
ernat
ionaleff
orti
s
requi
red.

[Link]-
ter
m poli
ti
calexpediencyi sessent
ialwhent ackl
ingthreat
ssuchast
he
I
slami
cstat
e,ebol
a,thef
inancialcr
isi
s,cl
imatechange,
orr i
singi
nequali
ty.

Et
hical
Chal
l
engesf
orBusi
nessWor
kingi
naGl
obal
i
zedWor
ld

Busi
nesset hi
csi sasubsetofappl i
edet hi
cst hatlooksatet hicalpri
nci
ples
and moralissuest hatoccuri nthewor [Link] ersallf acetsofbusi ness
behavi
orandi sapplicabletobothindi
vi
dualsandl argeor gani
[Link]
i
nsti
lli
ncor porat
eempl oyeesasenseofv alueorientat
ionint ermsofhow t odo
busi
nessresponsibly
.(Velazques,
2009).

Hy pocrisyi npur suitofsel f-

interest,cor rupti
on,egoism,v i
olence,andt he
questofmat erialpr osper i
tyareal lpromi nenti nt oday'
swor l
d,whi chhassuf fer
eda
seri
ousandal l
-per vasiveer osi
onofv [Link] eryoneisinamadscr ambl et oget
moreandmor e,most l
yt hroughdev [Link] r
eknowsnobounds. Furt
her
cri
mi nali
zation oft he br oken pol i
ty,r elationships with underworld associ ates,
unethicaluseofr eli
gion,cor ruption,ter r
or i
sm,andt r
adeuni onmi li
tancyar eal l
i
ndicatorsoft heur gentneedt otakeav alue- basedappr oachtot heprev ai
lingcause-
and-effectsy ndr [Link] uesandet hicsar epar ti
cularl
yimportantinthisenv i
ronment.
Fors, corporat eet hicsar erequi r
[Link] hicsi sneededt obusinessf orsev eralreasons
asstat edbel ow( Chav an,2010) :

[Link]
csest abl
ishesaperson'
slegit
imacyintheeyesoft
hegener
alpubl
i
c.
[Link]-makingi
saidedbyet hi
cs.
[Link]
it
sandet hics
[Link]
hics,notlaw,candefendsociet
y.
[Link]
obali
zation'
set hi
cali
mpactonst akehol
ders.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER21:
GLOBALI
ZATI
ONAND
ETHI
CS
 119

I
TSETHI
CALCHALLENGES

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link] i
sourworldconnect
edwi thothercount
ri
es?Ci
teanexampleonhow
peopl
eandnati
oncanbeinter
[Link]
teanot
herexampl
e
i
nwhichther
esulti
sdi
sadvantageoustosome.

[Link]
obal
izat
ioncannotbeprev
ent
ed,whatwil
lThir
dWor l
dcount
ri
esli
ke
thePhil
i
ppi
nesdot ocushi
onit
snegat
ivei
mpacteconomical
l
yandcul
tur
all
y?

[Link]
efl
y:Asanindivi
dualaspi
ri
ngsuccess,howareyougoi
ngt
oappl
y
thesol
uti
onstothedi
ffer
entethi
calchal
l
engesinglobal
i
zat
ion.
 120

REFERENCES:

Agdalpen,[Link]
.2019.“
Ethi
cs:AkoatangKagandahangAsalBi
l
angI
sang
Fi
li
pino”,Mindshaper
sCo.,
Inc.

Leaño,
Jr.
,RomanD.
,etal
.,
2018.“
Ethi
csf
orCol
l
egeSt
udent
s”,
Mindshaper
sCo.
,I
nc.

CHAPTER22:
MILLENNI
ALS&FILINNI
ALS:
ETHI
CALCHALLENGES&
RESPONSES
Thislessonwi
lll
ookatthechall
engesthatMi
ll
eni
alsandMi l
lenni
alsf
ace.
We'
lldi
scusseachgener
ati
on'
sethi
caloutl
ookandcul
tur
ali
denti
ty,aswellasthei
r
wor
kethics.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ether
esponsesofbabyboomer
sandmi
l
lenni
alst
oshar
edmor
al
di
lemmas;

[Link]
atequal
i
tiesoft
hef
il
inni
alsandmi
l
lenni
als;
and

[Link]
ythedi
ff
erentpri
nci
plesandbehavi
orsofFi
l
inni
alsandMil
l
enni
als
accordi
ngtoitset
hical
standar
dofthesoci
ety
.
 121

Mi
l
lenni
alsandFi
l
inni
als

Accordi
ng tothe Cent
erforGener at
ionalKinet
ics,t
here ar
ef i
ve
gener
ati
onsthatcurr
entl
ymakeupourci v
ili
zat
ion,wi
ththefoll
owingbi
rt
hy ear
sfor
eachgener
ati
on:(‘
’
AnI nt
rot
oGenerati
ons,
’
’n.
d.)
:

GenZ,
iGen,
orCent
enni
als:
Bor
n1996

Mi
l
lenni
alsorGenY:
Bor
n1977t
o1995

Gener
ati
onX:
Bor
n1965t
o1976

BabyBoomer
s:Bor
n1946t
o1964

Tr
adi
ti
onal
i
stsorSi
l
entGener
ati
on:
Bor
n1945andbef
ore

Thechildr
enofbabyboomer sandel
derGenXer
smakeupt
hemi
l
lenni
al
gener
[Link]"
fi
li
nni
als"r
efer
stoFi
l
ipi
noMil
l
enni
als.

