Bachelor of Science in Nursing 2YA

ETIC111: BSN 2ND YEAR 1ST SEMESTER MIDTERM 2021

Coverage for Midterm: tendency for pleasure and the avoidance of pain as the principle of
 Theory of Utilitarianism utility, Bentham equates happiness with pleasure.
- Actions that lead to PLEASURE ARE RIGHT, ones that produce
 Natural law
PAIN ARE WRONG
 Deontological law Law and Social Hedonism
 Virtue law Law
 Theory of justice - Government should not pass laws that protect tradition, customs or
rights
THEORY OF UTILITARIANISM - Government should base all laws on the happiness principle
Utilitarianism - The greatest happiness for the greatest number
- An ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and the - Bentham’s theory is both empirical (how much pain or pleasure is
determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the actions caused by the act or policy) and democratic (everyone’s happiness is
consequences This means that pleasure is good and that the goodness as important as any other’s)
of action is determined by its usefulness Social Hedonism
- Putting these ideas together, utilitarianism claims that one’s action - Ethics as Greatest Happiness
and behavior are good in as much as they are directed toward the - Moral worth judged by presumed effect
experience of which refers to the usefulness of the consequences of - Action guided by pleasure/pain
one’s action and behavior Felicific Calculus
- When we argue that the drug war program of the present government - common currency framework that calculates the pleasure that some
is permissible because doing so results in better public safety then we actions can produce.
are arguing in a utilitarian way It is utilitarian because we argue that - In this framework, an action can be evaluated on the basis of intensity
some individual rights can be sacrificed for the sake of the greater or strength of pleasure:
happiness of the many.
 Duration or length of the experience of pleasure.
Contents
 Certainty, Uncertainty, or the likelihood that pleasure will
Their system of ethics emphasizes the consequences of actions:
occur; and
- This means that the goodness or the badness of an action is
based on whether it is useful in contributing to a specific  Propinquity, Remoteness, or how soon there will be pleasure.
purpose for the greatest number of people. - These indicators allow us to measure and pain in actions, we need to
Utilitarianism is consequentialist: consider Three More Dimensions
- This means that the moral value of actions and decisions is  Fecundity or the chance it has of being followed by sensations
based solely or greatly on the usefulness of their consequences; of the same kind
it is the usefulness of results that determines whether the action  Purity or the chance it has of not being followed by sensations
or behavior is good or bad. of the opposite kind.
The utilitarian value pleasure and happiness:  Lastly, when considering the number of persons who are
- This means that the usefulness of actions is based on its affected by pleasure or pain, another dimension is to be
promotion of happiness as the experience of pleasure for the considered Extent.
greatest number of persons, even at the expense of some - Felicific calculus allows the evaluation of all actions and their
individual rights. resultant pleasure. This means that actions are evaluated on this
Jeremy Bentham single scale regardless of preferences and values. In this sense,
1) Born on february 15,1748 in london, england. Died on June 6, 1832. pleasure and pain can only quantitatively differ but not qualitatively
2) He was the teacher of James Mill, father of John Stuart Mill. differ from other experiences of pleasure and pain accordingly.
3) Bentham first wrote about the greatest happiness principle of ethics John Stuart Mill (1806 – 1873)
and was known for a system of penal management called 1) His ethical theory and his defense of utilitarian views are found in his
PANOPTICON. long essay entitled UTILITARANISM (1861)
Jeremy Bentham Utilitarianism 2) He studied Greek at the age of three and Latin at the age of eight He
- Intellectual inheritor of David Hume wrote a history of Roman Law age eleven He was married to Harriet
- Recognized as ‘Act Utilitarian’ Taylor after 21 years of friendship
- Right actions result in ‘good or pleasure,’ wrong actions result in pain 3) Was born on May 20, 1806 in Penton Ville, London, United
or absence of pleasure. Kingdom. Died on May 8, 1873 in Avignon, France from Erysipelas.
- The Principle of Utility - A more sophisticated form of Utilitarianism.
- Law and Social Hedonism - Concerned with quality of pleasure and quantity of people who
- Felicific Calculus enjoy it.
Principle of Utility - Recognized higher and lower types of human pleasure.
- In the book An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and - Principle of Greatest Number
Legislation (1789), Jeremy Bentham begins by arguing that our - Justice and Moral Rights
actions are governed by two “sovereign masters” which he calls - Mill dissents from Bentham’s single scale of pleasure. He thinks that
pleasure and pain. These “masters” are given to us by nature to help the principle of utility must distinguish pleasures qualitatively and not
us determine what is good or bad and what ought to be done and not; merely quantitatively.
they fasten our choices to their throne. - For Mill, utilitarianism cannot promote the kind of pleasures
- The principle of utility is about our subjection to these sovereign appropriate to pigs or to any other animals. He thinks that there are
masters: PLEASURE and PAIN higher intellectual and lower base pleasures.
- On one hand, the principle refers to the motivation of our actions as  Lower pleasures: eating, drinking, sexuality,
guided by our avoidance of pain and our desire for pleasure. It is like  Higher pleasures: intellectuality, creativity, and spirituality.
saying that in our everyday actions, we do what is pleasure as good if,
and only if, they produce more happiness than unhappiness. This
means that it is not enough to experience pleasure, but to also inquire Principle of Greatest Number
whether the things we do make us happier. Having identified the

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- Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts. It is neither about our - Although the moral object or finis operis is the fundamental
pleasure nor happiness alone; it cannot be all about us. If we are the element of the morality of the human act, that is also the
only ones satisfied by our actions, it does not constitute a moral good. circumstance.
