TEXTILE CHEMICAL

PROCESSING

Prof. V. SIVALINGAM

Fashion and Textiles Department

Course content
Session 1 The gamut of chemical processing, Introduction to pre-treatment,
dyeing, printing, and finishing.
Session 2 How processes are connected and how a particular sequence is chosen
for a specific look of finish. Various consideration in making this
choice.
Session 3 Cotton impurities, grey-room operations, singeing, desizing, scouring

Session 4 Bleaching with various chemicals and antichlor treatment.

Session 5 Mercerizing, souring, optical whitening, bio-polishing.

Session 6 Wool  impurities,  it’s  scouring  and  bleaching.  

Session 7 Silk impurities, its degumming and bleaching.

Session 8 Man-made fibers, their scouring, bleaching and heat setting.

Session 9 Basic machines and technology usually involved in above processes,

qualitative tests.
Session Color theory, dyes and pigments, dye classification as per application.
10 Significance of commercial dye names. Introduction to various
dyeing terms - dye bath, temperature control, rate of dyeing, M/L
ratio, percentage shade, auxiliaries, fastness properties, wash cycles.
Course content
Session 11 Dyeing machines for fiber/yarn/fabric/garment dyeing.
Choice of dyes as per fiber, form, color and fastness
properties.

Session 12 Dyeing of cellulosic fibers (cotton, and rayon) with

direct, reactive

Session 13 Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with vat and sulfur dyes

Session 14 Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with Napthol (Azoic),

aniline black,
Session 15 Dyeing of cellulosic fibers with mineral khaki and
pigments.
Session 16 Natural dyeing. Awareness about the environmental
aspects.
 GREY ROOM OPERATIONS

Fabric inspection involves following three

processes

• Perching

• Burling

• Mending
 GREY ROOM OPERATIONS

Perching It is a visual inspection

and it is carried out through the
inspection table which consists of a
frosted glass with lights behind and
above it.
The fabric imperfections like thick places,
defects, yarn knots, stains and other flaws
are marked.
Burling It is the removal of yarn knots or
 GREY ROOM OPERATIONS

Mending is the actual repair of

imperfections.

The recent innovation by the use of

laser beams.
The imperfections like stains, holes,
hick places, loose ends and
protruding threads of warp and weft
are detected.
The apparatus works by the on-line
system and eliminates human error.
Sewing: After the goods have been inspected,
preparatory operations
The main objectives:
Removes all impurities from the fiber, both naturals
and / or those added during production that may
interfere in subsequent dyeing and / or finishing
process.

Improve the ability of the fibers to absorb water

solutions of dyes and chemicals.

Impart the proper brightness or whiteness to fabrics

according to need, especially when brilliant or certain
pastel shades are desired.
 Singeing
In this process fuzzy and protruding fibres are removed by burning them off.
The main purposes are the fabrics that are required a clear and smooth
surface for printing
Usually performed on both sides of the fabric

In a singer, a fabric is passed over open flame at very high speed(200-400 mts/min)to
prevent scorching, then passed through water ( or de-sizing bath) to extinguish any sparks.

Uneven singeing may lead unlevel dyeing. Therefore, the fabric is passed through
singer flat,in open width and under slight tension.

The gas burner should be properly controlled and maintained; otherwise streaky
dyeing may occur
 DE-SIZING
“Removal of starch from fabric”

Types of Desizing
Rot Steeping
Acid Steeping
Oxidative Desizing
Enzymatic Desizing
 DE-SIZING
1. Rot Steeping :

This is the oldest and cheapest

method because no chemical is used
in this treatment.
The fabric is soaked in warm water
and at 35 – 40 C temperature and
passed through a padding mangle and
squeezed.
It is allowed to stand for 24 hrs.
After that hot washed.
During the storage the bacterial
 DE-SIZING
1. Rot Steeping :

Advantages:
Most economical and
simplest process
Disadvantages:
Time consuming
Unevenness in desizing;
 DE-SIZING
2. Acid Steeping:
In this method, dilute hydro choleric acid or sulphuric acid
or a mixture of both are used to hydrolyze the starch from the
sized fabric.
The fabric is steeped in 0.25% (10 g/l) of the acid, passed through
padding mangle and kept for 6 hrs.
The temperature rises to 50C.
The starch present in the fabric is liquefied and is easily removed by
washing.
Since, acid can attack cellulose care have to be taken to avoid
damage of cotton.
The fabric should be washed with hot water after desizing.
 DE-SIZING
2. Acid Steeping:

Advantage:
The time consumption is reduced
compare with rot steeping

Disadvantage:
There is no control over the process.
 DE-SIZING
3. Oxidative Desizing:

• In this process starch is oxidized.