Sev en basi ct raits are ascri

bed tot he Mi l
lennials:“ speci
al,sheltered,
conf i
dent,t eam-oriented,conv ent
ional,pr
essur ed,andachi evi
[Link] rbeig‘team-
oriented,’nonetheless, i
squest i
oned,asonest udyr evealsthatt heyhav e“asenseof
entitl
ementand nar cissism,based on per sonalit
y sur vey s showing increased
nar ci
ssism amongMi l
lennial
scompar edtopr ecedinggener ati
onswhent heywer e
teensandi nt hei
rtwent ies”.Somepsy chologi
stst husconsi derMi ll
enni
als(incl
uding
Fil
innials)tobepar tofwhati scall
ed‘ Generat
ionMe, ’insteadof‘ Generati
onWe. ’

Mi
ll
ennialsgrew upi
nanerawhent hei
nter
netbegantohaveasi gni
ficant
i
mpactont heent er
tai
nmenti
ndust
[Link]
ebei
ngthemostethni
call
yandr acial
ly
diver
segener
ationincomparisont
opr ev
iousgener
ati
ons,mi
ll
enni
alsappeartobe
themosteducated.

Et
hical
Out
lookandCul
tur
alI
dent
it
y

Ina2013pol lint heUnitedKi ngdom,Mil

lennial
swer ejudgedt obe
mor eopen- mindedaboutdi ffi
culttopicsthant hei
rparents.A Pew Resear chPoll
from 2013f oundt hat84per centofGener ati
onYpar ti
cipantssupport
edmar i
juana
l
egal i
zat
[Link] esear
chcent erpubl i
shedar epor
ti n2014f i
ndi
ngt hatadult
Mi l
l
ennial
sar edi sconnectedf r
om i nsti
tut
ionsandnet workedwi thfri
[Link]
authorsl abelMi ll
ennial
s'at ti
tude to soci alchange as " pr
agmatici deali
sm,"
describi
ngi tas" adeepdesi ret omaket hewor ldabet t
erplacepairedwi tha
reali
zati
ont hatdoingsonecessi tat
escr eati
ngnew instit
uti
onswhi l
ewor kingand
outsideofexisti
ngi nst
it
uti
ons."

Becauseoft heirproject
edtendencytodel ayvar
iousrit
esofpassageint
o
adul
thoodforl ongerdur at
ionsthanmostgener at
ionsbeforethem,andtoli
vewit
h
thei
rparent
sf orlongerper i
odsthanpriorgener
ati
ons,mil
lenni
alsar
ealsoknownas
the"BoomerangGener at
ion"or"Pet
erPanGener at
ion.
"

Generat
ion Y peopl
e are more opt
imist
icand adaptabl
eto change t
han
pr
evi
ous gener
ati
[Link] di
ng to a Pew Resear
ch Centersurv
eyf r
om 2008,
 122

Mil
l
ennial
sare"themostli
kel
yofanygenerat
iontoself
-i
dent
ifyasl
iberal
s"andare
"
mor esuppor
ti
veofpr
ogressi
vedomest
icsoci
alagendathanearl
i
ergenerat
ions.
"

Accordi
ngtoapol l
,themaj ori
tyofmi l
lenni
alsofal lrel
i
gions,races,and
ethni
cit
iessuppor
taccesstoinexpensi
vecontracept
ion.(Grossman,n.d.
).“”
And56
percentofpeopleagest18– 35sayt hati
nsomesi tuat
ions,choosingtohav e
aborti
on“ist
hemostresponsi
bledeci
sionthatawomancanmake”( Grossman,n.
d.)
.

Asampl
i
ngofot
herf
indi
ngsr
eveal
sthef
oll
owi
ng(
Grossman,
n.d.
):

[Link]-
quarterofmil
lenni
alssayt
hatmarr
iagehasbecomeold
fashionedandoutofdate,
whi
le71percentdi
sagr
ee.

[Link] l
lenni
alsfal
lint
oaf our-
wayspliton“ pro-
li
fe”and“ pr
o-
choi
ce”[Link]
le25percentsaytheyareexclusi
vel
y“pro-
li
fe”and27per centsay
they
’re“
pro-
choice,
”22percentrebuf
fbothlabel
sandnear l
y27per centsaythatboth
l
abelsdescr
ibedthem equal
lywell
.

c.7 per
centofmi
llenni
alsident
if
yei
theras l
esbi
an,gay
,
bi
sexual
, ort
ransgender.

