Furniture Design

Design & Detailing

Material & Finishes
Wood, Metal, Glass,
Plastic, Upholstery

RAJALAKSHMI Materials and finishes

 Wood
Hardness is one of the simplest ways to distinguish the wood used for furniture. Contrary to the popular belief, hardwood is not necessarily harder
and denser compared to softwood. In botanical terms, hardwood comes from flowering trees while softwood comes from conifers. Both hardwood
and softwood are used for everything from structural to decorative purposes.

Hardwood
Hardwood comes from Angiosperms (Angiosperms are plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds in fruits) such as maple, oak, and walnut.
These trees lose their leaves annually (deciduous or broad-leafed trees). As they grow slowly, hardwood has denser wood fibers.
Properties of Hardwood
Hardwood grows slowly compared to softwoods. So, Hardwood is relatively expensive.
Hardwood is durable, (less likely to decay and rot), comes with close grain, and requires low maintenance
Hardwood can be used for making furniture, but not all hardwoods are ideal for making furniture.
 Types of Hardwood
These are some of the most popular hardwood species, including their various uses in
construction and woodworking projects:
1. Alder: This member of the birch family produces strong, lightweight lumber with a wide-
spaced wood grain pattern. Alder wood shares many characteristics with cherry wood, but it is
more sustainable and eco-friendly. You can use alder wood for furniture, moldings, and
paneling.
2. Black walnut: Manufacturers mill the sturdy, yet pliant heartwood of black walnut trees to
produce expensive lumber with a rich, deep brown color. You can use this rare lumber to make
furniture, expensive gunstocks, and veneer for medium-density fiberboard (MDF) paneling.
3. Brazilian cherry: Despite the name, this wood species is unrelated to cherry trees. The
Brazilian cherry, or Jatoba, is a legume native to the Brazilian rainforests. The term “cherry”
refers to the natural red hue of the wood, which is similar to that of redwood or Western red
cedar tree. Brazilian cherry is an excellent flooring material because it is flexible and termite-
resistant.
4. Hickory: The bright sapwood of a hickory produces lumber with a distinctive light color that
darkens to a pale, brown heartwood over time. Hickory is a difficult hardwood to work with, but it
is exceptionally strong and shock-resistant for its weight. You can use hickory as a durable
flooring option that provides a rustic interior design aesthetic to your interior.
 Types of Hardwood
5. Oak: This type of wood species produces lumber that falls into two main categories: red oak
and white oak. The former has a red to reddish-brown hue, while white oak has a lighter-colored
appearance with brown, tight-knit grain patterns, similar to that of Sapele or mahogany. Red and
white oak varieties are comparable in strength, however, white oak is more water-resistant,
making it a good hardwood option for decking or kitchen flooring.
6. Brown Vengai: These vengai woods are highly durable and resistant to water. The range is
used for designing different types of furniture and other products and the wood is of high density
with conspicuous pores.
7. Poplar: This light-colored hardwood is softer and has a lower density than many other
hardwoods. Poplar’s soft, medium texture makes it an easy wood to work with, but it does not
hold a strong, durable edge. These characteristics make poplar a less common option for the
production of furniture. However, you can use poplar to build crates, pallets (such as for a pallet
garden), and high-end plywood.
8. Rosewood: Dalbergia nigra, or Brazilian rosewood, is a dark hardwood that produces a sweet
aroma. Similar to teakwood, rosewood has a high oil content that provides a natural luster.
Rosewood comes in a variety of colors, ranging from dark brown to purplish-red. True rosewood is
an endangered species, therefore, authorities heavily restrict the trading of rosewood. As a result,
it is in highly limited supply.
 Types of Hardwood
9. Mora: Mora wood is a strong, hard, stiff, and tough timber. Resonating a reddish-brown color,
these are susceptible to damage due to marine borers but are highly resistant to dry wood
termites and other insects. Additionally, they also feature great fire resistance. Common Uses:
Flooring, boatbuilding, heavy (exterior) construction, and turned objects.
10. Rubberwood is a light-colored medium-density tropical hardwood obtained from the Pará
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), usually from trees grown in rubber plantations. Rubberwood is
one of the finest furniture-making timber. It is flexible and strong which makes it an ideal choice
for making commercial cabinetry, trays, carvings, and more.
11. Padauk: With a typically straight grain, African padauk's texture is open and coarse, with a
natural luster. Resistant to termites and other insects, African padauk is a very durable wood with
exceptional rot resistance. Very easy to work with, it finishes glues, and turns very well.
12. Ghana teak: This wood is moderately hard and heavy, with low stiffness and shock resistance.
Known for its strength, moderate elasticity and hardness, it has moderate bending strength, and
absolutely decay resistant with dimensional stability.
 Types of finishes for wood
Wooden furniture, floors, and fixtures require protection so that they maintain their luster and last long. Finishes for