In this sense, utilitarianism is not dismissive of sacrifices that procure  Circumstance
more happiness for others. - The part of the human act that must be considered in order to
- Utilitarianism is interested with the best consequence for the highest evaluate the total moral act. Can be considered in various moral
number of people. It is not interested with the intention of the agent. questions, thus, might ask, ‘who’, ‘when’, ‘how much’ or ‘in
Moral value cannot be discernible in the intention or motivation of what manner’.
the person doing the act; it is based solely and exclusively on the  Intention/ Motive
difference it makes on the world’s total amount of pleasure and pain. - The ultimate reason that determines the moral act
Justice and Moral Rights - a means towards attainment of true happiness both of an agent
- When we call anything a person’s right, we mean that he has a valid and the common good.
claim on society to protect him in the possession of it, either by the Principle of Double effect
force of law, or by that education and opinion. If he has what we - Designed by Aquinas
consider a sufficient claim, on whatever account, to have something - Used in order to judge the moral acceptability of the human act that
guaranteed to him by society, we say that he has a right to it. has two effects:
- The right to due process, the right to free speech or religion, and  Good
others are justified because they contribute to the general good. This  Evil
means that society is made happier if its citizens can live their lives - Traditional Moral Theology, presents four conditions for the Double
knowing that their interest are protected, and that society (as a whole) effect Principle to be applied:
defends it. 1) The action is good itself or at least in different.
- A right is justifiable on utilitarian principles in as much as they 2) The Good effect must come first before the evil effect or a least
produce an overall happiness that is greater than the unhappiness simultaneously.
resulting from their implementation. 3) The good effect must be intended
- Mill creates a distinction between legal rights and their justification. 4) There must be a proportionately grave reason for the evil effect
He points out that when legal rights are not morally justified in to happen.
accordance with the greatest happiness principle, then these rights Medieval Thinker Thomas Aquinas
need neither be observed, nor be respected. This is like saying that - This natural law of theory is part of a larger project, which is
there are instances when the law is not morally justified and, in this Aquinas’ vision of the Christian faith.
case, even objectionable. The Context of Aquinas’ Ethics
- In short, Mill’s moral rights and considerations of justice are not  How in our pursuit of happiness we direct our actions toward specific
absolute but are only justified by their consequences to promote the ends.
greatest good of the greatest number.  How our actions are related to certain dispositions in a dynamic way
Bethamite Millsian since our actions arise from our habits and at the same time reinforce
Democratic utilitarianism Elite utilitarianism a good disposition leading us toward making moral choices.
 No one pleasure is inherently  Some pleasures are better than  The Christian Life is about developing the capacities given us by God
better than any other others into a disposition of virtue inclined toward the good
 If drunken parties make you  If you party and get drunk every  Aquinas also puts forward that there is within us a conscience that
happy, then go for it! day, then you won’t be as happy as directs our moral thinking
 Reading poetry isn’t better you otherwise might be.  We are called to heed the voice of conscience and enjoined to
than watching The Bachelor,  Enjoying poetry is better than develop and maintain a life of virtue.
it’s just different. watching bad TV. And if you  However, we need a basis for our conscience to be properly
disagree, it is because you don’t informed, and we need a clearer guidepost on whether certain
understand quality. decisions we make lead us toward virtue or vice.
NATURAL LAW  Being told that one should heed one’s conscience or that one should
St. Thomas Aquinas try to be virtuous, does very little to guide people as to what
- Also known as Doctor Angelicus and Doctor Communis specifically should be done in each situation.
- Born in 1225 Aquino, Italy  There is a need or a clearer basis of ethics, a ground they will more
- Died in 1274 in Italy concretely direct our sense of what is wrong and right
- Referred to as Thomas because his last name Aquinas refers to where  For Aquinas, there should be Natural Law.
he was born. The essence and varieties of Law
- Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, Catholic priest, and Doctor of Essence of Law
the Church - As a rational being, we have free will. Through our capacity for
- Theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism reason, we can judge between possibilities and to choose to direct our
- Begins his natural law theory by differentiating human acts from acts actions in one way or the other.
of man. - Actions are directed toward attaining ends or goods that we desire.
Natural Law - There are many possible desirable ends or goods, and we act in such
- Natural law is a system in which actions are seen as morally and ways to pursue them.
ethically correct if t accords with the end purpose of human nature - Acts are rightly toward their ends by reason.
and human goals.
 Aquinas reminds us that we cannot simply act in pursuit of our own
- Follows the fundamental maxim, ‘do good and avoid evil’.
ends or good without any regard for other people's end or good. We
 Human acts as Aquinas expressed proceed from the will are not isolated beings, but beings who belong to a community.
 Acts of man – an action that does not proceed from the will.  Since we belong to a community, we must consider what is good for
 Moral object the community as well as our own good. This can be called Common
- The intention inherent in the action that one is performing. Good.
- It specifies the human act and is the purpose that the act  We should recognize the proper measure or the limits in our acts in a
accomplishes to the ultimate goal of life. way that we can pursue ends, about our own and that of others,

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together. The determination of the proper measure of our acts can be - In making human laws, additions that are not at all problematic for
referred to as Law the natural law are possible.
 A law, therefore, is concerned with the common good. - As Aquinas puts it, nothing hinders a change in the natural law by
 It is also necessary for rules or laws to be communicated to the way of addition, since our reason has found and can fine many things
people involved to enforce them and to better ensure compliance. that benefit individual and communal human life.
This is referred to as PROMULGATION. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
 "The definition of law may be gathered, and it is nothing else than an Deontology
ordinance or reason for the common good, made by him who has care - “Duty based” or “obligation based” ethics
of the community and promulgated" – Aquinas - It is an approach to ethics that focuses on the rightness and/or
Varieties of law wrongness of an action itself, rather than on the rightness or
- We do not only recognize God as the source of these beings, but also wrongness of the consequences or the character of the person.
acknowledge the way they have been created and the way they could - What makes a choice RIGHT is its conformity to moral norms
return to Him, which is the work of his divide reason itself. - Deontology may sometimes be consistent with Moral Absolution, the
- "He governs all the acts and movements that are to be found in each belief that certain actions are just wrong, no matter what follows.
single creature, so the type of Divine Wisdom, as moving all things to - Hal. Tinulungan mo yung matanda kase yun yung kailangan mong
their due end, bears the character of law." gawin.