• The commonly used oxidative desizing agents are
Hydrogen per oxide
Sodium bromide.
Ammonium persulphate
► Hydrogen peroxide of 1-2 volume concentration & caustic soda (7-15
gpl ) is prepared in padder

►The cloth is first impregnated at room temperature and

steamed for 3 minutes.

►During this process some degree of bleaching also takes place.

OXIDATIVE DESIZING

Advantages
In this process the time required for desizing is less
and the process is continuous.
Water and energy consumption is less
Combination with other preparatory process such as
scouring and bleaching is possible
Excellent & uniform removal of size
Disadvantages
There may be possibilities of penta-chloro phenol
content in the de-sized fabric that may be harmful.
Expensive process
 ENZYMATIC DESIZING

The most effective and widely used method

Enzymes are bio-catalyst of organic origin which are produced
by living organisms
Chemically enzymes are proteins of high molecular weights.
Amylases are the enzymes used in disizing.
They are two categories namely ά-amylase and β- amylases
These enzymes can be derived from sources like animal
(pancreatic) and vegetable (malt and bacterial)
Enzymes & Condition for Desizing

S.No Amylase Conc. Temp C pH

gpl
Enzyme
1 Malt 5 - 20 50 -60 6 – 7.5

2 Pancreatic 1 - 3 50 -60 6.5 – 7.5

3 Bacterial 0.5 - 1 60 -70 5.5 – 7.5

 ENZYMATIC DESIZING
The fabric is passed slowly through a saturator where it is
thoroughly impregnated with the desizing bath and then
stored for 8 -12 hrs usually in the rollers.

The impregnating bath is prepared with the required amount

of the enzyme, a wetting agent and a proper salt ( sodium
polyphosphate or NaCl )

After batching, the fabric is thoroughly washed with hot

water
 HIGH TEMPERATURE - ENZYMATIC
DESIZING

Enzyme application is performed at high temperature

where desizing can be achieved in a short time as in the
continuous pad-steam process.

The fabric is padded with enzyme bath and then passed

into wet steam chamber at 96 C - 100 C.

The desizing can be completed in less than one minute

 scouring

Scouring is the process of removal of natural oil substances like waxes, fats and
pectin's as well as added impurities like lubricating oil, dust, dirt and residual
starch in the cotton materials
The reaction takes place during scouring :-
Oils, waxes and free fatty acids are emulsified by the soaps
Pectin's are converted into soluble salts
Proteins are degraded to simple soluble amino acids and mineral
matter is dissolved
Dirt is removed and other added impurities are broken into
soluble products
 KIER BOILING

►A kier is a cylindrical vessel capable of

holding 250 to 5000 kgs of fabric. It is
provided with temperature, pressure gauge
and safety valve.
►For kier boiling, a mixture of 5-10 g/l caustic
soda solution, 1% sodium silicate, 1% soap
along with wetting agent.
►The circulation of hot alkaline liquor through
the fabric is carried out under pressure ( at
25-30 psi and 130-135 C) for period of 6-12
hrs,depending on the type of fabric.
►In atmospheric scouring process ( open
J-Box - CONTINUOUS SCOURING

In continuous machines, scouring can be carried out

through a series of J-Boxes for progressive desizing
and scouring.

► The desized and washed fabric is padded with strong

alkali solution (5-10 gm/lit NaOH or mixture of NaOH
& sodium carbonate), emulsifying agent and wetting
agent.
 J-Box CONTINUOUS SCOURING

► After padding the saturated cloth, it enters in to J-Box

where it remains for 40-60 mins in plaited form at a
temperature of about 100 C.

► The cloth before entering J-Box is rapidly preheated

by means of steam in U- shaped heating tube.

► The internal surface of the entire J-Box is very smooth

to avoid any friction an the moving cloth.
 BLEACHING

To remove the natural coloring matters

and make the fabric in required

whiteness with minimum damage to

fibers, and within the shortest possible

time.
 Types of Bleaches
Full-Bleach
It is done generally when highest degree of whiteness is required and going
to be used as a white fabric for apparels or to be printed with white
background.
This is achieved by bleaching with hypochlorite followed by hydrogen peroxide
bleach.