wood, which we all may simply talk about as ‘polish’ or ‘varnish’ help maintain their natural sheen and increases the life
of wooden artifacts. Wood finishes help the wood retain the beauty of its natural grain and give it protection.
Using wood finish is also different from painting.
Painting hides the original beauty of the wood, while wood finishes enhance the appearance of the existing wooden
surface.
Wood finishes come in two types - the first type is used in layers and leaves a coating. The second type of wood finish
penetrates and does not leave a hard film as they are oil-based.
While wood finishes can transform a lifeless wooden object into a vibrant decorative feature, they are quite often
difficult to remove; especially those soak into the grain.
Varnish - The more common forms of wood finishes are varnishes. They can be transparent or colored. Varnish is
made up of oil, solvent, and resin. It is a hard, durable and protective finish. It can be used on the interior and the
exterior of the wooden object. It typically comes with a glossy finish, and can also be customized to produce satin
and semi-gloss finish by adding flattening agents. Varnishes give very good UV protection, they dry slowly and their
application over dyes gives them better protection.
 Types of finishes for wood
Oil Finish - Oil wood finishes improve the appearance of unfinished wood. The natural oils present in the wood
dries out as time passes. Oil finishes replace the natural oil and enhance the natural grain. In oil finish, the oil
seeps into the wood and doesn’t merely form a layer on top of it. This makes the wood look richer and translucent.
There are two types of oils that can be used - drying and non-drying oils.
Drying oils change from liquid to solid when exposed to oxygen. The most commonly used drying oil is linseed oil.
Non-drying oils include vegetable and mineral oils. These are mainly used for wood treatment and can be used on the
interior as well as exterior surfaces.
Wax Finish - Wax finishes are not very popular with woodworkers as the protection it provides is only short term.
Application of wax is easy but it requires multiple applications to get the desired effect. Once the application is
done it requires buffing at the end.
Waxes are available in liquid, solid and stick forms. The wax used for wood finishes is obtained from various vegetable,
mineral and animal sources. It can be formulated into different colors. They can be hard or soft but even the hardest
waxes are still softer than varnishes. As a result, they are little protection against scratches and wear.
Shellac - Shellac is a natural wax secreted by a bug. A mixture of the collected wax with alcohol as a solvent is
used on wood. Shellac is available in a variety of colors. Shellac can efficiently cover damage on wooden
surfaces. It is easy to apply and quick to dry. It leaves the wood with a glossy finish. Shellac can be damaged by
water.
 Types of finishes for wood
Wood Dye - Wood dyes may match the existing color of the wood or change the color of the surface. Dyes are
colorants that are dissolved in solvents like mineral spirit, alcohol or water. Wood dye works in a similar manner that
cloth dyes.
They bring about color changes without hiding the grains. It can be applied with a brush, sponge or spray gun. Wood
dyes are finishes that are both water-based and oil-based.
Wood Stain Finish - Wood stain finish changes or rather improves the wood color and the visibility of the grains. It
is used to enhance the color of the woodwork and to achieve uniformity when there is inconsistency in the
appearance of the wood.
Wood stain finish is best suited where the stain is darker than the color of the wood.
Wood stains are available in a variety of colors. The final outcome will depend on the number of coats applied on the
wooden surface. This finish does not protect the wood. Once the wood stain is applied, a final coat of wood finish
must be applied to protect the wood.
Lacquer - Lacquer is a fast-drying, thin solvent-based finish when compared to other finishes. It reaches into the
wood nourishes it and improves the grains of the wood. It can be easily applied by using a brush or by spraying.
It evaporates upon spraying but cures the wood at the same time. Lacquer finish can get scratched and can be
damaged when in contact with water. Lacquer gives a glossy finish to the wood.
 Types of finishes for wood
Water-Based Finish - Water-based finishes have less odor than oil-based finishes. They give a very clean and
clear finish. They contain acrylic resin along with urethane and alkyl. They are thin in consistency and dry easily.
After application, the liquid adheres to the surface as the water begins to evaporate. Water-based finishes give a
natural appearance to the surface and are easy to maintain.
French Polish - The French Polishing technique to finish wood has been used since the 19th century. It is considered
one of the classic techniques of wood finishing. A mixture of shellac and alcohol is used for this purpose.
A rubbing pad dipped in this oil is used on the wooden surface to get this particular finish. French polish gives the
glossiest appearance to wooden surfaces.
Polyurethane wood finish offers durability and water resistance. This makes it a popular alternative to more
traditional coatings such as shellac or lacquer. Polyurethane is a water-or oil-based plastic resin used for coating
wood or as a wood finish.

