Level 1
Semester 1
Module 1A
Cell Division
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lecture, the students will be able to:
[Link] the stages of cell cycle.
[Link] the different phases of miosis
& mitosis.
[Link] between meiosis & mitosis.
Lecture Outline
• Stages of cell cycle
• Stages of Mitosis
• Stages of Meiosis
Case scenario
• Kim ,seven-year-old is battling leukemia, a
type of cancer that affects blood cells. The
abnormal blood cells replace the patient’s
normal blood cells over time. This can lead to
symptoms such as fatigue, frequent infections,
and easy bruising or bleeding.
• Explain how errors in cell division are related
to cancer?
The stages of cell cycle.
The Life Cycle Of The Cell:
The somatic cells start their life as daughter cells after
mitotic cell division. They perform their specific
functions till they divide again.
The Cell Cycle is the changes which occur in the cell
during its division (mitosis) and during its rest
(interphase).
cell cycle
The cell cycle is divided into: Mitosis and Interphase:
1) Mitosis is the period of cell division in which each cell
divides by mitosis to give two daughter cells.
2) The Interphase is the period of cell rest in which the cell is
in a resting condition before starting another cell division.
Interphase period
• Interphase period is further subdivided into three stages: G l -
then S-Stage then G2-Stage.
1) G-1 Stage (Gap One Stage):
This is the period of time between the end of mitosis and the
beginning of the next S-Stage.
In this Gap One Stage, the nucleus of each daughter cell has 46
chromatids which are called S-chromosomes.
Some cells may leave this stage permnanently to perform their
specialized functions,
2- S-Stage or Synthesis Stage:
This period follows the G 1-Stage. In this stage the actual amount
of DNA is duplicated through the process of synthesis and
replication of DNA molecules.
3) G- 2 -Stage (Gap two Stage):
This is a very short period of time which lies between the S-Stage and the
beginning of the next mitosis.
In this stage each pair of the identical chromatids become joined
together at the centromere to form the chromosomes of the next cell
division (next mitosis).
The chromosomes of this G - 2 stage are called D-chromosomes,
They contain double the amount of DNA.
The 2 centrioles are also duplicated into 2 pairs in this G2-Stage.
Thus, The Cell in G2-Stage contains 46 pairs of identical D-
chromosomes and 4 centrioles.
• Phases of meiosis & mitosis.
Cell Divisions
Types Of Cell Divisions:
1- Meiosis: (reduction cell division).
It occurs in the germ cells which are present in the testis and ovary
during
formation of gametes.
It gives daughter cells, each one contains half the number of
chromosomes (haploid number).
It gives half the amount of genetic material in the daughter cells.
2- Mitosis: (indirect cell division):
It is the process in which threads of chromosomes appear during
the stages of mitosis.
It occurs in the general cells of the body (somatic cells).
It gives daughter cells, each cell contains a full number of
chromosomes. (diploid number).
The daughter cells will have the same amount of genetic material
as the mother
cells
Mitosis
Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis has four phases:
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
The whole process takes from 1 to 2 hours.
• 1. Prophase Stage: (Pro= before)
Before beginning the prophase stage, the cell is present in
the G2stage of the interphase It contains 4 centrioles and 46
D-chromosomes
Each pair of the centrioles move to one pole
of the dividing cell.
• The centrioles form continuous type of
microtubules to form the mitotic spindle.
• The nuclear envelope and nucleolus
disappear.
• The chromosomes are now short and thick.
2. Metaphase Stage (Meta =
Between):
At this stage, the mitotic
spindle is well formed and its
microtubules are attached to
the centerioles.
The chromosomes are now
arranged in the equatorial
plane of the cell. They are
short and thick.
Each chromosome is formed of 2 chromatids which are
connected with each other at a point called Centromere.
At this centromere there are two rounded protein bodies called
Kinetochores.
These Kinetochores form another type of microtubules called
chromosomal microtubules.
Therefore, The mitotic spindle is formed of:
A- Cytoplasmic Microtubules : which arise from the cytoplsam
and are attached to the centrioles.
B- Chromosomal Microtubules: which arise from the
kinetochores of the chromosomes and are attached to the
chromosomes
3. Anaphase Stage (Ana= Apart)
At this stage, the two chromatids
split at the centromere by normal
longitudinal division, therefore the
dividing cell contains now 92
chromatids.
Half of the chromatids move
towards one pole of the dividing cell
and the Anaphase other half (46)
move to the other pole.
4- Telophase Stage (Telo =End):
In this stage a constriction begins
to develop at the midpoint of the
elongated cell, which is called
cleavage furrow.
The 2 groups of chromatids
(each group is formed of 46
chromatids) move to the new
daughter cells.