Wor
kEt
hics

Mill
enni
als,ont heotherhand,aretech-savvy,appreciativeofdi versi
ty,and
excel
l
ent at mul ti
tasking,whereas Boomer s are har dwor king,i deal
isti
c,and
commi t
tedtohar mony,andGenXer sareentrepreneuri
al,adapt able,andself-
reli
ant
,
andcomf ort
abl
ewi t
ht echnol
ogy.(Ver
schoor,n.
d.).

I
nt ermsofnegat i
vet r
aitsandwor kplaceat tr
ibutes,Boomer saresai
dtobe
self
-centeredwi t
hasenseofent it
lement ,wor kaholics,self
-motivat
ed,anddon't
appreciatefeedback,whereasMi l
lennial
sar esaidt olackbasiclit
eracyfundament
als,
havev eryshor tattent
ionspans,ar en'tloyalt oor ganizati
ons,demandi mmediate
feedbackandr ecognit
ion,int
egratet echnologyi ntot hewor kpl
ace,andexpectt o
haveal argenumberofempl oyees.(Verschoor ,
n.d.).

Accordi
ng to one st
udy on gener
ati
onalanaly
sis,a lar
ge numberof
Mil
lenni
alsregardcer
tainworkpl
aceacti
vi
ti
estobeet hi
cal,i
ncl
uding(Ver
schoor
,
n.
d.):

Thei ncr
easinguseofsocialnetworki
nglookstobr
ingchal
l
enges,asal
arge
per
centage ofMi ll
enni
als upl
oad probl
emat i
cinfor
mati
on on thei
rown social
net
workingsit
es,suchas(Verschoor
,n.d.
):

Mil
lennialswantti
ghtrelat
ionshi
pswiththei
rbossesandfr
equentfeedback.
They usuall
yl ink j
ob sati
sfacti
on to open communicat
ion,st
rong superv
isory
connect
ions,andmor eimmedi at
efeedback.

Generati
on Y member s are also known fortheirprefer
ence fora f lat
corporatecultur
e,af ocusonwor k-
li
febalance,[Link]
lennials
pri
orit
izemeani ngfulwor k,fi
ndingacr eati
veoutl
et,andprior
it
izi
ngf ami
li
alvalues
overcor por
atepr i
[Link] heir
 123

col
l
abor
ati
veski
l
lsandr
esul
tedi
napr
efer
encef
orat
eam-
ori
ent
edenv
ironment
.

Secul
ari
sm andhumani
sm

Secul
ari
smis a non-
thei
sti
c beliefsyst
em orwor l
dvi
ew thatdenies the
exi
stence ofsupernatur
alordivi
ne reali
ti
[Link] a r
esul
t,at
heism,agnosti
cism,
nat
urali
sm,mat er
ial
ism,sci
enti
sm,Dar wini
sm,andotheri
deologi
esthatrej
ectall
spi
ri
tualexpl
anati
onsoftheworl
dareincluded.

Humani
smi
saschooloft
hinki
ngthatemphasi
zestheval
ueofhumanbei
ngs
andpl
acesapr
emi
um onman'sr
easoningoverf
ait
horrel
i
gioust
eachi
ng.

ASSESSMENT

Sur
name: Gi
venName: M.
I.
:

St
udentNumber Cour
se/
Year
/Sect
ion

Subj
ect
: SOCSCI
_212 Chapt
er: CHAPTER22:
MILLENNI
ALS&
ETHI
CS FI
LINNI
ALS:ETHI
CALCHALLENGES
&RESPONSES

AssessmentQuest
ions:

[Link]
om thelessondiscussi
ony ouhav
er ead,y
ouaregoingtodi scusssome
et
hicalout
looks and cul
tur
alident
it
ies ofthe Mi
l
lenni
als and Fil
inni
als.
Di
scusssomef eat
ureofthei
rworket
hics.

[Link] a Fi l
innial
/Mil
lenni
al,how wil
ly ou r
espond t
ot he chal
l
enges of
globali
zat
ionandt hediff
erenceofmindsetcausedbydi
ff
eri
nggenerat
ional
relat
ionst
ot echnol
ogyandsocialmedia?