ASSIGNMENT: TO IDENTIFY DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOFTWOOD,

PROPERTIES OF WOOD, APPLICATIONS & SURFACE FINISHES
 Glass
Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid (having no definite shape, form, or structure.), that
has widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window panes, tableware, and
optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling (quenching) of the molten form; some glasses such as volcanic
glass are naturally occurring. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are
"silicate glasses"
Although it is brittle, buried silicate glass will survive for very long periods if not disturbed, and many examples of
glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Archaeological evidence suggests glass-making dates back
to at least 3,600 BC in Mesopotamia, Egypt, or Syria.
The earliest known glass objects were beads, perhaps created accidentally during metalworking or the production
of faience. Due to its ease of formability in any shape, glass has been traditionally used for vessels, such as bowls,
vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms, it has also been used for paperweights and
marbles. Glass can be coloured by adding metal salts or painted and printed as enamelled glass. The refractive,
reflective and transmission properties of glass make glass suitable for manufacturing optical lenses, prisms, and
optoelectronics materials. Extruded glass fibres have applications as optical fibres in communications networks,
thermal insulating material when matted as glass wool so as to trap air, or in glass-fibre reinforced plastic
(fibreglass).
 Glass
When it comes to iridescent interior design materials, glass undoubtedly tops the list. It is one of the most widely used
materials in the architectural industry. The numerous types of glass available in the market cater to the requirement of
versatile customers, thus rendering itself one of the most flexible materials

1. Patterned glass or Textured Glass As the name suggests, patterned glass has a
decorative design embossed on its surface. It could be a colorful geometric pattern or
just a plain texture. It is most useful in spaces that require privacy but also need
sufficient light transmission. The texture on the glass surface prevents a clear view of
the object when seen through the glass. It has its applications in conference rooms,
foyers, restaurants, shower cubes, and windows.

2. Spandrel Glass is used to disguise the less aesthetically pleasing structural elements
like columns, walls, shear walls, beams, and so on. It comes in plenty of colors and hence
can be used in versatile locations to compliment the interiors. It is opaque and reflective in
nature. The uniform appearance of the Spandrel glass gives a neat look to the space. It is
called spandrel mainly due to its great malleability. It can be molded and shaped to cover
even the curvature joining two spandrel columns. It is also 5 times stronger than traditional
glass. Spandrel glass also finds its applications in kitchen interiors. It can be used to cover
the kitchen cabinets and walls instead of tiling.
 Glass
3. Tinted Glass - Tinted glass is manufactured by adding metal oxides to float glass.
While the typical colors used are bronze, gray, dark gray, green, blue, and blue-green,
many other colors like red, pink, and purple can also be manufactured. Different metal
oxides when mixed with float glass, render different colors to it. There is not much change
in the elementary properties of the glass, except the solar transmission. Due to its tint, it
prevents heat transmission and absorbs solar energy. This is not ideal glass if you desire to
transmit light since it hinders light transmission.