Half-Bleach
It is done for fabrics meant for dyeing and printing where more absorbency is
required than the whiteness and fabrics going to be used during finishing.
This is generally done using by bleaching with hypochlorite or hydrogen
peroxide of adequate concentration.
 BLEACHING
Oxidizing Bleaching agents:

Sodium hypo chlorite, Sodium chlorite, sodium perborate, sodium

percorbonate

Hydrogen peroxide. “Universal bleaching agent” Almost

all cotton, silk, wool ; polyester/cotton blends are

bleached with hydrogen peroxide.

 BLEACHING
Sodium hypochlorite Bleaching:
The yarn or cloth after scouring is thoroughly washed before bleaching
and is squeezed or hydro extracted to remove excess of water as
otherwise it would dilute the bleach liquor or “chemicking”

In typical batch treatments of cotton fabrics with sodium hypochlorite

in kiers, the bleaching bath is prepared as follows:

Sodium hypochlorite1-3 gm/lit of available chlorine

Ph of the bath 11 – 11.5

Temperature Room temperature (30 – 40 c)

Time 45 min – 2 hrs

Since the bleaching is done in alkaline medium (pH 10-11) the alkali, which is
present in the material has to neutralized with dilute mineral acid. It is referred
as “souring”
 BLEACHING
Sodium hypochlorite Bleaching:

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Powerful and economical Excessive chlorine may cause
method of processing pollution

Free from the defects of All protein impurities must be

bleaching powder completely removed before
bleaching otherwise the fabric
may turns yellowish
Residual chlorine must be
removed.
 BLEACHING
Sodium hypochlorite Bleaching:

To remove the residual chlorine, the fabric is to be

washed with sodium – thio - sulphate (chlorine
destroyer) or hydrogen peroxide (weak solution) the
chlorine will wash away.

This treatment is called “antichlor”

 BLEACHING
Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Process:
Bleaching bath is prepared as:

• Hydrogen peroxide (35%) - 4-8% o.w.f;

• Sodium hydroxide - 0.5-1% o.w.f;

• Sodium silicate -2-4% o.w.f;

• Wetting agent or detergent - when needed

 BLEACHING
Hydrogen Peroxide Bleaching Process:

► Bleaching is carried out near or above boiling temperature,

under pressure, for 1 hour or more.

► After bleaching, the fabric is thoroughly rinsed with slight

amount of basic solution to avoid formulation of insoluble

silicates.
 BLEACHING
Advantages of bleaching with hydrogen peroxide :

Hydrogen per oxide is a universal and is used extensively

for the bleaching of cotton materials.

It can be employed for bleaching fibers like wool, silk,

polyester and other man- made fibers also, under a wide
range of application conditions.

It requires less manipulation of fabric and hence less

labor.
 BLEACHING
Advantages of bleaching with hydrogen peroxide :
Continued….

The loss in weight of fabric in bleaching is less than

that with hypochlorite bleaching.

Per oxide bleached are more absorbent than

hypochlorite bleached fabrics.

No possibilities of yellowing of fabric.

 BLEACHING
CONTINOUS BLEACHING PROCESS:

In this process desizing, scouring and bleaching are

combined together. These are very attractive options
since savings in time, energy, labor, etc., are possible.
However, combined operations are not always sufficient
for preparation of certain cotton fabrics for dyeing and
finishing.
 BLEACHING
CONTINOUS BLEACHING PROCESS:

► In this method, the fabric is padded with the enzyme bath and then
passed into a wet steam chamber at 960C- 1000C where the
desizing takes place in less than a minute.

► The fabric after desizing is impregnated a solution of 4-6% NaOH,

1-3 g/l wetting agent, and 1-3 g/l emulsifier at the period of 2-3
minutes.

► The fabric after impregnation is taken out and piled into J-box at
980C and allowed to remain there for two hours during which period
the alkali reacts with the impurities.
 BLEACHING
CONTINOUS BLEACHING PROCESS:J- B0X

► The fabric is then rinsed and impregnated with 1% hydrogen

peroxide at pH 10.5-using1% sodium silicate as a stabilizer
and wetting agent.

► The cloth after impregnation is again heated to 90-95ºC and

stored for an hour in J- box.