[Link]
it
ethedi
ff
erentqual
i
tiesoft
hebabyboomer
s,mi
l
leni
als
andf
il
li
nial
s.
 124

REFERENCES

DeGuzman,
JanesMi
[Link]
CS(
Pri
nci
plesofEt
hical
behav
iori
nModer
nSoci
ety
)

CHAPTER23
ETHI
CSOFTAXATION

Anydi scussionofet hicsati tscorei nvolvesunder standingr i

ghtandwr ong.
Thismayseem si mpl eont hesur face,butasany onewhohasst udiedphilosophywi l
l
readi
lyadmi t,thereismuchmor ecompl exit
yt ot hi
spr actice.I nprofessi
onsl i
ket ax
preparati
on,account ancy,andot hersimi l
arpr ofessions,et hicalquestionsar eli
kely
toariseonar egularbasi [Link] urall
y,federalandl ocall awsgov ernagr eatdealof
thesedeci sions,aswel laset hicalcodesl aidoutbypr ofessi onalorganizati
[Link]
theendoft heday ,maki ngt hatcrucialdisti
nctionbet weenr i
ghtandwr ongi nagi ven
scenarior equi res taxpr ofessionalst o use t heirt r
aining t o make an i nformed
j
udgment .Inaddi tiont oequi ppingst udentst onav igatecompl ext axlaws,therear e
severalsour cesandbooksav ail
abletor einforceunder standingt hei mportanceof
ethi
csr el
atingt otaxation.

LEARNI
NGOUTCOMES

Att
heendoft
hisl
esson,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

1. under
standet
hicsoft
axat
ion,t
heobl
i
gat
ionofci
ti
zenst
opayt
axes,andt
he
 125

State’
sdutyt
ospendandut i
li
zetaxesproper
ly;
and
2. di f
fer
ent
iat
et he t
hree phi
l
osophicalapproaches i
n under
standi
ng et
hics of
taxati
onasawhole.

Theshar eoft heeconomycont rol

ledbyt hestateintheWest er
nwor l
dhas
i
ncreaseddr amat i
call
yov erthelastcentury,
anddemandsont hestateareexpect ed
toincreaseaspeopl el i
velonger,i
mply i
ngthatt
axeswi llconti
nuetor i
sef orthevast
majorityofthepopul ati
[Link] et headvantagesanddi sadvantagesofr equir
ing
suchal ar
genumberofi ndivi
dualstopaysuchal argesum ofmoney ?Toaddr ess
thi
s,wecanposeanumberofquest ions,suchashowmucht axshoul dbecol l
ected
i
nt otal,whethertaxi
ngai msar elegi
timate,andhowt axpay er
sshoul dbehav [Link]'l
l
answer t hese problems usi ng politi
calphil
osophy ar gument s and t he three
approachest oethicsli
stedbelow:

•Util
it
ari
ani
sm,whichstatesthatweshouldstri
vef
orthehighestt
otalhappi
ness
possi
bleforal
[Link],wecandefinehappi
nessast he
ful
fi
ll
mentofourdesi
res,anduti
li
tar
iani
sm ast
hepursui
tofmaximum ful
fi
ll
mentof
desi
res.

•Deont
ology
,whi
chi
sbasedont
heconceptofobl
i
gat
ion.

•Vir
tueethi
csf ocusesonthevi
rt
uesweshouldhaveandwhatav i
rtuousli
feentai
l
s.
I
t'
simportanttoempl oyabroaddef
ini
ti
onofvir
tueshere,onethatincl
udesnotonly
qual
iti
es li
ke honesty,butalso v
irt
ues l
i
ke using one's abi
li
ti
es and li
ving a
meaningf
ul l
if
e.

TheTot
alAmountofTax

Themostessent ialeconomi caimsf oraut il

it
ar i
anaretoensur ethatenough
product sandser v
icesar eaccessi bl
et oall
owev er
yonet oliv
eadecentl i
fe,andthat
theser esourcesaredi sper sedwi delyenoughf oral
lormostpeopl et obenefitfr
om
them.A pur e uti
li
tarian woul d onl y worry aboutov eral
lsat i
sfacti
on,nott he
distr
ibutionofit
,butwheni tcomest otaxati
on, we'r
et al
kingaboutthedistri
butionof
i
[Link] sonhasmodestr esources,theov eral
lpleasureshouldbehi gherthanif
thesamet otalr
esour cesar econcent ratedinthehandsofaf ewindividual
[Link]
andgov ernmentspendi ngar et hemostobv i
ousmeansofachi evi
ngr edistr
ibut
ion
andensur i
ngthatever yoner eceivessomet hing.

There'
sasenseofuneaseher [Link] dintheall
ocati
onof
resour ces,butexcessi vet axr at
esr estr
icti nv
estmentand i ncent
ives,making it
diff
icultt odevel
opsuf f
ici
entov eral
[Link] esul
t,toomuchr edist
ri
buti
on
mayr esultinat oot inypiet odi st
ri
[Link] esult
,uti
l
itari
ansmustest abl
isha
balance. Economists,notphilosophers,aretheoneswhowi lladvisethem onhowt o
achiev et hi
si nt
erestbal ancing i
nt hemostpr oducti
veway .Thi scomesasno
[Link] il
i
tar
ianism i snot hi
ng mor et han a setofcomput ati
[Link]
 126

comput
ati
onsf
orut
il
it
ari
ansmustbedonebypr
ofessi
onal
sfr
om ot
herar
eas.