4. Reflective glass - Reflective glass is a clear glass with a metallic coating that reflects
heat. It is used in Eco-friendly constructions to reduce the energy consumption of the
buildings. It prevents heat loss from the interior of the building and heat gain from outside
the building. While the finish is usually metallic it can also be given a tinted appearance.
Another advantage of using reflective glass is that it reduces the glare which provides
comfortable working environments in the office or home. The metallic finish blocks the view
of the people standing in front of the installed glass. Its main application is in the facade,
but it does fancy some audacious architects to use it in the interiors as well.
 Glass
5. Satin Glass (Privacy glass) - Satin glass has a satin finish as the name suggests. It is
chemically treated to give the desired finish on the surface. It is a good material for
decorative purposes. It can also be used as a partition wall in retail spaces or hotels where
one requires privacy as it blurs the view. Due to this property it can be utilized in
fabricating a door in association with another material such as wood. Satin glass is a low-
maintenance product as it prevents the dust from sticking on to its surface. The finger
marks don’t get printed on the skin of stained glass unlike another glasses.

6. Security glass - Security glass can either be laminated or toughened. Laminated

glass is an engineered glass that holds its pieces together in an event of a disaster. It is
ideal for a coffee table top. If your countertop breaks the shattered pieces of glass will
stick together. It can also be used in sensitive areas such as jewelry shops. It is so strong
that it is even capable of withstanding a bullet attack. Owning to its strength architects
have used this kind of glass for designing a staircase. Toughened glass is also a popular
choice for table tops since it prevents cuts and injuries due to broken glass.
 Glass
7. Clear glass - Clear glass is the most common type of glass seen in interior spaces. It is
colorless and has blue or green colored edge due to the presence of iron oxides. It is not
as strong as laminated glass. Clear glass allows almost 80-90% of the visible light to pass
through. It can be used in multiple locations in the house and for other decorative
purposes. You can craft anything from a door knob to a facade to a chandelier using this
type of glass. Its transmittance quality makes it an ideal material for making lamps and
chandelier. It can also be molded into a clear glass vessel type wash basin or a over the
counter type wash basin.

8. Acoustic Glass - As the name suggests, this type of glass has acoustic properties and
thus is most suitable in areas with high noise pollution. Noise pollution is stressful and with
the kind of lifestyle we are living the level of noise pollution is rising preposterously
especially in cities. The glass has a double-glazed arrangement in which the inner layer
damps out any belligerent noises. It absorbs and weakens noises thus reducing the
decibels heard by humans. Acoustic glass finds its application in diverse spaces like office
spaces, conference rooms, music studios, hospitals, libraries, residential houses, and retail
spaces.
 Glass
9. Energy Efficient Glass Windows are responsible for as much as 25% of heat exchange
between the interior and exterior of your house. This means choosing the right kind of glass
can prevent the heat from escaping your house in winter, and hinder the heat from
creeping into your interior space in the summer. It can reduce your electricity bill upto 20%.
Installing this type of glass also lowers your carbon footprint which will ultimately make you
feel good about yourself. Many retail shops can also enjoy the benefits of installing
energy-efficient glass on their glass facade. Since the facade is exposed directly to the
sun, the use of environment-friendly glass will reduce the requirement for heating or
cooling the space depending upon your geographical location.

ASSIGNMENT: TO IDENTIFY DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLASSES,

PROPERTIES OF GLASS, APPLICATIONS & FINISHES
 Glass
The main types of glass include:
Borosilicate Glass
Commercial Glass
Glass Fibre
Lead Glass
Differences in methods
Because of the differences in the various methods of manufacture, the industry is divided into 5 main sections under the general
headings:
•Container glass;
•Flat glass;
• Scientific/technical glass;
• Domestic glass; and
• Fiber glass.
 Glass
Borosilicate glass (or sodium-borosilicate glass) is made mainly of silica (70-80%) and
boric oxide (7-13%) with smaller amounts of alkalis (sodium and potassium oxides) and
aluminum oxide.

This type of glass has a relatively low alkali content and consequently has both excellent
chemical durability and thermal shock resistance - meaning it doesn't break when changing
temperature quickly.

