University of Hertfordshire DAG 29/09/03

Faculty of Engineering & Information Sciences

Control Systems Formula Sheet

1. SYSTEMS MODELLING

Time Domain Laplace Domain

f(t) F(s) or L[f(t)]

a.f(t) + b.g(t) (a and b constant) a.F(s) + b.G(s)

df sF(s) − f ( 0)
f ′( t ) = f& ( t ) =
dt
2
d f s2 F(s) − sf ( 0) − f ′ ( 0)
f ′′( t ) = 2
dt
d fn
s n F(s) − s n −1 f ( 0) − s n− 2 f ′ ( 0) − ....− f ( n−1) ( 0)
dt n
t 1
∫ f ( t ) dt
0 s
F(s)

f(t-T) (T is a time delay) e-sT F(s)

δ(t) 1

1 1
s
tn n!
sn +1
e-at 1
s+ a
tn e-at n!
(s + a) n+1
sin(bt) b
s + b2
2

cos(bt) s
s + b2
2

e-at sin(bt) b
(s + a) 2 + b 2
e-at cos(bt) s+ a
(s + a) 2 + b 2

Initial and Final Value Theorem

lim lim lim lim
f ( 0) =
t→0
[ f ( t )] = s→∞ [sF(s)] f ( ∞) =
t →∞
[ f ( t )] = s→0 [sF(s)]

1
Transfer Function Definition

The Laplace Transform of the output L [ y(t) ] Y(s)

G(s) = = =
The Laplace Transform of the input L [ u(t) ] U(s)

Assuming all initial conditions are zero.

System Transfer Function Differential Equation

Gain G(s) = K y = Ku

Integrator 1
G (s) =
s
∫
y = u. dt

K dy
First Order G (s) = T + y = Ku
1 + sT dt

Kω 2n d 2y dy
Second Order G (s) = 2 2
+ 2ζω n + ω n2 y = Kω n2 u
s + 2ζω n s + ω 2n dt dt

System Unit Step Response (assuming all ic’s = 0)

First Order  −t 
y = K 1 − e T 
 

Second Order   ζω n 
y = K1 − e −ζω n t  cos(ω d t ) + sin(ω d t ) 
  ωd  

π
where ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , ωn = ,
t max 1 − ζ 2

πζ

overshoot = e
−
1 − ζ2
, ζ=
( ln(overshoot )) 2
π 2 + ( ln(overshoot ))
2

2
Rules for Block Diagram Manipulation

GA (s) GB (s) GA (s)GB(s)

GA (s)
+ GA (s) ± GB (s)

±
GB (s)

G(s)
=
G(s) G(s)

1
G(s)

G(s)
G(s)

+ +
G(s) G(s)
± ±

G(s)

+ + G(s)
G(s)
±
±
1
G(s)

+
G(s)
G(s)
1 + G(s)H(s)

H(s)

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2. SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

lim lim
Steady State Output y ss = y( t ) = sY(s)
t→∞ s→ 0

e ss = u - yss
Steady State Error

Steady State Error for Unity Feedback Systems

Step Ramp Parabolic

u(t) = 1 u(t) = t u(t) = t2/2

Type 0 1 ess = ∞ ess = ∞

e ss =
1+ Kp

Type 1 ess = 0 1 ess = ∞

e ss =
Kv

Type 2 ess = 0 ess = 0 1

e ss =
Ka

Position Error Constant lim

Kp = [G (s)]
s→ 0 o

Velocity Error Constant lim

Kv =
s→ 0
[sG o (s)]

Acceleration Error Constant

Ka =
lim
s→0
[s G (s)]
2
o

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3. SIMPLE CONTROLLERS

Controller
Gc(s)

Proportional K

Ki
Proportional + Integral K+
s
 s + α K
or K  where α = i K
 s 

K + Kds
Proportional + Derivative
Kd
or K(1 + sTd ) where Td = K

Ki
Proportional + Integral + Derivative K+ + Kds
s
(Three Term Controller)
s+a
Lead Controller K where a < b
s+b

1 + sT
or K where α < 1
1 + sαT
s+a
Lag Controller K where a > b
s+b

1 + sT
or K where α > 1
1 + sαT

4. ROUTH STABILITY CRITERION

D(s) = ansn + an-1sn-1 + an-2sn-2 + an-3sn-3 + an-4sn-4 + an-5sn-5 + ... = 0

sn an an-2 an-4
a n −1a n − 2 − a n a n −3
b n −1 =
sn-1 an-1 an-3 an-5 a n −1

sn-2 bn-1 bn-3 bn-5

. . . . a n −1a n − 4 − a n a n −5
. . . . b n −3 =
a n −1
. . .
s0 hn-1

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5. ROOT LOCUS

No Drawing Rules

1 All loci start for K = 0 at the Open Loop Poles and finish for K = ∞ at either Open Loop Zeros or s = ∞.

2 There will always be a locus on the real axis to the LEFT of an ODD number of Open Loop Poles and Zeros.

3 If there are n Open Loop Poles and m Open Loop Zeros, there will be n-m loci ending at infinity on asymptotes
at angles to the real axis of

180° 540° 900°

± , ± , ± , K
n−m n−m n−m

4 The asymptotes meet on the real axis at

n m
∑ pi - ∑ zi
i =1 i =1
σ =
n - m
where pi is the position of the i’th open loop pole and zi is the position of the i’th open loop zero.