- External Law – what God wills for creation. How each participant in - Sa relationship, may 3rd party alam mo na makakasakit ka sa partner
it is intended to return to him. mo pag pinatulan mo yung 3 rd party ang gagawin mo is iiwasan mo
- Irrational creatures are participating in the eternal law, although we yun. Obligasyon mo na gawin yung tama for the sake of the
could hardly say that they are in any way "conscious" of this law. relationship kung gusto mo mag long lasting kahit walang poreber.
- Aquinas notes that "we cannot speak of them by obeying the law, Example:
except by the way of similitude" Suppose you’re a software engineer and you learned that a nuclear missile
- "Wherefore it has a share of the External Reason, whereby it has a is about to launch that might start a war. You can hack the network and
natural inclination to its proper act and end" – this participation of the cancel the launch, but it is against your professional code of ethics to break
external law in the natural creature is called Natural Law. into any software system without permission. Thus, a form of lying and
- Human law – refers to all instances wherein human being construct cheating. What does deontology suggest you do?
and enforce laws in their community. - Always remember the code of ethics. Hindi mo dapat
- External law – refers specifically to the instances where we have papakealaman kase may code of ethics kang sinusunod
what is handed down to us in sacred scripture. - Alam mon a may problema yung kaibigan mo sa relationship
- "So, then no one can know the eternal law, as it is in itself, except the nya dapat labas ka doon. Wag ka makikisali lalo na “kwento”
blessed who see God in His Essence." lang naman yung pinagbabasehan mo at wala ka mismo sa
Natural law posisyon na yun. Behave ur self ghorrll emzzz.
In common in other beings: Reggie Cabututan
- We have considered how we, human beings, are both unique and at - Reggie, is a taxi driver who drove his Australian passenger,
the same time participating in the community of the rest of creation. Trent Shields to his workplace.
- Our presence in the rest of creation does not only mean that we
interact with creatures that are not human, but that there is also in our
nature something that shares in other beings.
In common with other animals:
- Aquinas then goes on to say that there is our human nature, common
with other animals, a desire that has to do with sexual intercourse and
the care of one’s offspring.
- As the matter of fact, animals periodically engage in sexual
intercourse at a specific time of “heat”, and this could result an Duty and agency
offspring. In human too, that natural inclination to engage in the Deontology
sexual act and to reproduce exists. - Moral theory that evaluates the actions that are done because of
- Thomas writes certain special sins are said to be against nature, thus duty
contrary to sexual intercourse, which is natural to all animals, is - Refers to the study and obligation
unisexual lust, which has received the special name of the unnatural - Immanuel Kant is the main proponent
crime. Rational Will
Uniquely human - capacity to act according to principles that we determine for
- We have an inclination to good according to the nature of our ourselves.
reasons. Sentience
- With this, we have a natural inclination to know the truth about God - Organism has the ability to perceive and navigate its external
and to live in Society environment
- It is of interest that this is followed by matters of both an epistemic Rationality
and a social concern. - Humans are rational because they have the ability to stop and
- General guideposts: think about what they are doing.
 Epistemic Concern which is that we know we pursue the truth - Hal. Sa hayop yung tigre hindi mo pwedeng laruin basta basta
 Social Concern which is that we know we live in relation to kase sasakmalin ka kaagad nun while in Human nakakapag think
others pa tayo kung ano yung gagawin.
- Thomas tells us that there is a priority among the powers of our soul, - Yun nga kapag may 3rd party ganun tapos alam na pagpinatulan
with the intellectual directing and commanding our sensitive and or pinagpatuloy mo yun makakasira ng relasyon nyo so mag
nutritive capacities. iisip ka kung itutuloy mo or hindi. Pero dahil mapanakit ka
- Recognizing how being rational is what is proper to man, the syempre itutuloy mo emzzzz HAHAHAHA charot langgg.
apparent vagueness of the third inclination that Aquinas mentions is
counter balanced by the recognition that he is not interested in
providing precepts that one would simply, unthinkingly follow.
Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804)

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- Born on April 22 1724  Internal author law if the author was the will itself, imposing the law
- College University of Konigsberg (AKA Albertina) unto itself, then it is autonomous
- After College 6 years as private tutor to young children and began - Nasa loob mo yung authority it means u have discipline to ur
teaching Philosophy at the Albertina the following year. self
- After retiring he came to believe that there was a gap in this system - Hal. Dahil gusto mo makapasa u will tell ur self na mag aral ng
separating the metaphysical foundations of natural science from mabuti, makinig ng mabuti ganun.
physics itself, he then closed this gap in his series of notes – Opus
Postumum Scenario:
- Herald the “Copernican Revolution in Philosophy” Reggie found a suitcase and she returned it to the owner but what if
- Kant developed revolutionary insights concerning the humankind and Reggie did not return the suitcase, destroyed the lock, then took and sold
the conditions for the possibility of knowledge similar to Copernicus its valuable contents?
- He intends to develop “Supreme Principle of Morality”. It is - Reggie may have concluded “I am entitled to benefit from this
supposedly supreme because by basing it on the faculty of reason, it lost suitcase. I am the author of this principle. I am acting
becomes binding for all creatures that have that faculty. The binding autonomously.” He may conclude this since no external
force then become universal rather than relative. authority is legislating laws for him by using rewards or
- Kapag mali ang pagnanakaw sa isang tao tapos sa isa tama kapag punishments.
pinag usapang “relative” ibig sabihn tama sila pareho. - What is the focus of the authorship of Reggie based on the
- A key thinker in moral reflection scenario?
- Foundation of one knowledge is physiological or theological Kant claims that there is a difference between rational will and animal
- You have freedom when you use philosophy or theory. (shanaol may pulse
freedom prayer reveal nemern dyern emzzz)  The choice can be determined by pure person is called free choice
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) That which is terminable only by (sensible impulse stimulus) would
- A 15th century mathematician and astronomer who proposed that the be animal choice (arbitrium brutum)
sun was stationary in the center of the universe and the earth revolved - Kapag nag a-act ng impulsive ganun or by emotion tawag doon
around it. is arbitrium brutum.