As a result of these properties, sodium borosilicate glass is widely used across the chemical
industry, pharmaceutical sector for laboratory apparatus, ampoules and other
pharmaceutical containers, various high-intensity lighting applications, and as glass fibers
for textile and plastic reinforcement - as well, of course, for common household oven and
cookware.
 Glass
Commercial Glass
Most of the glass we see around us in our everyday lives in the form of bottles and jars, flat
glass for windows or for drinking glasses is known as commercial glass or soda-lime glass, as
soda ash is used in its manufacturing process.
The main constituent of practically all commercial glass is sand. Sand by itself can be fused
to produce glass but the temperature at which this can be achieved is about 1700°C.
Adding other minerals and chemicals to sand can considerably reduce the melting
temperature. The addition of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), known as soda ash, to produce
a mixture of 75% silica (SiO2) and 25% of sodium oxide (Na2O), will reduce the
temperature of fusion to about 800°C. However, a glass of this composition is water-soluble
and is known as water glass. In order to give the glass stability, other chemicals like calcium
oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO) are needed. These are obtained by adding
limestone which results in a pure inert glass.
Commercial glass is normally colourless, allowing it to freely transmit light, which is what makes glass ideal for windows and many
other uses. Additional chemicals have to be added to produce different colours of glass such as green, blue or brown glass.
Most commercial glasses have roughly similar chemical compositions of:
70% - 74% SiO2 (silica) 12% - 16% Na2O (sodium oxide) 5% - 11% CaO (calcium oxide) 1% - 3% MgO (magnesium oxide) 1% - 3%
Al2O3 (aluminium oxide) Flat glass is similar in composition to container glass except that it contains a higher proportion of
magnesium oxide.
 Glass
Some of these Glass-ceramics, formed typically from lithium aluminosilicate glass, are
extremely resistant to thermal shock and have found several applications where this property
is important, including cooker hobs, cooking ware, windows for gas or coal fires, mirror
substrates for astronomical telescopes and missile nose cones.
An essential feature of glass is that it does not contain crystals. However, by deliberately
stimulating crystal growth in the glass it is possible to produce a type of glass with a
controlled amount of crystallization that can combine many of the best features of ceramics
and glass.
Lead Glass Commonly known as lead crystal, lead glass is used to make a wide variety of
decorative glass objects. It is made by using lead oxide instead of calcium oxide, and
potassium oxide instead of all or most of the sodium oxide. The traditional English full lead
crystal contains at least 30% lead oxide (PbO) but any glass containing at least 24% PbO
can be described as lead crystal. Glass containing less than 24% PbO, is known simply as
crystal glass. The lead is locked into the chemical structure of the glass so there is no risk to
human health. Lead glass has a high refractive index making it sparkle brightly and a
relatively soft surface so that it is easy to decorate by grinding, cutting, and engraving which
highlights the crystal's brilliance making it popular for glasses, decanters, and other
decorative objects. Glass with even higher lead oxide contents (typically 65%) may be used
as radiation shielding because of the well-known ability of lead to absorb gamma rays and
other forms of harmful radiation.
 Glass
Alkali-barium Silicate Glass
Without this type of glass, watching TV would be very dangerous. A television produces X-
rays that must be absorbed, otherwise, they could in the long run cause health problems. The
X-rays are absorbed by the glass with minimum amounts of heavy oxides (lead, barium, or
strontium). Lead glass is commonly used for the funnel and neck of the TV tube, while glass
containing barium is used for the screen.

Aluminosilicate Glass
A small, but important type of glass, aluminosilicate, contains 20% aluminum oxide (alumina-
Al2O3) often including calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, and boric oxide in relatively small
amounts, but with only very small amounts of soda or potash. It is able to withstand high
temperatures and thermal shock and they are mainly used for glass bulbs for halogen lamps,
high-temperature thermometers, and thermally and electrically highly loadable film resistors.
combustion tubes, gauge glasses for high-pressure steam boilers, and in halogen-tungsten
lamps capable of operating at temperatures as high as 750°C
 Glass
The manufacturing process of glass
At Asahi India Glass Ltd., the highest quality glass manufacturing techniques are used to
produce the perfect sheets of float glass. The method used is the PPG process that Sir
Alistair Pilkington discovered in 1952 and is still the most trusted float glass manufacturing
process. Naturally, it has many steps involved in it, and at each stage, great care is taken to
be precise and thorough with the production of glass.
From selecting the right type and ratios of ingredients for glass to assimilating them all
scientifically to produce glass as we know it, here we answer the question of how is glass
made through a step-by-step process:
1. MELTING AND REFINING
To make clear glass, need the right set of raw materials is required. This consists of silica
sand (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from soda ash, calcium oxide (CaO) from
limestone/dolomite, dolomite (MgO), and feldspar (Al2O3). These ingredients are
mixed in the right proportion, and the entire batch is flown into a furnace heated to
1500 degrees Celsius.
To impart color to the glass, certain metal oxides are also mixed in the batch.
 Glass
2. FLOAT BATH
The molten material from the furnace flows into the float bath, consisting of a mirror-like surface made from molten tin. This
material enters the bath at 1500 degrees Celsius and leaves the bath at around 650 degrees Celsius. Its shape at the exit is like a
solid ribbon.
3. COATING FOR REFLECTIVE GLASS
After that, if one is producing reflective glass surfaces that help keep indoors cooler, then coating procedures are followed in
which either a hard coat or a soft coat is applied on the surface of the cooled ribbon at high temperatures.
4. ANNEALING
Next, a process called annealing is done to remove the internal stresses built up in the glass. This process allows the glass ribbon to
pass through a layer that eliminates any pressures on the glass surface and gradually cools it to give it its final hardened form. This
makes it easier to cut the glass and shape it accordingly.
5. INSPECTING
More than 100 million inspections can be made through acute and advanced inspection technology throughout the glass
manufacturing procedure to identify air bubbles, stresses, or grains of sand that refuse to melt. This is essential in quality-proofing
the final form of glass.
6. CUTTING TO ORDER
Finally, diamond steels are used to trim and cut the glass ribbons into square shapes.
Glass
 Manufacturing techniques