5 Where two real loci meet on the real axis they “breakaway” from the real axis at ±90° to form two complex
loci, symmetrical about the real axis.

Where two complex loci meet on the real axis they “break-in” to form two real loci, moving in opposite
directions along the real axis.
dK
The “breakaway” and “break-in” points are given by the roots of = 0
ds

6 The points of intersection of a locus with the imaginary axis can be determined by solving the equation

D ( jω ) + KN ( jω ) = 0

Remember both the real part and the imaginary parts must be satisfied in this equation. Hence this will give two
simultaneous equations one that will give values of ω while the other gives the K value at the crossing point.

7 The angle of departure of a locus from a complex open loop pole is given by;

n m
φ d = 180° − ∑φ
i=1
i + ∑ψ i=1
i
i≠ d

where φi is the angle from the i’th open loop pole and ψi is the angle from the i’th zero.

The angle of arrival of a locus at a complex zero is given by;

n m
ψ a = 180° + ∑φ
i=1
i − ∑ψ
i =1
i

i≠ a

6
 n

Magnitude Condition ∏Pi =1

i
K= m

∏Z
i =1
i

n m

Angle Condition 180° = ∑ φi

i =1
- ∑ψ
i =1
i

1 - ζ2
Lines of constant damping ω=± σ where s = σ + jω
ζ

NB Straight line through the origin of the s plane. Also lines makes an
angle cos-1 ζ with the negative real axis

σ 2 + ω 2 = ω 2n
Lines of constant undamped
natural frequency NB Circle with centre on the origin of the s plane and radius ωn

6. FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHODS

u(t) = sin(ωt) y(t) = [Link](ωt + φ)

G(s)

R = G ( jω ) = a 2 + b 2
G(jω ) = a(ω ) + jb(ω )

 b
φ = ∠G ( jω ) = tan −1   g = 20 log 10 R
 a

u(t) = sin(ωt) y(t) = [Link](ωt + φ)

G1(s) G2 (s) G3 (s)

R = R1 R 2 R 3 g = g1 + g 2 + g 3 φ = φ1 + φ 2 + φ 3

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Nyquist Diagrams of Common System Elements

G(s) R φ Nyquist Diagram

Gain Term

K 0°
K K

Integrator
1
1 ω -90°
s

Differentiator

ω 90°
s

First Order “Lag”

1 − tan −1( ωT)

1

1
1 + ω 2 T2
1 + sT

First Order “Lead”

1 + ω 2 T2 tan −1( ωT) 1

1 + sT

Second Order Term

ω 2n  2ζω ω 
ω 2n − tan −1  2 n 2 
s2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n (ω 2
n −ω )
2 2
+ ( 2ζω nω )
2  ωn − ω 

Pure Time Delay

−ωTD
e − sTD 1
(in radians)

8
Bode Plots of Common System Elements

g (dB)
G(s) Gain Plot Phase Plot
φ(deg)

Gain Term
20log10 K 2 0 lo g 1 0 K 0

K
0°

Integrator  1
20 log10  
 ω 0
1
0
1
s -90°
-90
-20 dB/dec

Differentiator 20 log10 ( ω )
20 dB/dec 90

s
90°
0 0
1

First Order “Lag”  

1 1/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T
20 log10  

0
0

1  1 + ω 2T 2 
-3dB -45
1 + sT
− tan −1( ωT) -90
-20 dB/dec

First Order “Lead”

20 log10  1 + ω 2T2 
20 dB/dec

  90

1 + sT
3dB 45

tan −1( ωT)

0 0
1/T 0.1/T 1/T 10/T

Second Order Term   -20 log10 (2ζ) ωn

 ω 2n  0
20 log10   0
ω 2n 
(ω ) 2
2 ωn

2
n − ω2 + (2ζω n ω ) 
s2 + 2ζω n s + ω 2n -90

 2ζω ω 
− tan −1  2 n 2  180
 ωn − ω  -40 dB/dec

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7. DIGITAL CONTROL

Discrete Time Domain z Domain Laplace Domain

(T = sample time period)
f(k) F(z) or Z[f(k)] F(s)

a.f(k) + b.g(k) a.F(z) + b.G(z) a.F(s) + b.G(s)

f(k+1) zF(z) - zf(0) esT F(s)

f(k-1) z-1F(z) e-sT F(s)

δ(k) 1 1

δ(k-n) z-n e-snT

1 z 1
z−1 s
k Tz 1
( z − 1) 2 s2
1 2 T 2  z(z + 1)  1
k  
2! 2!  (z − 1) 3  s3
e-ak z 1
z − e − aT s+ a
ke-ak Tze − aT 1