- He proposed the heliocentric model of the universe in his book De  Human choice is a choice that may indeed be affected but not
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium determined by impulses, and is therefore in itself (without an
- Heralded a radical paradigm shift in the way humans considered their acquired skill of reason) not pure, but can nevertheless be determined
place in the universe. to do actions from pure will
Rational Will - Kung saan sya nanggaling rational impulse or reason
- Ability to enact our thoughts impulse
- Refers to the faculty to intervene in the world to act in a manner that - According to Immanuel Kant ang pag decide sa isang
is consistent with our reason. bagay ay hindi about ethical or unethical
Agency - Hal. Lumayo ka sa mga taong alam mo sa sarili mo na
- Ability of a person to act based on her intentions and mental states. hindi na healthy sayo and u act na lumayo sakanila for ur
- The capacity of a person to be the cause of her actions based on peace of mind hindi papasok yung ethical or unethical doon
reasons and not merely to mindlessly to react to the environment and kase u act based on ur impulses.
base impulses. Sensible Impulse
Autonomy - These are usually bodily and emotional.
Immanuel Kant on Autonomy - Not a pure reason, but still have a reason kase it determine kung
- He claims that the property of the rational will is autonomy paano ka nag a act. External ba or Internal
which is the opposite of heteronomy. - Examples:
- Autonomy – may Kalayaan ka pero hindi ganap  Jealously from seeing your girlfriend or boyfriend make eyes at
- These three Greek words are instructive: someone
 Autos (Self)  The rage from being pushed foully by your opponent in a
 Heteros (Other) basketball game.
 Nomos (Law) Pure Reason
Example: - There is a choice or action
Brushing one’s teeth which is not yet a moral dilemma but is sufficient to - Kant calls this kind of action free choice, and one may argue that
explain the difference between autonomy and heteronomy human freedom resides in this capacity of reason to intervene to
 Now think about the children twenty years later the children might “within arbitrium
conclude that they - Kant describes that human choice can be affected but is not
 Agree with the principle behind it. (Act of legislating principles) determined by sensible impulses.
 Every night they impose it upon themselves to brush their teeth Heteronomous
before going to bed. (Enacting principles) (obligasyon mo na mag Reggie tells himself “I am entitled to benefit from this lost suitcase.
brush ng ngipin tuwing gabi kase syempre alam mo yung mangyayari - The action of Reggie in the scenario is considered as
kapag hindi ka nag brush, magkakaroon ka ng cavity or mag heteronomous.
kakaroon ng bad breath) - Heteronomy of the will occurs when any foreign impulse,
whether it is external (as in other persons or institutions that
“The will is thus not only subject to the law, but it is also subject to the impose their will on the agent) or sensible (as in bodily instincts
law in such a way that it gives the law to itself, and primarily just in this or base emotions) is what compels a person to act.
way that the will can be considered the author of the under which it is - In contrast, autonomy is the property of the will in those
subject.” instances when pure reason is the cause of the action

The distinguishing point in autonomy is the locust of the authorship of the

law which can be divided by the external or internal Universality
 External author law the will is subjected to an external authority, thus Kinds of Moral Theories
heteronomy will Substantive Theory
- Outside or from ur surrounding ung authority
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- it immediately promulgates the specific actions that comprise end hindi ka naman pala sinalo awtsss pighati, lumabay, sakittt
that theory emzzz)
- Ito, ganto, ganyan yung gawin mo. May parang authority na  Rational permissibility – Intrinsic quality of an action that is
kailangan mo sundin. Isipin mo nalang nanay mo ganun yung objectively and necessarily rational.
substantive may utos lagi.  Universalizability Test – a form of a moral test that invites us to
- Example imagine a world in which any proposed action is also adopted by
 ten commandments everyone else. And it is the foundational principle for deontological,
 “honor your father and mother” or duty based, ethics.
 “you shall not kill” - Hal. Cheating mismo sa exam (mali yun). Cheating sa
Formal Moral Theory relationship (syempre maling maliiii pre, may mag sabi dyan
- It does not supply the rules or commends straight away dahil toxic na relationship tirikan ko kayo kandila charooott). Sa
- Freedom like bahala ka sa buhay mo kung ano gusto mong lie, depende kase may white lie tayong pinagbabasehan. Sa
gawin. Kung gusto mo mawala goo, kung gusto mo umalis goo, killing, syempre mali din.
kung gusto mo tumaas na go lang mars charooott wag muna  Ownership – Someone who has right to possess, use, and dispose of
preee magiging RN ka paaa. the thing as one pleases.
Immanuel Kant Categorical Imperative
- Embodies a formal moral theory in what he calls the categorical - It is precisely for the rational will that is autonomous
imperative, which provides procedural way of identifying the - Kant gives two forms of the categorical imperative:
rightness or wrongness of an action  Behave in such a way that a reasonable generalization of
- Kant describes the categorical imperative in 3 ways your action to a universal rule will lead to a benefit to a
 “Act only according to such a maxim, by which you can at once generic person under this universal rule.
will that it becomes a universal law – Universability /  Always treat others as ends and not means.
Universalisability  Paternalism
 Humanity as end - the term used for actions we take or decisions we make for
 Kingdom of ends another person with the intention of benefiting that person.
Four Key Elements - metaphor of father (parang tatay)
- Kant state that we must formulate an action as maxim which he - Enlightenment Morality
defines as a “subjective principle of action” - Isisipin mo na kailangan mong gawin para hindi makasakit sa
- We have many maxims in our lives, and we live according to them iba
“Act only according to such a maxim, by which you can at once will  Deontology is the spirit of enlightenment of morality. It is based on
that it becomes a universal law.” the light of one’s own reason when maturity and rational capacity
- What does it mean to will a maxim that can become a universal law? take hold of a person’s decision making.
- In groundwork towards a metaphysics of morals, Kant takes up the  Moreover, with deontology particularly the method of
issue of making false promises He narrates the predicament of who universalizability, we can validate and adopt the rules and laws which
needs money, but has no immediate access to obtain it except by are right and reject those that are irrational. Thus, impermissible
borrowing it from a friend because it is self-contradictory.