The deont ologist

,unl i
ke t he util
i
tarian,does noti nst r
uctus t o per form
calcul
ations.I nstead,heorsheest abli
shesabsol uteobl [Link] orot her
people'spr opertyr ightsisacommonexampl eofsuchar equi rement .Becauset axi s
thecoer civet ransf erofpr opertyawayf rom t axpayers,t hi
smaybeconst ruedt o
suggestt hatt her eshoul dbenot axatal l
.Thedut ytopr otectpr opertyr i
ghts,ont he
otherhand, couldbeusedt oar guet hatanysoci alresourcesusedshoul dbepai df or
,
evenift her esour ceswer enotr [Link] oidbeingat hief,any onewhout ili
zes
apubl i
chospi tal,orev enapubl icr oad,shouldensur et hatt heypayt heappr opriate
tax.I
tis,howev er ,diffi
culttomaket hisargumenti mpenet r
abl [Link] tr easonablet o
expecti ndividualst or ef
uset ousepubl i
cr oadsi ftheydonotwi sht opayat ax?
They '
dhav et or elocatet othemi ddleofnowher [Link] ,
becauset heyal readyownt heir
homes,whyshoul dt heybef orcedt odoso?Asar esult,deont ol
ogydoeswhati t
doesal lthet ime. I
tof fersargument swhichpul linopposi tedi recti
ons, andl eavesus
compl etelyuncer tainaboutwhatt oconclude.

Whenitcomest othesubj ectoft axationjusti

ce,v i
rt
ueet hi
cscanbeal ittl
e
mor eusef ul
.Iftaxratesarereasonabl e,somev ir
tuesappeart obemor eli
kelytobe
practicedthaniftheyar ever
yhigh.I ti
simpor tanttomaket hemostofone' sabil
iti
es.
Financialincent
ivescanmot iv
at epeopl et ouset hei
rskill
s,buthi ghtaxesreduce
take-home ear nings,dampeni ng t hose i ncenti
v es.
Anotherv i
rt
ue is generosity,
whet heritisinthef orm ofmoneyori nt hef orm [Link] sonswithhighertake-
homei ncomear emor eli
kel
ytof eelabl etoaf for
dchar it
abledonat i
ons,andpeopl e
withhi gherpayratesar emoreli
kel ytotaket imeof ffrom paidjobtoconductchar i
ty
wor korot herformsofci vi
cengagement ,suchasser vi
ngasschoolgov er
norsor
magi strat
es.I
ndependencei sat hi
r dvirt
[Link] efer
abletoear nwhatoner equires
rathert orel
yongov ernmentassi [Link] axr atesmakei teasi
ertoachi eve
fi
nanci ali
ndependence.

Letusalsoconsi derpoliti
calargument sbasedont axation'scoercivenatur e.
Rober tNozickclaimedi nAnar chy,State,andUt opi
a( 1974)t hatf or
cedt axesar ea
vi
olationofourr i
[Link]
tywaspr imar i
lydi
stri
butedamongust hroughal ong
processofacqui si
ti
onsandsubsequentexchanges.I fthei ni
t i
alacquisit
ionsand
subsequentt radeswer efair
,thent hecur r
entdist
ributi
onofpr opert
yi sf air
,and
i
nterferi
ngwi thitbyf orcewoul dbeunj ust.
It
'sOKifpeopl eagr eet opayf ort hings
l
ikepol iceprotecti
oni ndivi
dually
;nev erthel
ess,themaj orityshoul dnotf orcet he
unwill
ingmi nori
tytocont ri
but
e.

Li
am Mur phyand ThomasNagelpr esented oneoft hemosti nt
erest
ing
cri
ti
questothi
slineofreasoninginTheMy thofOwner shi
p:TaxesandJust ice(2002).
Theyarguethatweshoul dnott hi
nkofincomeandweal thdistr
ibut
ioni nter
msofa
natur
aldist
ri
butionwithat axingstat
emeddl ingwi [Link],i
tist hestatethat
provi
desthestabili
tyt
hatall
owsf orsi
gni
fi
cantear [Link] hattherewould
benopr opert
ysecur i
ty,nosy st
em ofenforceablecont ract
s,andsooni nawor l
d
 127

withoutgov
ernment
.Asaresul
t,t
otalweal
thl
evel
swoul
dbesigni
fi
cant
lylowerthan
[Link]
snottruet
hatexist
ingmoneywoul
dbeal
locat
eddiff
erent
lyinthe
absenceofataxi
ngstat
e:weal
thwouldbescar
ce.

This appearsto be cor r

ect .Howev er
,Mur phyand Nagel 'sr easoning i
s
i
nsuf f
icienttojusti
fyhightaxati
onandal argest ate.
Assumewehadar udimentar
y
statethatpr ovi
dedonlysecur i
tyandal egalf r
amewor kf orcommer [Link] esul
t,
therewoul dbenogov ernmentbenef it
s,andal lschool s,hospitals,andr oadswoul d
ber unasf or-
profi
[Link] t
hought hedi stri
butionofi ncomeandweal t
hin
thatmi nimalstatemaydi ff
ersignifi
cantl
yf r
om whati tisnow,t het otalincomeand
wealthmaynot .
Asar esult,Nozickcoul drespondt hatt hi
sdi stributionshoul dbe
assumedt obesi mplywi t
hami ni
malst [Link] hisist hecase,anycompul sor
y
taxati
ont oexpandt hestatewouldbeav i
olationofpeopl e'
sri
ght s.