► It is then rinsed thoroughly.

CONTINOUS BLEACHING PROCESS:VAPORLOC MACHINE

• Pressure bleaching, which is also a rapid system, where fabric is first

scoured in an alkaline bath with 80gpl NaOH and an anionic
detergents,
►then steamed for 40 seconds at 1300C in a vaporloc chamber and
subsequently taken for bleaching range where the impregnation is
done with 20gpl H2O2 (35%).
►10 gpl sodium silicate, 1gpl NaOH, 10gpl organic stabilizer, and a
wetting agent then steamed for 2minutes at 100-1030C.
►The fabric is washed in a continuous washing range.
►In this process the total time required is less then 5 minutes.
 Bio polishing
• Surface modification of cellulosic fabrics to improve their cleaner
surface, cooler feel, brighter luminosity of color, softer
feel, more resistance to pill using cellulase enzyme is called
bio-polishing
• Can be applied to woven and knit cellulosic fabrics like
cotton,linen,rayon and their blends.
• The elimination of micro fibrils of the cotton fibers is obtained by
the controlled hydrolysis of cellulose.
• Bio-polishing may be carried out at any time during wet processing,
it is most conveniently performed after bleaching
OPTICAL BRIGHTENERS- fluorescent whiteners (FWA)

The purpose is to obtain extraordinary brilliant whiteness to

cotton materials. Optical brighteners acts as fluorescent dyes
and they are colorless
They absorb light near to ultraviolet region ( below 400nm) and
re-emit the light in the violet blue visible region.
Near white bleached cloth, possesses a yellowness caused by
absorption in the blue region.
When FWA is applied, the blue florescence complements the
yellowness and adds a bluish hue to the fabrics, which the eye
appreciates as brilliant white.
 OPTICAL BRIGHTENERS
Application of Optical Brighteners:

≡ The application of optical brighteners are depends on the types of

fibres.
≡ classified as direct, disperse and cationic types.
≡ The direct brightening agents are mainly used for the brightening of
cotton, linen, viscose and nylon materials.
≡ The acid florescent brightening agents serve mainly for the brightening
of silk and wool fabrics.
≡ The disperse florescent brightening agents are used primarily for
polyester, acetate and acrylic materials.
 MERCERIZATION
Definition:

The treatment of cotton fabrics or yarns with

a cold concentrated solution of Sodium
hydroxide solution for one minute or less is
called mercerization.
 MERCERIZATION

Cotton fibers swell, untwist and their bean

shaped cross section changes into round
form.
EFFECT OF
MERCERIZATION
 MERCERIZATION
Mercerization improves the following properties :

Internal reorientation of cellulose structure modified

Strength is increased to 15-25%; It also improves
elasticity and dimensional stability
Luster and feel further enhanced; It also improves
absorbency of water, dyes and other finishing chemicals.
Increases the uniformity of dyeing and improvising the
color yield by increasing the dye affinity, resulting
enhanced color fastness & saving in cost of dyestuffs
 MERCERIZATION
Mercerization Process :

► Fabric is padded with about 20-25% NaOH solution

containing a wetting agent.

► Passed over several cans to allow a doweling time of

approximately one minute.

► During this time NaOH will penetrate the fibers and

react with them.
 MERCERIZATION
Mercerization Process :
Continued…….

► At this stage the tension is applied lengthwise.

► The fabric is then placed on a tenter frame and is pulled to its

desired dimensions (Tension is applied in both the warp and filling
direction).

► While on the tenter frame, the fabric is washed by spraying water

until the concentration of Sodium Hydroxide is reduced to less
percent.

► Then the fabric is washed by passing through several washers,

one of which contains a diluted sulphuric acid or acetic acid.
 Preparation of wool
Impurities present in wool are animal fat, suint (dried
perspiration) dirt and mineral matter.
• Animal fat is a wax which can be removed by the
formation of emulsion with alkali.
• Suint is soluble in water
• The dirt and sand in the wool are removed during scouring
by mechanical agitation
 CLEANING OF WOOL
Wool scouring
The technique consists of passing wool fibres through a series of four long
narrow bowls containing soap or non-ionic synthetic detergents and
sodium carbonate at a temperature of 40-550 C.

Detergent Soda ash pH Temperature

1-bowl 0.25% 0.25% 9-10 48-520C.