- This is a specific act under the general category of acts called false  The practice of deontology in our moral reflection, we are
promising Kant says that the man would like to make such a promise, encouraged to have courage to think on our own, to use our rational
but he stops and asks himself if what he is about to do is right or will against external authorities as well as internal base impulses that
wrong is it really wrong to borrow money without intending to pay it tend to undetermined our autonomy and self-determination.
back? VIRTUE ETHICS
Maxim: I will borrow money even though I know that I will not be able to - The goal of life is well-being (happiness) and the means to attain it is
return it (hindi ka nagbabayad or hindi mo binabayaran/binabalik yung by acquiring a virtuous character.
hiniram mo. Parang kay crush nakuha nya puso mo pero hindi nya binalik - It is the ethical framework that is concerned with understanding the
awtsss patay charooott) good as a matter of developing the virtuous character of a person.
Universal Law/Universability: A world where everyone borrows money - Virtue ethics, on the other hand, focuses on the formation of one’s
without the intention of returning it (binabalik mo yung hiniram mo. character brought about by determining and doing virtuous acts.
Tmang crush back lang ganurnnnn naol kinacrush backkk prayer reveal - Origins of Virtue Ethics:
pree emzzzz)  The theory of virtue ethics originates in Ancient Greece, though
- Now there are two possibilities in this hypothetical world some connections can be drawn as far back as Ancient China.
 By “making sense”, we refer to the logical plausibility  In Greek, virtue (arête) means ‘excellence’.
 By “not making sense”, we refer to the logical impossibility
 Socrates once claimed: “it’s the greatest good for a man to
- Kant between being “consistent with itself” and “contradict itself”,
discuss virtue all day … on the grounds that the unexamined life
but must necessarily contradict itself.
is not worth living” (The Apology).
 “When I need money, I shall borrow it even when I know I
Virtue and happiness
cannot pay it back. “
- For Greeks (and all subsequent virtue theories), the goal of action is
 The meaning of the act “to borrow” implies taking and using
the ultimate human good: happiness (eudaimonia).
something with the intent to return to it. In the maxim, the claim
- Human happiness is to be understood as the highest achievement of
is “to borrow” even when I know I cannot pay it back, which
what it means to be human, of the human essence. It is a kind of
contradicts the very meaning “to borrow”.
flourishing, health, or well-being of the soul or mind.
 The act of borrowing money without intending to pay is
- While happiness seems to be subjective, the idea of human
rationally impermissible.
flourishing implies an objective notion of happiness. (Think of it on
- Two ways which kant rejects maxims are the following:
analogy with health.)
 Self-contradictory - Virtue makes a person good, or excellent, and so it is the means by
 Act and its purpose become impossible which we acquire happiness.
- Like gusto mong tumalon from the airplane kahit walang Socrates/Plato’s theory of virtue
parachute kase naniniwala kang lilipad ka. Pareho lang sa - Virtue is supposed to be a kind of knowledge.
sumugal ka sa isang tao kase nauto ka sa sinasabi nya pero in the - It is identified with wisdom (Sophia);
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- Wisdom is both necessary and sufficient for virtue. - A person who practices hard and trains her body acquires the
- Knowledge about virtue is somehow analogous to mathematical skills to be able to do that skill well.
knowledge. - The skilled athlete or musician is also the one who is better able
- Both kinds of knowledge are the result of a self-reflective process to practice, reinforcing her skill.
called ‘recollection’. - The skilled athlete or musician actually physically changes his
A Problem of Knowledge: or her body through repetitious actions.
- Since virtue concerns action, it is possible to act well without - In the same way, the virtuous person finds it easier to act
knowing how to act well; virtuously; she actually changes her physical and emotional
- As long as someone has the right belief about which actions are good, characteristics.
he or she will act virtuously; Character and the Will
- But belief without knowledge is unstable and fleeting; - Aquinas emphasizes the importance of will in his account of the
- This is why it is necessary to have, not just true belief, but moral virtues.
knowledge, which is justified true belief. - For Aquinas, even if a person has the right characteristics and is
- inclined by nature to do the right thing, that person still has a choice
Practical Wisdom or Prudence either to follow commands of reason or not.
- With Aristotle, we distinguish the kind of wisdom necessary for - The individual, human will is right when it conforms to divine
ethical action from wisdom in the sciences. will.
- The wisdom necessary for action is “practical wisdom” (phronêsis) or - Divine will is the ultimate lawgiver: God ordained right and
good moral judgment. Aquinas calls this “prudence” (prudentia). wrong, good and bad, when God created the world. So, failure to
- Judgment applies to a range of different situations, which is why it conform to God’s will is to violate the natural law.
requires experience to acquire. Supernatural Grace and Beatific Vision
- Good judgment enables a person to make the right sort of decision in - Aquinas recognizes Aristotle’s idea that virtue leads to
the right kind of circumstances at the right time. happiness, but he sees this as an imperfect, natural, or human form of
Intellectual and Moral Virtues happiness.
- Aristotle and Aquinas distinguish between intellectual and moral - Complete and perfect happiness is not to be found in this life, for
virtues: Aquinas. It is the beatific vision: complete intellectual union with the
 Intellectual virtues can be taught formally. They involve divine (seeing God in God’s essence).
knowledge and understanding of causes and ends (the why and - This sort of blessed happiness is impossible as long as our
how). intellect is embodied and operates through the senses (since God’s
o Examples: theoretical wisdom, scientific knowledge, true essence is not perceivable by the senses.)
insight or understanding, technical skill or art, and practical - Additionally, human beings are unable to obtain this perfection
wisdom. without the grace of God. So, this ultimate end or purpose of
 Moral virtues can only be acquired through practice and humanity is supernatural, it requires divine intervention.
experience. They involve acquiring habits of character and have Review:
to do with the appropriate management of emotions. - Virtue ethics is the theory that moral goods involve acquiring a
o Examples: temperance or moderation, justice, courage or virtuous character.
fortitude, generosity, friendliness, wittiness, truthfulness, - Virtues are either moral or intellectual.
etc. - Moral virtues involve acquiring a character through practice, by
Virtue and Character engraining habits or dispositions to act well.