Thi
sapproachdoesnotpr
ovethatal
argest
atei
sbad,butitdoesputthe
burdenofproofonproponent
soflar
gestat
estoexpl
aint
hattheyarejust
if
iabl
e
despit
ethecoer
cioni
nvol
ved.

TheLegi
ti
mat
eObj
ect
ivesofTaxat
ion

Taxcanbeusedf orav arietyofobj ect i

v es,andi t'
susual lyev identwhat
ethi
ci stsofv ariousst r
ipeswoul dsayaboutt [Link] nwi thmai ntai
ni ng
peaceandor der,aswel laspr ovidingmor ecompr ehensi vepublicser vi
cessuchas
healthcar eandeducat [Link] ionf orthesei temswi llbeappr ov edbyut i
li
tari
ans
becausei tal l
owsmor ecommodi tiesandser vi
cest obepr oduced,aswel lasmor e
non-mat er i
alist
ic desi res t o be gr ati
[Link] r
tue et hici
sts woul d appl aud t hese
servicessi ncet heyal lowpeopl et oputt heirabi l
itiest ogooduseandl i
v ehappyl i
v es.
Wheni tcomest oaidt ot hepoor ,ut i
litarianswi l
lsuppor ti tsinceshi fting
resour cesf rom t heaf fluentt ot hepoori ncreasest hepoor '
shappi nessmor ethani t
decreasest her i
ch'[Link] hicistswi l
lsuppor ti tsincer edistri
butioncanhel pt he
poorpr osperanddev el opv i
rt
ues,andcar i
ngf ort helessf or t
unatei sav i
rtueinand
ofitsel f( althoughv olunt arychar it
ymaybeagr eaterv i
rt
uet hanf or cedpay ment ).
Deont ol ogist scanal soseeamor alneedt ocar ef ort hei mpov erished.I mmanuel
Kant, thegr eatestofal ldeont ologi sts,bel i
ev edi nadut ytot hepoor ,albeithedi dnot
envisionat ax-fundedwel farest ateasasol ut i
[Link] his,howev er,impl i
est hat
anyet hicistwoul dadv ocat ef ort heunf etter edpr ov i
sionofanyoft hesebenef i
ci al
i
temst hrought hetaxsy [Link] eseen, ther eper cussionsoft heov eral
llev el
oftaxat i
onmustbeconsi dered.

Thepr omoti
onofequal i
ty,i
nthesenseofequal
ityofeconomi coutcome( i.e.
wealth)r at
herthanequali
tyofoppor t
unit
y,i
samor econtenti
[Link] i
oncan
readi
lybeusedt omaket hedistr
ibuti
onofincomeandweal thmoreequitable,ei
ther
bymov ingfundsf r
om theweal thytothepoor,orbyimposi ngmor etaxesont he
wealthyorbypr ovi
dingthesamest ateservi
cestoeveryonewhi l
etaxingt herich
mor ethant hepoori nordert opayf [Link]
ymayal sobean
 128

acci
dent
alout
comeofusi
ngthetaxsy
stem t
odootherthi
[Link]
tcanal
sobea
goali
nit
sel
f.I
sitl
egi
ti
mat
etopur
sueequal
it
ythr
oughtaxat
ion?

Great
ereconomi c equali
ty has a ut
il
itari
an j
usti
ficat
[Link] equal
soci
eti
esar ehappi
er,morest abl
e,hadl owercr i
merates,andsoon,aut il
i
tari
an
wouldwisht opr
omot eequali
tyunlessitconfl
i
ct edwit
hot herutil
i
tar
iangoal
[Link]
mustleaveittosoci
ologi
ststodet ermi
newhet hermoreequalsoci et
iesdoindeed
havethosebenef
it
s.

Onthebasisofjusti
ce,onecanal soarguef orequal
[Link]
t
herei s no posit
ivereason forper sons obtai
ning uneven shares ofav ai
lable
r
esources,t
hent heyshoul
dr ecei
veequalshar es;other
wise,thosewhor ecei
vel ess
t
hantheywoul dunderanequal di
str
ibuti
onaret r
eatedunfair
ly.