2-bowl 0.2% ---- 10 46-500C.

3-bowl 0.1% --- ---- 43-460C.

4-bowl Fresh water wash alone 40-450C.

Wool scouring
• Raw wool scouring machine contains four bowls.
Each bowl consists of a long trough provided with
a false bottom.
• Soap and alkali are added to the first bowl
• Detergent is added to the 2nd & 3rd bowls and only
water in the 4th bowl.
 CLEANING OF WOOL
Carbonizing

1. Cellulose material such as leaves, grass, seeds, and

vegetable fibers are removed.

2. The fabric (some time’s loose fibers) is treated with a dil.

Solution. Of H2SO4, then dried, and cured.

3. Cellulose materials decompose to form a very fine black

powder, which can be easily dusted out.
 CLEANING OF WOOL
Wool bleaching
Two methods of bleaching are commonly used,
• The oxidation method using hydrogen peroxide
• The reduction method employing sulphur dioxide, sodium
bisulphate or sodium hydrosulphite.
• Sometimes the wool is bleached with peroxide followed by
bleaching with sulphur dioxide.
• A method of peroxide bleaching under acidic conditions as follows;
► The bath is made up of 4 volume of H2O2 containing 0.25%
formic acid and adjusted to pH 3 to 3.5 at room temperature.
► The scoured material is impregnated with the peroxide solution on
a padding mangle, and allowed to stand overnight, it is then
washed.
 PREPARATION OF SILK
Silk is a protein fibre made up of fibre forming protein called fibroin.

This fibre forming protein is coated heavily with a gum protein called sericin,
which gives it a harsh and stiff feel and hides the rich luster and whiteness
of the silk filament.
A typical silk filament is composed of
Fibroin- 75-80%
Sericin- 20-25%
This sericin gum has to be removed as the first preparatory process of silk
before dyeing.
 CLEANING OF SILK
Degumming with Synthetic Detergents

• Synthetic detergents are now being increasingly used in place of

soap.
• Their main advantage is that they permit continues processing
of piece goods and the time of treatment is shorter 40 minutes.
► In this method, the material is treated with 2.5 to 5 g/l detergent
(Sandopan SRS liq. of Sandoz) at pH 11.2 to 11.5 for 30 to 60
monutes at boil
► then rinsed thoroughly first with hot water and then with cold
water.
The disadvantage of this method is that soft feel is not
always obtained.
 CLEANING OF SILK
Degumming with Enzymes

Treatment with some protien enzimes like trypsin or papain

may dissolve the sericin gum. The treatment is time
consuming and involves three step process.
This treatment is longer than that with synthetic detergents

I Step
The material is first treated with 0.5 g/l soda ash ;
0.5 g/l Glauber’s salt ; 3 g/l penetrating agent like
Imerol XN liq. (Sandoz); at boil for about 1 hour.
 Degumming with Enzymes
II Step
►It is then treated with 1-5 gpl sericin dissolving
enzyme(trypsin or papain),1gpl soda ash, 2gpl
glauber’s  salt  at  450C.
III Step
► the above material is treated in the 3rd bath with 0.5gpl
soda ash, 2gpl sodium silicate, 2gpl penetrating agent
and  0.5gpl  glauber’s  salt  at  boil  for  one  hour.  
 Bleaching of Silk
The process is consists of boiling the material with 1-2
volumes of hydrogen peroxide concentration (0.3-0.6%) and
2gpl sodium silicate for 2hrs, which is followed by a hot
wash.
As an alternate method, the amount of silicate can be
reduced using a small portion of ammonia to bring the pH to
10. Here the mixture of 0.8gpl ammonia and 1.5gpl sodium
silicate, the temperature is kept at 70-750C & time 5-6 hrs.
The silk is then soaped at 80-850C, and washed hot and
cold water
 Pre treatments for Polyester
Fabrics made for 100% polyester containing size
material, spin finishes, coning oil and tinting colors
as major impurities, and do not have any natural
impurities.

De - sizing
► Polyester fabric consists of only water soluble size materials
such as polyvinyl alcohol etc.
►Which can be removed by a treatment with a mild alkali such as
polyvinyl carbonate (up to 4 gpl detergent a 70-80̊ C for one hour.
►The fabric is then washed hot and cold.
 Pre treatments for Polyester
Scouring
100% polyester fabric can be scoured using 1-5gpl sodium
carbonate and 1-5 gpl detergent at a temperature 60-700C for 60-
90min using a jet dyeing machine or any other dyeing machine.