- To be virtuous is to have a virtuous character. - Making good choices, practicing good habits, and acting well all
- Character is an engrained habit or disposition to act in certain involve good moral judgment (the application of reason to changing,
ways. practical situations).
- Virtuous action must come from a virtuous character (as - Good moral judgment, good actions, and a good character
opposed to some external force). ultimately make a person happy. They lead to the well-being of the
- The virtuous person wants to act virtuously and does so for that soul.
reason. Aristotle’s Ethics
Character continued: - 384-322 B.C.
- Dispositions or character traits are to be understood broadly, so - The Nicomachean Ethics
that a virtuous person is virtuous in many different situations. - Two Kinds of Persons
- For example, an honest person not only tells the truth, but  Continent: Do what is right, but not necessarily
doesn’t cheat, respects contracts, obeys the laws, and doesn’t because they want to
misrepresent him/herself.  Temperate: Do what is right because they want to; the
- And the honest person does this because he or she prefers to be more holistic person
honest, not because he/she wants to avoid some bad consequence. The Goal of Human Existence
- For this reason, it is unwise to attribute a virtue to someone on - Eudaimonia
the basis of one or a few actions. - Flourishing, Happiness
Habit: how to acquire virtue - A Lifelong Pursuit, accomplished
- With respect to the moral virtues, Aristotle thinks we “learn by  Rationally, through theoretical wisdom and
doing”. contemplation
- Virtue requires discipline and practice.  Functionally, through practical wisdom and politics
- Repeated virtuous actions help to engrain the character traits or The Goal of Human Existence & Eudaimonia
dispositions that make a person virtuous. - Aimed at the “perfect happiness” which is the perfect activity
- Making virtuous decisions requires good moral judgment - An excellence in any activity in accordance with the nature of
(reason), so there is an essential, rational component as well. that activity
An analogy: - Thus, “Human happiness is the activity of the soul in accordance
- One of the easiest ways to think of how to acquire moral with perfect virtue (excellence)”. (I.8; Pojman, 394).
character is by comparing it to skills like the ability to play a sport or The Virtues
a musical instrument. - Intellectual Virtues
 Wisdom, Understanding, Prudence

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 Taught through instruction habits we form from the earliest age ̶ it makes a vast difference,
- Moral Virtues or rather all the difference in the world.” (II.i.) (Pojman, 396)
 Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, Temperance - Reinforcing the Virtues
 The result of habit
 Not natural or inborn but acquired through practice Other Virtue Ethicists
 Habit or disposition of the soul (our fundamental G.E.M. (Elizabeth) Anscombe
character) which involves both feeling and action - In 1958 she published an article called Modern Moral
 “Those strengths of character that enable us to Philosophy arguing that we should return to the virtues, as the
flourish” (Hinman) idea of a law without a lawgiver was incoherent.
- Defined / understood in terms of spheres of human experience Alasdair MacIntyre
- After Virtue (1981)
- Modern moral philosophy is bankrupt; it must recover the
tradition of virtue.
- Importance of Narrative as a “live tradition” – you need to know
where ethics has come from.
- Virtues change over time.
Philippa Foot
- Tries to modernise Aristotle.
- Ethics should not be about dry theorising, but about making the
world a better place (she was one of the founders of Oxfam)
The Doctrine of the Mean - Virtue contributes to the good life.
- Proper position between two extremes Rosalind Hursthouse
 Vice of excess - A neo-Aristotelian – Aristotle was wrong on women and slaves,
 Vice of deficiency and there is no need to be limited to his list of virtues.
- Not an arithmetic median - We acquire virtues individually, and so flourish, but we do so
 Relative to us and not the thing together and not at each other’s expense.
 Not the same for all of us, or Carol Gilligan
 Any of us, at various occasions - In a Different Voice (1982)
 “In this way, then, every knowledgeable person avoids - Developmental theories have been built on observations and
excess and deficiency, but looks for the mean and chooses it” assumptions about men’s lives and thereby distort views of
(II.6) female personality.
The Mean - The kinds of virtues one honors depend on the power brokers of
one’s society.
- The Ethics of Care
Michael Slote
- Develops the feminist ‘ethics of care,’ and links it to a virtue
ethics inspired more by Hume and Hutcheson’s moral
sentimentalism than by Aristotle.
- Slote’s version of virtue ethics is agent-based (as opposed to
more Aristotelian forms which are said to be agent focused) i.e.
the moral rightness of acts is based on the virtuous motives or
characters of the agent.
- The motives are all important.

Martha Nussbaum
- She interprets Aristotle’s views as absolutes… justice,
Virtues and the Mean temperance, generosity etc. are essential to human flourishing in
- Defined through Reason all societies and in all times.
 Education, contemplation, reflection - Nussbaum sees a relativist approach as being incompatible with
- Balanced with Other Virtues and applied using phronesis: Aristotle’s virtue theory.
 To have any single strength of character in full
measure, a person must have the other ones as well. Are the virtues the same for everyone?
o Courage without good judgement is blind  People are very different.
o Courage without perseverance is short-lived  But we face the same basic problems and have the same basic
o Courage without a clear sense of your own needs.
 Everyone needs courage as danger can always arise.
abilities is foolhardy
 Some people are less well off, so we will need generosity.
- “The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to know
 Everyone needs friends so we need loyalty.
when and how best to apply these various moral perspectives.”
Strengths of Virtue Ethics
(*Hinman)
 Importance of the Person, Motive, Heart, Conscience
Virtues and Community
 Connection to Community
- Virtues are defined and lived in community
 Realization that morality is not defined by moments but by a
- Sharing a common identity and story
long-term process
- Modelling the Virtues
 Allowance for gray areas, varying contexts, different levels of
 Importance of Moral Exemplars (Saints and Heroes)
moral maturity and life contexts
- Practicing the Virtues – Habit is Crucial!