The Press and Blow Process

The Blow and Blow Process

 Glass
Glass is Infinitely Recyclable
Glass is 100% recyclable and can be recycled an infinite number of times without loss of
quality, strength and functionality.
'Downcycling' and landfill can be avoided - making container glass a valuable eco-friendly
packaging material. In addition, for a glass manufacturer, the use of a cullet (recycled glass)
is extremely beneficial. Cullet is the technical term the industry uses for crushed glass and is
a very important secondary raw material. Aside from savings in virgin raw material
consumption, around 2.5 - 3% in energy savings can be achieved for every 10% of cullet that
replaces primary, 'virgin', raw materials, as no reaction energy is needed to melt cullet.
The increased use of cullet, replacing carbonates as well as other raw materials, also results
in reduced CO2 emissions. The use of a cullet leads to savings on both fuel and raw
material costs - something the glass industry has known for some time. However, using cullet
also brings down CO2 emissions, as proved by a study carried out in the UK by Glass
Technology Services Ltd (GTS) in collaboration with a group of leading manufacturers and
The Carbon Trust.
•Closed-Loop Glass Recycling Saves Energy
•Closed-Loop Recycling Conserves the Environment
•Glass Recycling Reduces Greenhouse Gas Emissions
•Glass Recycling Cuts Waste Disposal Costs
•Glass Recycling Increases Public Awareness of the Benefit of Minimising Waste
 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION PROCESSES
Introductions to materials and behavior of materials, metal processes
• Manufacturing and product life cycle
• General properties and applications of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys
• Metal casting
• Heat treatment and sheet metal forming process
• Bulk deformation and metal removing Process

Manufacturing

Converting raw materials

into products
Various production
methods & techniques

Discrete products

Continuous products
 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION PROCESSES
Discrete Products - Discrete manufacturing is an industry term for the manufacturing of finished products that are distinct items
capable of being easily counted, touched or seen. Discrete manufacturing involves parts and systems like nuts and bolts, brackets,
wires, assemblies and individual products.
Induvidual parts or pieces
 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION PROCESSES
Continuous Products - Continuous production is a flow production method used to manufacture, produce, or process
materials without interruption.
Cut into induvidual pieces
 Product design and concurrent engineering
• Product design is a critical activity because it has been estimated generally 70 to 80% of the cost of product development
and manufacturing is determined at the initial design stages.
• design process of a particular product first requires a clear understanding of functions and the performance expected
of that product.
 Product design and concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering or
Traditional design process
simultaneous engineering

The basic goals of concurrent engineering

sequential manufacturing process
is to minimize time and costs

Taking the product from design concept to

production and introduction of the product in
to the marketplace.
 Product design and concurrent engineering

Design for manufacturing

A comprehensive approach to the

production of goods

Integrates Design process with materials, manufacturing methods,

process planning, assembly, testing, and quality assurance.
 Product design and concurrent engineering
Designers acquire a fundamental
understanding of
limitations of materials
characteristics and capabilities
Effective implementation