• These chormatids are then transformed into chromatin
threads and then into 46 S-chromosome
Meiosis
Meiosis a special type of cell division resulting in the formation
of gametes (spermatozoa or ova) whose chromosome number
has been reduced from the diploid (2n) to the haploid (1n)
number.
Meiosis is characterized by two cell divisions but only one
replication of DNA :
a. The first meiotic division (replication of DNA).
b. Second meiotic division (without DNA
replication).
The stages of meiotic division are prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase
Meiosis I
• Meiosis I (reductional division) separates the homologous
pairs of chromosomes, thus reducing the number from
diploid (2n) to haploid (1n).
a. The First Meiotic Division
1-Prophase I
The first meiotic prophase is long and
complex and it customarily is divided
into five stages: leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis.
• a-Leptotene stage:
• the chromosomes begin to condense
and become visible as individual.
• b-Zygotene stage:
The homologous
chromosomes appear in
pairs .
Each pair of
homologous
chromosomes forms a
bivalent.
c-Pachytene stage:
The chromosomes continue to
contract and appear short and
thick.
Each chromosome of the
bivalent can be seen to consists
of two chromatids; the bivalent
therefore consists of four
chromatids and is frequently
called a tetrad (bivalent from
each parent).
d-Diplotene stage:
Each chromosome splits into its
constituent chromatids , which remain
attached only at their centromeres
(kinetochores).
At points along their lengths , the
homologous chromatids make contact
with each other and exchange
segments; this exchange is called
crossing over.
e-Diakinesis stage:
1- marked by greater contraction of the
chromosomes .
2-The homologous chromosomes are paired but
joined at the chiasmata.
At the end of prophase I, the nuclear envelope
and nucleoli have disappeared, and the tetrads
began their migration to the equator of the cell.
2-Metaphase I
• In Metaphase I the pairs of
chromosomes (bivalents) , are
arranged on the spindle.
• The homologous pairs are aligned so
that the members of each pair lie at
either side of the equatorial plate,
with the centromeres of homologous
chromosomes facing opposite poles.
3-Anaphase I
• The centromeres have not
split so, chromatids separate
and move to opposite poles,
each chromosomes consisting
of two chromatids, are
separated.
4-Telophase I
• Reconstruction of the nuclei
and cytoplasmic separation
occur to yield two new cells.
The Second Meiotic Division
• The second meiotic division is more like mitosis and occurs
after a brief interphase during which there is no synthesis of
DNA (NO S phase).
• The centromeres split at metaphase and the chromatids
separate during anaphase.
• Unlike mitosis, the sister chromatids are not identical, due to
the crossing over and to the random alignment of the
homologous chromosomes at the first division.
• Following telophase and cytokinesis, four haploid cells result.
• Meiosis of human Male and Female
Germ Cells:-
1-In the male:
Meiotic division in the male germ cells
is not initiated until puberty.
Four viable, functioning sperm are
produced from each germ cell that
enters meiosis and the cytoplasm is
distributed evenly among the
developing sperm
2-In the female
The germ cells begin their meiotic divisions in the embryo, by the
fifth month of intrauterine life, the developing ova are in the
diplotene stage of the first meiotic division, but the division is not
complete until just before ovulation.
Hence, many of the ova remain suspended in the diplotene stage for
several decades.
The second meiotic division and the formation of the second polar
body occur only after fertilization.
Only a single functioning oocytes (become ova after fertilization)
contain the bulk of the cytoplasm. The remaining called polar bodies.
Difference between meiosis & mitosis.
Errors in cell division:
Cancer is the result of unchecked cell division caused by a breakdown of
the mechanisms that regulate the cell cycle. The loss of control begins
with a change in the DNA sequence of a gene that codes for one of the
regulatory molecules. Any disruption of the monitoring system can allow
other mistakes to be passed on to the daughter cells. Each successive
cell division will give rise to daughter cells with even more accumulated
damage. Eventually, all checkpoints become nonfunctional, and rapidly
reproducing cells crowd out normal cells, resulting in a tumor or leukemia
(blood cancer).
Questions
• During which phase of Meiosis do chromosomes divide
at the centromeres?
• A. Anaphase II
• B. Prophase II
• C. Metaphase I
• D. Metaphase II
How many daughter cells are formed in Meiosis?
•A. 2
•B. 4
•C 6
•D. 8
During which phase of Meiosis does crossing-over
occur?
• A. Prophase I
• B. Metaphase II
• C. Anaphase I
• D. Interphase.
• After meiotic cell division, the number of
chromosomes in daughter cells:
• A. Increase
• B. Decrease
• C. Remain the same
• D. Chromatid
Discussion & Feedback