Weaknesses of Virtue Ethics
 “In a word, then, like activities produce like  Dependence on strong communities
dispositions. Hence we must give our activities a certain quality,  Not easily applied to ethical issues or to give us practical
because it is their characteristics that determine the resulting solutions
dispositions. So it is a matter of no little importance what sort of  Demands time
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 Can be turned into a poor duty-based ethics 3) To each person according to contribution. [example: only
 Might be taken as situational ethics people who are members of the Philippine Health can avail of its
How do we acquire virtue? medical services and privileged]
 Practical wisdom 4) To each person according to free-market exchanges.
- Comes from observing human affairs carefully [example: the service is provided only to those who can afford it
- Comes from remembering how our actions & the such as cosmetic surgery]
actions of others have played out 5) To each person according to merit. [example: this principle
 The more we develop a virtuous character & acquire practical involves that implementation of set of rules/criteria that must be
wisdom met before a privileged can be granted. Example: Philippine
- The greater chance we will act well in life Charity Sweepstakes service of proving free health care
 Good actions from good character assistance only to those who meets the required criteria and that
 Good character is essential to human happiness is having no financial capacity to provide it for themselves and
Virtue & Habit to their family]
 For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and thereby 6) To each person according to effort. [example: this refers to the
learned—it is habit (hexis). patient’s efforts to comply or not to comply with the medical
 This has clear implications for moral education, for Aristotle advice. A diabetic client has the choice to comply or not to
obviously thinks that you can teach people to be virtuous. comply with his medication and diet regimen]
 Role models become very important Types of justice
Virtue As the Golden Mean 1) Distributive justice. It refers to fair, equitable, and appropriate
 Aristotle says virtue involves finding the proper balance between distribution or responsibilities or share or rights and roles, resources
two extremes. and privileges
o Excess: having too much of something. 2) Criminal justice. Refers to the infliction of punishment or
o Deficiency: having too little of something. penalty proportionate to the crime committed. In other words, no
 Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance. exemption in the merited penalty.
 The Mean varies from person to person 3) Rectificatory justice. Refers to just compensation for
 There are many ways of behaving & thus many ways to be transactional problems such as breaches of contract and practice
happy based on civil law. Rectify the person who did not observe hi/her
JUSTICE word of honor.
- Etymologically, justice comes from the Latin word ‘jus’ to mean The Paradigm Approach to Justice
‘right’. The etymological meaning of the word ‘justice’ that connotes Utilitarian: Justice as whatever brings about the greatest good of the
‘right’ is somewhat a bit different from the word ‘justice’. What then greatest number (John Stuart Mill)
is justice? The terms fairness, desert (what is deserved) and  For a utilitarian, justice is not an independent moral principle. Rather
entitlement are used by various philosophers in an attempt to it is a principle dependent on, governed by, that sole principle of
explicate justice. This account interprets justice as fair, equitable, and morality, the principle of utility. It names the most paramount and
appropriate treatment in the light of what due or owe to others. stringent form of obligation created by the principle of utility.
- The writer of the Hippocratic Oath insists that it is a part of the Utilitarian therefore work out all the predictable benefits and all the
doctor’s duty to keep his patients free from injustice they can do predictable losses of some proposed change or state of affairs,
themselves, Justice is generally thought to be giving others their due. calculate the net sum (or utility) of the proposed changes and choose
This idea may be taken into different senses, most narrowly as that state of affairs which will bring about the greatest good for the
fulfilling responsibilities prior to any undertakings, more widely, as greatest number, which will in turn maximize utility. Justice in this
being fair perhaps to others, quite generally, as acting uprightly in instance then is the distributed result of that calculation. Thus, any
any way of actions bearing on others, biblically, the scripture would form of state of affairs is considered just if it represents the greatest
say that justice may mean goodness and holiness in general. good for the greatest number and unjust to the extent that it does not
However, most philosophers use the term justice in a more specific affect that result.
sense that was referred to as ‘rightness in people’s interactions and  As it is applied in health care, utilitarian used two principal criteria
interrelations. Thus, it is rightfully correct to say that sometimes the for working out one’s utility: quality of life measures and social
word ‘justice’ overlap with the word ‘right’. contribution measures. It is a fact that some utilitarian may have
Formal Principle of Justice various emphases yet they tend to favor the following principles in
- Formally speaking, as Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics would say medicine: a) prevention is to be preferred to cure and cheaper (less
that justice refers to ‘equals must be treated equally’ and ‘unequals expensive) therapies are to be preferred to a more expensive ones, b)
must be treated unequally’. This is the formal principle of justice, it is expensive or scarce therapies are only available to the young and
‘formal’ because it identifies no particular respects in which equals those who likely to lead long productive lives, c) preference should
ought to be treated equally and thus provide no criteria for be given to those likely to receive the greatest benefit in terms of
determining whether two or more individuals are in fact equal improved length and quality of life and to those likely to make the
(Beauchamp and Childress, 2001). greatest future social contribution, d) short-term services are to be
Material Principle of Justice preferred to long-term care and institutional care is eliminated as
- Principles that specify the relevant characteristics for equal treatment much as possible and e) healthcare for the terminally ill, dying,
are called ‘material’ because they identify the substantive properties elderly, chronically sick or incapacitated, severely handicapped and
for distribution. Philosophers like Engelhadrt, Keusch, Wildes and permanently unconscious is to be given the lowest priority (Anthony
others have suggested the following material principles of justice: Fisher).