Toevaluatet hevali
dit
yoft hisar gument ,weshoul dlookatJohnRawl s' work,
parti
cular
lyhisbookATheor yofJust ice( 1971).Rawlsstatedt hatsocialimbal ances
shouldbemanagedsot hattheindiv idualswitht hefewestadv antagesbenef i
tthe
most .
Howev er,hesay sanunequalsy stem mi ghtactuall
ybenef itthedisadvant aged
mor ethananeconomi call
[Link] e,inequal i
ti
esofi ncome
would be per fectl
yaccept ableift heywer e a necessar yr esultoft here bei ng
i
ncent i
veswhi chencour ageskil
ledpeopl etowor khardandent repreneuri
alpeopl eto
taker i
sks,so l ong ast her esul
twast hatt hosewi tht hel eastincome- ear ni
ng
potenti
alwerest il
lmadebet t
erofft hant heywoul dot her
wi sehav [Link] ooks
sensibl
[Link] ettherichgrow r icher,ifthepoorar ehel pedbyt hei
rdoi ngso?
Thepoorwi l
l possiblyevenbegr ateful.

Notev eryoneaccept sthatinequali

ti
esl i
kethesewoul
dbej [Link] e,
i
nhi sbookRescui ngJust i
ceandEqual ity(2008),Geral
dCohenar guedthatRawl s
wasf art ooper missi
veofi nequali
[Link] ntedoutthatwearefreeandconsci ous
[Link] er,t
hetalentedpersonwhosay sthatheorshewil
lonlywor khard,and
therebybenef itthewhol eeconomy ,i
fenoughmoneyi soff
ered,isact i
ngl i
kea
vendingmachi [Link] endingmachi newillonlygiveyouwhatyouwanti fyouputt he
moneyi [Link] enotv endi
ngmachi [Link] koutwhatwewoul ddo,
giventhef i
nancialincent i
[Link] detodoi tanyway ,wit
houtt he
i
ncent i
ves.

Wecoul df i
gur eoutwhatwewoul ddoi nRawl s'soci et
y ,whichi ncl
udes
i
nequiti
es, t
opr ovi
det hecorrectincenti
vestogener at
eweal th,andt hendot hesame
thi
ngswi thouttheincentives–andwi thoutthedispari
ty,accordingt [Link]
contendedt hatthiswoul dpr ovi
deuswi thev enmor ejusticethanRawl s'method.
Cohencoul dnotcl ai
mt hatthisstrat
egywoul dbepr acti
cal–peopl edor espondt o
moneyi ncentiv
esaf terall–buthecoul dar guethatitwouldbej [Link],i
fwe
acceptthebasi cpremi sethatequal i
tyisgeneral
lymor ejustthani nequali
ty,hemay
[Link], howev er,acceptthatpremise?
 129

Rawlsmakesacompel l
ingcasef orequali
ty.I
nhi sopi nion,thebestwayt o
deter
mi newhatmet hodsofdi stri
buti
onofgoodsandr esour cesar ereasonableisto
considerwhatindivi
dual
swoul ddesireiftheywereconst ruct i
ngasoci et
yinwhi ch
theywoul dli
vebuthadnoi deawhatf ami l
y,abi
l
iti
es,orot hercondi t
ionstheywoul d
have.
Theycoul donlyhopeforanav er
ageshar ei
nthatsituation,andt heywouldhav e
noincentivetoacceptanythingsignif
icantl
[Link] esult,theywoul dpreferan
egali
tari
ansociet
y,withtheallowancesf ori
nequali
ti
esthatwehav eoutli
ned.

Buti tisnotatal lcleart hatpeopl ewoul donlyaccepti nequal i

ti
eswhi ch
benefi
t edthewor st -
off,asRawl [Link] ehadachoi cebet ween
twosoci et
ies,XandY.I nbothsoci et
ies,ev er y
onewoul dhav eatl eastat olerable
standar doflivi
ng,andno- onewoul dsuf ferabj ectpover
ty.I
nsoci etyX, t
hewor st-
off
personwoul dhav eani ncomeofP15, 000ay ear ,afewpeoplewoul dhav eincomes
ofP20, 000,andt hegr eatmaj or
it
ywoul dhav ei ncomesofP25, [Link] etyY,t he
worst-offper son woul d havean i ncomeofP14, 000,a few peopl ewoul d hav e
i
ncomes ofP19, 000,and t he gr eatmaj oritywoul d havei ncomes ofP27, 000.
Someonemaki ngachoi ceofwhi chsoci etytheywoul dprefertobepar tof,butwho
didnotknowwhot heywoul dbewi thinit( Rawls’ ‘
vei
lofi
gnorance’),couldreasonabl y
takeachanceonbei ngsomeonewi tht hei ncomeoft hemaj ori
ty,andsopr efer
societ
[Link] swaswr ongt oassumet hatheorshemustr ationall
ypr efersocietyX.

TheConductofTaxpay
ers

Mosttaxpayerspaytheirt
axes,wi
[Link]
ltaxpay
ersactinthi
s
[Link]
yl et
’slookatwhet hertwoot herformsofbehav i
orcanbeet hical
l
y
accept
abl
e:taxevasion,andtaxavoi
dance.