Bleaching
For full white fabrics, Polyester can be treated with 1-5 gpl
sodium chlorite, 1-2 gpl sodium nitrate and 1-2 gpl formic acid
(85%) (pH 4.5) at boil for 60-90 minutes.
The goods are washed hot and cold.
HEAT – SETTING OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS

≡ Heat setting or thermosetting is a heat treatment applied to

fabrics made of thermoplastic fibers such as polyester or
nylon to impart dimensional stability.

≡ Heat – setting temperatures are well above the glass

transition temperature (Tºg) of the fiber,

≡ heat is applied by means of hot air, heated cans, or steam.

≡ The treated fabric acquires dimensional stability, i.e. a

memory to the shape it was during the heat setting.
HEAT – SETTING OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS
Continued…….

≡ It will resist shrinkage and creasing, and will have the

ability to maintain pleats present in the garment
during the heat – setting treatment.

≡ In a typical heat – setting of polyester, the fabric is

placed on a stenter frame set to the desired final
width

≡ and introduced into a hot – air oven at a constant

temperature chosen in the range of 190 - 215ºC for
30 to 90 seconds.
HEAT – SETTING OF SYNTHETIC FABRICS
Continued…….

# Heat – setting affects the dye ability of the fiber. Usually

it decreases its dye-ability, and therefore when
performed before dyeing it is extremely important to
apply the heat – setting uniformly.

# Uneven temperature in the oven may cause difference in

the fabric from the selvedge-to-selvedge and/ or from
selvedge to center, which will show later as uneven
dyeing.
SELECTION OF PROCESS SEQUENCE

The fabric preparation depend on type of fibres and

fibre blend composition, yarns, fabric quality
parameters, size type, colour fastness properties
requirement and endues.
 SELECTION OF PROCESS SEQUENCE

1. Cotton knitted fabrics are subjected to a

modified routine in which singeing and desizing
stages are some times omitted.
2. Where as for woven fabrics desizing can not be
omitted.
3. Synthetic fibers are produced under controlled
conditions and contain only added impurities,
there cleaning is comparatively easy.
4. Preparation of fabric also depends on the end
requirement.
 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON
FABRIC TO KIER
Method A:

For white / printing: (Poplin, Cambric, Rubia, Mulls

etc..)

Grey → scour in kier → Rinse in kier → Wash →

→ Wash → Open boil kier using H2O2 → Rinse in
kier → wash → Dry.
 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON
FABRIC TO KIER
Method B:

For dyeing: (Poplin, Cambric, Rubia, Mulls etc.) Grey mercerized

Desize → Wash → scour in under pressure → Wash → Open

boil in kier using H2O2 → Rinse in kier → Wash → Dry.
PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR COTTON
FABRIC ON J – BOX
Method A :

For white / Printing :

Grey mercerize → Desize in J – Box → Wash → Caustic

saturator → steam in J – Box → Wash → bleach saturator →
Store in J- Box → Peroxide saturator → Steam in J – box →
Wash → Dry.
PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR KNITTED
COTTON GOODS

For white goods :

Hypochlorite bleach → Reduction or peroxide

bleach + Fluorescent Whitening Agent (FWA)
PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR WOOLLEN
FABRIC

Greasy wool → Scouring → Carding →

Combing → Combed Tops → (Top Dyeing) →
Recombing → Drawing and Spinning ( yarn
Dyeing ) → Weaving /knitting → Fabric Dyeing
→ Finishing
 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR SILK
FABRIC

Grey Inspection → Degumming → Bleaching →

Dyeing → Stentering → Felt calendaring →
Curing → Decatising ( to impact fluffy & soft feel)
 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR
POLYESTER FABRIC

Heat setting → Scouring → Bleaching →

Weight reduction → Dyeing → Drying on

Stenter (heat setting).