1) To each person an equal share. [example: all members of the Egalitarian: Justice as the equal distribution of good and services (John
society are given equal services such as the free immunization to Rawls).
all children below seven years old]  Egalitarian argued that justice means is essentially considered
2) To each person according to need. [example: when there is a what is due is what is fair, equal, or perhaps fairness. John
shortage of ex. Hepatitis B vaccine, it is provided only to the Rawls principle of justice is derived from what people would
high risks groups. Likewise, only health care workers assigned choose if they were forced to be impartial, if they had to choose
in the high risks areas are provided with free health check-ups, principles on which to base a social structure that will satisfy
medication, including treatments and vaccinations to protect them whenever they turn out to be located in it. John Rawls
them] continue to say that each person will choose two principles that
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will lead towards the exercise of fairness, namely, a) each person democratically administered by the citizen-members. In this
should have the most extensive system of basic liberties approach to communitarian, each individual program would
compatible with similar liberties for all and b) social and determined which benefits to provide, which care is most
economic inequalities should be arranged so that they are to the important, whether expensive service will be included or
greatest benefit of the least advantaged and are open to all under excluded (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001).
conditions of fair equality of opportunity. Simply to say, justice The following table shows a summary of the different approaches to
for Rawls therefore consists in fair equality of opportunity. justice:
 John Rawls himself never applied justice to the distribution of Approaches to Proponent Principle Description of
health care. However, most readers (Daniels, Norman) of John justice Justice
Rawls believed that his theory inspired approaches to health care
distribution by insisting that each person irrespective of social Justice as
condition such as poor and the wealthy should be provided with whatever
Equality of all
equal fair opportunity to health. brings about
persons and
 Distribution Rawls believed must be on the basis of need which Utilitarianism Mill the greatest
impartiality
is understood as what is necessary for equality of opportunity. good of the
between persons
For example, better services, such as luxury hospital rooms and greatest
expensive but optional dental work, should be available for number
purchase at personal expense by those who are able and wish to John Rawls Justice as the Emphasized on
do so. On the other hand, everyone’s basic need of health equal what is owe (as a
service should be met at an adequate level. By this, it ensures distribution of matter of
decent minimum of health care and equal opportunity. (at least some) fairness) by the
Libertarian: Justice as the lack of restraints on individual liberty (Robert Egalitarian goods or rest of us to the
Nozick). services poorest and most
 Contemporary libertarian like Robert Nozick believed that it is not vulnerable
the role of the state to impose any pattern of distribution of benefits members of the
and burdens on its members since that will violate the rights of community
individuals. Nozick believed that individual have rights, such as right Robert Justice as the Recognizes the
to liberty, life, property and others, which those individual are Nozick lack of centrality of
entitled to enjoy and to exercise so long as it does not interfere into Libertarian restraints on individual’s
the rights of others. Nozick therefore believed that the affair of the individual autonomy
state is to protect citizens against any unjust interference such as, liberty
theft, fraud, violence and others and it is not the business of the state
Alasdair Justice is what Consist in
to distribute benefits and burdens such as health care since that will
MacIntyre is due to favoring and
turn violate the rights of individuals.
individuals or fostering the
 So, as the libertarian suggests, the only just system of allocation of groups depend common good of
health care is the operation of the free-market. It is up to people on the one’s
individually to choose what health care or service, and from whom, Communitarian
community- communities. It
for which they wish to spend their own resources. It is up to the derived emphasizes on
health professional as well to decide how, when, for whom, with standards solidarity with
whom and for how much they wish to work. Libertarian therefore every human
treats autonomy, both the health care professional and the patient as a being/person
central notion of health care and allocating resources. Individual then
must be encouraged to take responsibility for their own health - Justice underlies the nurse commitment to provide services with
(Ronald Dworkin, 1981). respect for human dignity and render nursing care to the best of their
 Applying Nozick’s libertarianism to health care, health care ability to every patient regardless of religion, sex, race, economic
professionals are obliged to provide care only that health care in status and beliefs.
keeping with their own prior undertakings or present choices. Thus, Allocation of Scarce and Resource (Triage)
they may legitimately decide for themselves what distribution - The basic ethical question to allocation of scarce and resources is not
standards to apply to their own practices. Furthermore, libertarian, whether there is a need to rationing or prioritization but how it should
supports generally a health care system, the state or any instituted do so, given the case that it is inevitable. Unless there is a systematic
state that does not coerce in taking one’s own personal property ethical examination and criticism of health care distribution, there are
rights, physician have liberty, nurses too, and society is not morally likely to be inconsistencies, abuses in the way the goods of the state is
obligated to provide health care if it is done through coercion. allocated.
Communitarian: Justice is what is due to individuals or groups depend - The first issue on allocation of scarce resources is on the ‘macro’
on the community-derived standards (Alasdair MacIntyre). level is: how much should be spent on healthcare? The second would
 Communitarian regards justice as pluralistic (Beauchamp and be on meso-allocation which is: how many healthcare resources
Childress, 2001). That means it derives justice from as many as should go to what kind of services? And finally, on the
different conceptions of the good as there are diverse moral and microallocation: who should get what share of the healthcare
cultural communities. Communitarian then placed the resources?
community as the core of a value system than prioritizing an - The problem of health care distribution does not only arise when
individual as libertarian proposed. The value of any public goods being addressed directly. Time and again it rears its head when
are rooted from a communal practices. Communitarian believed treating other bioethical questions such as the appropriate treatment
that human life will go better if collective and public values of newborns, the infertile, the chronically sick and the terminally ill
guide people’s lives. They have a commitment to facilitate and and the permanently unconscious.
practice designed to help members of the community develop - To allocate is to distribute by allotment as Beauchamp and Childress
their common and henceforth personal lives (Honderich, 1995). would argued. And such distribution does not presuppose either a
 Modern communitarian writers disagree on the application of person or a system that rations/prioritize resources. A criterion of
these theories to health care access. Some proposes a federation
of interlinking community health programs that are
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one’s ability to pay in a competitive-market for instance is a form of
an example of allocation.
- ‘Macroallocation’ decisions determine the funds to be expended and
the goods to be made available, as well as the method of distribution.
This emphasize that a macroallocation deals with how much of the
society’s resources will be used for various needs, including health-
related expenditures. A certain state therefore decides how much of
the national budget goes to the health care program and what
proportion of available health goes to which program.
- On the other hand, ‘Microallocation’ decisions determine who will
receive the particular scarce resources. This distinction that were
mentioned are useful, but the line between them are not clear and
oftentimes interact.
- One’s own moral intuition often drives each one into two conflicting
directions: either to allocate more to treatment or to allocate more to
prevention and education. Now, determining who among the given
options will receive priority varies due to different philosophies one
is adhering. So, the only recourse perhaps is to give what is due to
ones own.

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