Taxevasi
oninv
olv
esknowingl
ymis-
repor
tingthefacts:f
orexample,decl
ari
ngan
i
ncomeofP50,000whenthet r
uefi
gureisP60,000;ordecl
ari
ngthatanasseti s
ownedbyonecompanyi
nagr oupwhenit
’sreal
lyownedbyanother
,sopay i
ngless
tax.

I
twoul dbev eryhardt ogiveanet hicalj
usti
fi
cationf ortaxev asi
[Link]
totryt odosowoul dbet oar guethatthest ate,i
nimposingt axation,engagedi ntheft
,
andt hati nordertopr eventt hetheftonecoul dli
etot hest ate,justasonecoul dli
et o
at [Link] dhav esomepl ausi
bil
it
yi nthecont extofar egimet hat
wasi mposed,r athert hanonedemocr ati
cal l
ychoseni nf reeel ecti
[Link] s,itis
possi bletoseear egimet hatisnotf r
eelyelectedasmer elyagangofbandi ts,evenif
theyar esomet imesbenev olentbandi t
[Link] herearemanycount ri
esi nwhi ch
gov ernment s aref reelyel ected,and t herefor
et heirt axat i
on demands maybe
consi deredlegit
imat e.

Taxavoidance,unl
iketaxevasi
on,doesnotent ai
lwit
hholdi
nginfor
mationor
l
yi
ng.I
nstead,
itentai
lsstr
ucturi
ngeconomi ct
ransact
ionsinsuchawayt hatl
esstax
i
s due t
han would other
wise be the [Link] stems uti
l
ized bysome
 130

organi z
at i
onsincor
porati
ngnetwor ksoffi
rmsandpar tnershipsinmul t
iplecountri
es
prov i
de t he mostet hi
call
y problemati
ci nstances int hisfiel
[Link] ev asi
on is
accompl i
shedbyadher i
ngtothel ett
erofthelawr atherthanbr [Link]
say ,whilethetaxsavingsachievedmaybeconsi stentwit hthelaw'slanguage,itis
evidentt hatifParli
amentorot herlegi
slati
ve bodi es in othercount r
ies had
consider ed comparable methods,t hey would hav e cr eated di
fferentl aws to
count eractthem.

Aut i
l
itari
an,concer nedwi ththegr eatergood,mi ghtbeunconcer nedabout
taxev [Link] teral l
,weal t
hi snotdest roy edwhent axesar eav oided;i tisjust
preser vedi nthepr ivatesect orratherthanbei ngt r
ansf erredt othepubl icsect or.
Thi s
woulddecr easet hei
rcont entmentmor ethani twoul dr aiset hesati
sf acti
onoft hose
whoar ebet t
erof fbecauset heirtaxloadshav ebeendecr [Link] er,thatloss
tothepoormaynotoccur .Whenpensi onf undsownshar esinfirms,f orexampl e,
regularpeopl e'
s pensi ons can be r aised when t hose compani es av oid paying
[Link] ev asion isl i
kelyt o be f r
owned upon bya v i
rt
ue [Link] teral l
,
mani pulating r egulati
ons wi t
ht he knowl edge t hatone i s exploiti
ng t hem i n
unant i
cipat edway stodi sper sethedisadv ant ageawayf rom onesel fishar dl
ynobl e.
A deont ologistwoul dnotadv ocatefort axav oi
dancebutwoul dnotnecessar ily
condemni [Link] ol
ogi stsmi ghtreadil
yar guet hattherei sadut ytoobser v ethelaw;
nonet heless, obey i
ngt helawi sadiff
iculttask.

ASSESSMENTS:

Onasepar
atesheetofpaper
,dot
hef
oll
owi
ngact
ivi
ti
es:
Ten(
10)poi
ntseach.

[Link] abl
ebelowshowt hedif
fer
encesoft
het
hreephi
l
osophi
calappr
oachesi
n
under
standinget
hicsoftax
ation.

UTI
LITARI
ANI
SM DEONTOLOGY VI
RTUEETHI
CS
 131

2. I n not mor e t
han t en (10) sentences expl
ain the possi
ble mor
al
eff
ects/consequences of t
he citi
zens’duties t
o pay taxes r
egular
[Link]
tea
phi
losophicalappr
oachasbasisforyouranswer.

[Link]
ehast
hemor
alobli
gat
iont
out
il
izet
axespr
oper
lyev
eni
fithast
oresor
t
andusei
l
legal
way
[Link]
.
 132

REFERENCES:

Bar
on,
Richar
[Link].
rbphi
l
[Link].

Cohen,
Ger
[Link]
ngJust
iceandEqual
i
ty,
Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess

Murphy,Li
am,etal
.,2002 The My
th ofOwner
shi
p:Taxesand Just
ice,Oxf
ord
Uni
versi
tyPr
ess.

Noz
ick,
Rober
[Link]
chy
,St
ate,
andUt
opi
a,NewYor
k:Basi
cBooks.

Rawl
s,[Link]
yofJust
ice,
Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.