 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR
POLYESTER / COTTON BLENDS

For Dyeing :
Desizing → Scouring → Mercerizing → Heat
setting → Bleaching → Dyeing → Anti pilling
→ Stentering or Sanforizing.
 PROCESS SEQUENCE FOR
POLYESTER / WOOL BLENDS

General :
Grey Inspection → Removal of stains → Scouring →
Pre – setting ( setting of wool component by crabbing ) →
Drying → Heat – setting → Dyeing → Brushing
and cropping → Singeing → Steam or Damp →
Decatising or Pressing.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

There are several different ways by which coloring

materials are classified; the following are the most
useful ones for the dyer:

1. Classification according to solubility

• Soluble dyes (anionic or cationic)
• Disperse dyes (non ionic, very slightly water soluble)
• Pigments (insoluble)
 CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

2. Classification according to method of application

• Acid dyes (protein fibers, polyamides, etc.)

• Basic dyes (acrylics, basic dyeablepolyester, etc.)
• Pre metalized acid dyes (protein fibers,
• Chrome or modrant dyes (protein fibers,
• Direct dyes (cellulosic, and some others)
• Azoic dyes (cellulosic)
• Vat dyes (cellulosic)
• Reactive dyes (cellulosic, and some others)
• Disperse dyes (polyester, acetates, polyamides,
acrylics, and other hydrophobic fibers)
 CLASSIFICATION OF DYES

3. Classification according to chemical constitution

• Azo dyes and pigments (mono \Azo, diazo, etc.)
• Carbonyl dyes and pigments (anthraquinone
and indigo derivatives)
• Cyanine dyes
• DI and triphenylmethane dyes
• Phthalocyanine dyes and pigments
IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF
DYEING
Dye bath

‡ For the reproducibility, all the amount of dyes and

dyeing assistants and the liquor ratio used should be
measured and recorded accurately, in order to be
followed precisely in future runs.

‡ All dyeing assistants in any dye bath should be used

only if necessary.

‡ Using excessive amounts (larger than recommended)

of any additive should be avoided.
 IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF DYEING

The concentrated Dye solution

To insure uniformity throughout the dyeing bath, a small solution or
dispersion of the dye (s) is made first.

Extreme care must be practiced in the preparation of these

concentrated solutions or dispersions.

• Un-dissolved or un-dispersed dye particles, may cause un-level dyeing

or form specks on the goods.
Therefore, the dye solution is filtered through a coarse filter before
entering the system.
• Also, when preparing concentrated solutions, dyes and dyeing assistants should not
be mixed together in their concentrated form unless specifically required.
IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF
DYEING
Material to liquor (M: L) ratio

This ratio indicates how much liquor is to be taken

for dyeing a given weight of the material .

The total quantity of water to be taken for dyeing

depend upon the weight of the material to be dyed
and is expressed in terms of M: L ratio .

Thus a Material : Liquor ratio of 1: 20 means that

the weight of the liquor to be taken should be 20
times the weight of the material to be dyed .
IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF
DYEING
Percentage of shade

≡ It is based on the weight of the material taken for

dyeing.
≡ Thus when a 2% shade is to be produced on the cloth,
then 2gm of dye is taken for every 100gm of cloth
for dyeing .
≡ The dyeing so produced gives a 2% shade .
≡ It does not mean that the cloth contains 2gm of dye
per 100gm of cloth after dyeing.
IMPORTANT PROCESS PARAMETERS OF
DYEING
Wash cycles

This treatment removes un-bonded dyes and dyeing assistants from

the fibers ,

its procedure varies from a mild rinse with warm water to the use of a
detergent solution at or near the boil.

With certain groups of dyes, a slight change of shade occurs at this

stage for yielding the true color.

Bleeding of dye from a new cloth in the first laundering could be the
result of poor rinsing in this final stage of dyeing process.
 COLOURING MATERIALS

♂ Colour is one of the most important characteristics of

apparel and home furnishing products.

♂ It is a significant factor in the aesthetic value and

marketability of textile products.

♂ Currently dyes and pigments are used to impart color

to the textile materials. In order to perform the
coloring materials should have the following features.
 COLOURING MATERIALS
PIGMENTS DYES
1 Intense color Intense color

2 Insoluble in water & Must have solubility in water during

Common solvents dyeing stage

3 Are not made to have Must have substantively to the fiber

substantively to fibers during dyeing stage.