(z − e )− aT 2 (s + a) 2
1 - e-ak z(1 − e − aT ) a
( z − 1)( z − e − aT
) s(s + a )
-ak
k - (1 - e )/a [
z z(aT − 1 + e − aT ) + (1 − e − aT − aTe − aT ] a
a (z − 1) ( z − e
2 − aT
) s (s + a )
2

sin(ak) z sin( aT) a

2
z − 2 z cos( aT) + 1 s + a2
2

cos(ak) z(z − cos( aT)) s

z 2 − 2 z cos( aT) + 1 s + a2
2

e-ak sin(bk) z e− aT sin( bT) b

z 2 − 2 ze − aT cos( bT) + e−2 aT (s + a) 2 + b 2
e-ak cos(bk) z(z − e − aT cos( bT)) s+ a
z 2 − 2 ze − aT cos( bT) + e −2 aT (s + a) 2 + b 2
Zero Order Hold GH (z) 1− e − sT
(A/D and D/A s
converters)

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8. STATE SPACE METHODS

Continuous Digital

Standard x& = Ax + Bu x (k + 1) = Fx (k ) + G u (k )
Form for State y = Cx + Du y( k ) = C x ( k ) + D u ( k )
Space Model

G (s) = C(sI − A ) B + D
Transfer −1
G ( z) = C( zI − F) G + D
−1
Function
Matrix

Characteristic det (sI − A) = 0 det ( zI − F) = 0

Equation

State Time  t  k
Response
∫
x( t ) = e  x(0) + e − Aτ Bu( τ)dτ 
At x( k + 1) = F k +1 x(0) + ∑ FiGu( k − i)
 0
 i=0

Transition
Matrix [
Φ( t ) = e At = L-1 ( sI − A ) −1 ] F = e AT

A2t 2 A3t 3
Φ ( t ) = e At = I + At + + +L G = A −1 [ F − I]B
2! 3!

State x& = Ax + B( u − Kx) x (k + 1) = Fx (k ) + G (u (k ) − K x (k ) )

Feedback
Equation

Characteristic
Equation with det (sI − A + BK) = 0 det ( zI − F + GK) = 0
state feedback

Controllability
Matrix
2
[ n −1
M c = BM ABM A BMLM A B ] [ 2 n −1
M c = GM FGM F GMLM F G ]
Controllable 

0 1 0 L 0  0  0 1 0 L 0  0
0 0 1 L 0  0  0 0 1 L 0  0
Canonical       
x& c =  M M M O M xc +  M u x c (k + 1) =  M M M O M  x c (k ) +  M  u (k )
Form 
0 0 0 1 
      
 L 0  0 0 0 L 1  0
 −a 0 −a1 −a 2 L 
− a n −1  1  − a 0 − a1 − a2 L 
− a n −1  1

y = [b0 b1 L L b n − 2 b n − 1 ]x c y( k ) = [b 0 b1 L L b n − 2 b n −1 ]x c ( k )

11
Ackermann’s If desired CE is If desired CE is
Formula for
s n + α n −1 s n −1 + L + α 1 s + α 0 = 0 z n + α n −1 z n −1 + L + α 1 z + α 0 = 0
State Feedback

K = [0 0 K 1]M c−1φ(A ) K = [ 0 0 K 1]M c−1 φ( F)

where where
φ(A ) = α 0I + α1A + L + α n −1A n −1 + A n φ( F) = α 0 I + α 1 F + L + α n −1 F n −1 + F n

State x&$ = Ax$ + Bu + P( ~

y − y$ ) x (k + 1) = Fx̂ (k ) + Gu (k ) + P(~y (k ) − ŷ(k ))
Estimator
Equation

Characteristic det (sI − A + PC) = 0 det ( zI − F + PC) = 0

Equation for a
State
Estimator

Observability C  C 
Matrix  CA   CF 
   
Mo =  CA 2  Mo =  CF2 
   
L  L 
 n −1   n −1 
 CA   CF 

Observable  0 0 L 0 −a 0   b0   0 0 L 0 − a0   b0 
 − a 1   b   1
1 0 L 0 0 L 0 − a 1   b 
Canonical   1    1 
x& o =  0 1 M 0 −a 2  x o +  b 2  u x o (k + 1) =  0 1 M 0 − a 2  x o (k ) +  b 2  u (k )
Form 
L L O L M 
      
  M   L L O L M   M 
  
 b n −1   0  
0 0 L 1 − a n −1  0 L 1 − a n −1  b n −1 

y = [ 0 0 0 L 0 1]x o y(k ) = [0 0 0 L 0 1]x o ( k )

Ackermann’s If desired CE is If desired CE is

Formula for
s n + α n −1 s n −1 + L + α 1 s + α 0 = 0 z n + α n −1 z n −1 + L + α 1 z + α 0 = 0
State Estimators

[
P = φ(A ) M o−1 [ 0 0 K 1] ]T [
P = φ( F) M o−1 [ 0 0 K 1] ]T
where where
φ(A ) = α 0I + α1A + L + α n −1A n −1 + A n φ( F) = α 0 I + α 1 F + L + α n −1 F n −1 + F n

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