Management

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"Manager" redirects here. For other uses, see Manager (disambiguation) and Management
(disambiguation).

An organization chart for the United States Coast Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that
organization.

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Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it is

a business, a non-profit organization, or a government body. It is the art and science of
managing resources.
Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and
coordinating the efforts of its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish
its objectives through the application of available resources, such
as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. "Run the business"[1] and
"Change the business" are two concepts that are used in management to differentiate
between the continued delivery of goods or services and adapting of goods or services
to meet the changing needs of customers - see trend. The term "management" may
also refer to those people who manage an organization—managers.
Some people study management at colleges or universities; major degrees in
management include the Bachelor of Commerce ([Link].) Bachelor of Business
Administration (BBA.) Master of Business Administration (MBA.) Master in
Management (MSM or MIM) and, for the public sector, the Master of Public
Administration (MPA) degree. Individuals who aim to become management specialists
or experts, management researchers, or professors may complete the Doctor of
Management (DM), the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), or the Ph.D. in
Business Administration or Management. There has recently [when?] been a movement
for evidence-based management.
Larger organizations generally have three hierarchical levels of managers,[2] in a pyramid
structure:

 Senior managers, such as members of a board of directors and a chief executive

officer (CEO) or a president of an organization. They set the strategic goals of the
organization and make decisions on how the overall organization will operate. Senior
managers are generally executive-level professionals and provide direction to middle
management, who directly or indirectly report to them.
 Middle managers: examples of these would include branch managers, regional
managers, department managers, and section managers, who provide direction to front-line
managers. Middle managers communicate the strategic goals of senior management to the
front-line managers.
  Lower managers, such as supervisors and front-line team leaders, oversee the work of
regular employees (or volunteers, in some voluntary organizations) and provide direction on
their work.
In smaller organizations, a manager may have a much wider scope and may perform
several roles or even all of the roles commonly observed in a large organization.
Social scientists study management as an academic discipline, investigating areas such
as social organization, organizational adaptation, and organizational leadership.[3]

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Definitions
o 2.1Theoretical scope
 3Levels
o 3.1Top
o 3.2Middle
o 3.3Lower
 4Training
o 4.1Requirement
o 4.2Undergraduate
o 4.3Graduate
o 4.4Good practices
 4.4.1Evidence-based management
 5History
o 5.1Early writing
o 5.219th century
o 5.320th century
o 5.421st century
 6Nature of work
 7Topics
o 7.1Basics
o 7.2Basic roles
o 7.3Skills
o 7.4Implementation of policies and strategies
 8Policies and strategies in the planning process
 9See also
 10References
 11External links

Etymology[edit]
The English verb "manage" has its roots by the XV century French verb 'mesnager',
which often referred in equestrian language "to hold in hand the reins of a horse". [4] Also
the Italian term maneggiare (to handle, especially tools or a horse) is possible.
In Spanish manejar can also mean to rule the horses.[5] These three terms derive from
the two Latin words manus (hand) and agere (to act).
The French word for housekeeping, ménagerie, derived from ménager ("to keep
house"; compare ménage for "household"), also encompasses taking care of domestic
animals. Ménagerie is the French translation of Xenophon's famous
book Oeconomicus[6] (Greek: Οἰκονομικός) on household matters and husbandry. The
French word mesnagement (or ménagement) influenced the semantic development of
the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries.[7]

Definitions[edit]
Views on the definition and scope of management include:

 Henri Fayol (1841–1925) stated: "to manage is to forecast and to plan, to organise, to

command, to co-ordinate and to control."[8]
 Fredmund Malik (1944– ) defines management as "the transformation of resources into
utility".[9]
 Management is included[by whom?] as one of the factors of production – along with machines,
materials and money.
 Ghislain Deslandes defines management as "a vulnerable force, under pressure to
achieve results and endowed with the triple power of constraint, imitation and imagination,
operating on subjective, interpersonal, institutional and environmental levels".[10]
 Peter Drucker (1909–2005) saw the basic task of management as
twofold: marketing and innovation. Nevertheless, innovation is also linked to marketing
(product innovation is a central strategic marketing issue).[citation needed] Drucker identifies
marketing as a key essence for business success, but management and marketing are
generally understood[by whom?] as two different branches of business administration knowledge.
Theoretical scope[edit]
Management involves identifying the mission, objective, procedures, rules and
manipulation[11] of the human capital of an enterprise to contribute to the success of the
enterprise.[12] Scholars have focused on the management of individual, [13] organizational,
[14]
 and inter-organizational relationships.[15] This implies effective communication: an
enterprise environment (as opposed to a physical or mechanical mechanism) implies
human motivation and implies some sort of successful progress or system outcome.[citation
needed]
 As such, management is not the manipulation of a mechanism (machine or
automated program), not the herding of animals, and can occur either in a legal or in an
illegal enterprise or environment. From an individual's perspective, management does
not need to be seen solely from an enterprise point of view, because management is an
essential[quantify] function in improving one's life and relationships.[citation needed] Management is
therefore everywhere[citation needed] and it has a wider range of application.[clarification
needed]
 Communication and a positive endeavor are two main aspects of it either through
enterprise or through independent pursuit. [citation needed] Plans, measurements, motivational
psychological tools, goals, and economic measures (profit, etc.) may or may not be
necessary components for there to be management. At first, one views management
functionally, such as measuring quantity, adjusting plans, meeting goals.[citation needed] This
applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this
perspective, Henri Fayol (1841–1925)[16][page  needed] considers management to consist of
five functions:

1. planning (forecasting)
2. organizing
3. commanding
4. coordinating
5. controlling
In another way of thinking, Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), allegedly defined
management as "the art of getting things done through people". [17] She described
management as a philosophy.[18][need quotation to verify]
Critics[which?], however, find this definition useful but far too narrow. The phrase
"management is what managers do" occurs widely, [19] suggesting the difficulty of defining
management without circularity, the shifting nature of definitions[citation needed] and the
connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or of
a class.
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration"
and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example
in charities and in the public sector. More broadly, every organization must "manage" its
work, people, processes, technology, etc. to maximize effectiveness. [citation
needed]
 Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments that teach management
as "business schools". Some such institutions (such as the Harvard Business School)
use that name, while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the
broader term "management".
English-speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a
collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of
a corporation.[20] Historically this use of the term often contrasted with the term "labor" –
referring to those being managed.[21]
But in the present era[when?] the concept of management is identified[by whom?] in the wide
areas[which?] and its frontiers have been pushed[by whom?] to a broader range.[citation needed] Apart from
profitable organizations even non-profit organizations apply management concepts. The
concept and its uses are not constrained[by whom?]. Management on the whole is the process
of planning, organizing, coordinating, leading[22] and controlling.[citation needed]

Levels[edit]
Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-
level managers. First-line managers are the lowest level of management and manage
the work of non-managerial individuals who are directly involved with the production or
creation of the organization's products. First-line managers are often called supervisors,
but may also be called line managers, office managers, or even foremen. Middle
managers include all levels of management between the first-line level and the top level
of the organization. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may
have titles such as department head, project leader, plant manager, or division
manager. Top managers are responsible for making organization-wide decisions and
establishing the plans and goals that affect the entire organization. These individuals
typically have titles such as executive vice president, president, managing director, chief
operating officer, chief executive officer, or chairman of the board.
These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform different tasks. In
many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a pyramid. Each
level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and likely job
titles.[23]