4 Molecular size varies from Molecular size must be small enough to

small to large size allow the molecules to penetrate the
fibers.
5 Stable to further Stable to further treatment in production
treatments in Production and normal use.
&normal use

6 Durability depends upon Depends on chemical bond linkages.

binders used
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

VAT DYES:

Vat dyes are insoluble organic compounds and it has substantive to

cellulose.
Widely used for cellulose fibers can be used for protein and nylon fibers.
Produce good color range but limited selection of orange, blue and bright
green.
Large amount of dyes are required for deep shade.
Excellent fastness to washing.
Very good fastness to crocking, perspiration, chlorine bleaching,
oxidizing and high temperature treatments
Expensive process: High initial cost of dye and method of
application
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

AZOIC / NAPHTHOL DYES:

Dyes are derived from aryl amides organic compounds;
Insoluble in water; Primarily used for cellulose fibers; some times also
used for polyester and triacetate to produce black shades;
Produces full range of red colors and Orange brilliant yellow along with
maroons, scarlet deep black and burgundies;
Azoic dyes lack green and bright blue colors.
Good color fastness to washing and dry cleaning;
Poor-good fastness to light;
Dark colors have poor fastness to crocking
Dyeing process is complexity and time consuming
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

DIRECT DYES:
Derived from formulation of Benzedrine salts;

Water soluble and Least expensive;

Easy to apply, can be applied directly without pretreatment, fixing

agents are not required;

Used only for cellulose fibers;

Wide range of colors and shades and not may bright colors;

Among bright colors, only bright greens, but more expensive than other
color.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

DIRECT DYES:

Good color fastness to perspiration/dry cleaning;

Light fastness varies widely from poor to very good;
Some direct dyes are metalized with copper to increase their light
fastness; In other cases, copper salts are applied as an after
treatment for improving light/wash fastness.
Poor fastness to washing and crocking;
Used as back ground color for discharge printing
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
SULFUR DYES:

Derived from the formulation of compounds containing sulfur;

Water insoluble – applied in exhaust dyeing;

Water soluble – applied in continuous dyeing;

Widely used for celluloses;

Relatively easy way to dye cellulose’s with good-to-excellent

washes and lights fastness at a low cost;

 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
SULFUR DYES:
Continued……  
Produces a complete rang of colors in “dull shade”;
Poor light fastness in pastel shades;
Mainly used for dyeing cellulose’s in black, brown, navy
blue or olive, in medium to dark shades;
Some yellows and blues are available but there is only
one red and green dye.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
SULFUR DYES:
Continued……  
Good fastness to light, washing, dry cleaning and
perspiration;
Poor fastness to chlorine bleach;
Sulfur dyed materials higher than normal room
temperature/presence of moisture tends to oxidize form sulfur
acids, then cause tendering to cellulose fabric.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
REACTIVE DYES:

♂ Water soluble anionic dyes;

♂ Procion-H type will react with cellulose in presence of
sodium carbonate at the temperature range of 75-90’C;

♂ Procion-C type react at room temperature in presence of

sodium carbonate;
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
REACTIVE DYES: Continued……  

≡ Ramazol (Vinyl sulphone reactive dye) will react in

presence of base under goes and elimination reaction to form
vinyl-sulphone group, which then combines with cellulose
and time consuming process;
≡ Primarily used for cotton and other cellulose fiber at an
alkaline pH of 9-12; Wool, silk and polyamide fibers in weak
acidic dye baths.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES

REACTIVE DYES:
≡ Available in complete range of colors includingContinued……  
very bright
colors;
≡ Very good fastness to washing; Good-very good fastness to
light; Good fastness to dry cleaning, perspiration, crocking;
≡ Poor fastness to chlorine bleaching;
≡ Easy to obtain uniform level dyeing;
≡ High flexibility in the choice of method of application;
≡ Cost of using reactive dyeing is high, because cost of dye, loss
of dyes during application and extensive washing;
≡ Excessive time required for the dyeing process.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
DISPERSE DYES:
Non-ionic aromatic compounds with relatively low molecular
weight, and has an extremely low solubility in water;

Available in the form of powders, granular, liquid or paste;

Sublimation takes place at high temperature;

Dyeing is carried out high temperature/pressure;

Can be used for heat transfer printing;

Effective in polyester, Acetate, Tri Acetate; Can be used for

nylon/acrylic and other synthetic fibers.
 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF
VARIOUS CLASSES OF DYES
DISPERSE DYES: Continued……  

Produces good color range except dark blue and black;

Good-excellent fastness to perspiration, crocking and dry
cleaning;
Fair-Good fastness to light and washing;
When used on acetate poor fastness to light and subject to
gas fading