Production methods
Related operations and
machinery and equipments

Design principles for economic production

Design should be as simple as possible to manufacture assemble, dissemble service, and recycle
Appropriated Materials selection and manufacturing characteristics as well as for their service life.
Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specifications
Finishing and operations should be avoided or minimized because they can add significantly to the cost.
 Green Design and Sustainable manufacturing
Design principles for economic production
Sustainable manufacturing refers to the realization, that natural resources are vital to economic activity.
Energy and material management is essential to ensure that the resources are available for future generations.
In the design stage (before manufacturing) a thorough analysis of the product is conducted, on materials used, manufacturing
process, and the Practices employed.
 Green Design and Sustainable manufacturing
The basic Guide lines followed are:
Reducing waste of materials at their source by refinements in product design and the amount of materials used.
Reducing the use of hazardous materials in products and processes.
Ensuring proper handling and disposal of waste.
Making improvements in waste treatment and in recycling and reuse of materials.
Environmentally friendly material can be either be a part of the biological cycle (paper and jute bags), or the industrial cycle.
(Beverages can)
 Green Design and Sustainable manufacturing
Product life cycle(plc)
The product life cycle consists of stages that a product go through from Design, Development, Production, Distribution and use, t
o its ultimate disposal and recycling.
A product typically goes through five stages:
Product development stage,
Market introduction stage
Growth stage
Maturation stage
Decline stage
METAL
Are you
ready?
 Different types of materials
Types of material for manufacturing :
Ferrous metal Nonferrous metal and alloys
Plastics
Ceramics and glass
Composite material
Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals and their Uses
Put in the simplest terms, ferrous metals are those which contain iron, while non-ferrous metals don’t have any iron content.
There are, however, other differences between the two types of metal which have a strong bearing upon the tasks which they
are usually called upon to perform.
Ferrous Metals - The following are ferrous metals and the kind of uses to which they are usually put:
Mild Steel – Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 –
99.9%. Used for engineering purposes and in general products, no
specialized metal products.
Carbon steel – Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of
98.6 to 99.4%. Used to make cutting tools such as drill bits.
Stainless Steel – Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists
staining and corrosion and is therefore used for the likes of cutlery
and surgical instrumentation.
Mild steel Carbon steel
Cast Iron – carbon 2 – 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but
brittle. Used to manufacture items such as engine blocks and
manhole covers.

Cast iron engine block Cast iron manhole cover Stainless steel Cast iron decorative
products
Wrought Iron – Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items
such as ornamental gates and fencing. Has fallen out of use.
Aluminum – An alloy of aluminum, copper, and manganese. Very
lightweight and easily worked. Used in aircraft manufacture, window
frames, and some kitchenware.
Copper – Copper is a naturally occurring substance. The fact that it
conducts heat and electricity means that it is used for wiring, tubing
and pipe work. Wrought Iron Gate Wrought Iron fencing

Copper pipes Copper wires Aluminum panels & windows Wrought Iron furniture
Brass – A combination of copper and zinc, usually in the proportions
of 65% to 35% respectively. Is used for ornamental purposes and
within electrical fittings.
Silver – Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates
sterling silver. Used for decorative impact in jewelry and ornaments,
and also to solder different metals together.

Brass electrical fittings Brass ornamental products

Silver for soldering Silver jewellery Silver Vessels Brass ornamental products
Lead – Lead is a naturally occurring substance. It is heavy and very
soft and is often used in roofing in batteries and to make pipes.

Lead pipes Lead batteries

Class Activity - Time - 10 Mins

IDENTIFY FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIAL WITHIN CAMPUS, TAKE PHOTOS AND DISCUSS THE CATEGORIES OF EACH
PRODUCT.
 Introductions to materials and behavior of materials, metal
processes
Metal casting

METAL – CASTING PROCESS - Casting is a manufacturing process

where a solid is melted, heated to the proper temperature, and then
poured into a cavity or mold, which contains it in the proper shape
during solidification. Metal casting is the process of making objects
by pouring molten metal into an empty-shaped space/cast. The Pouring molten metal Iron casted products
metal then cools and hardens into the form given to it by this shaped
mold. Casting is often a less expensive way to manufacture a piece
compared with machining the part out of a piece of solid metal.

Brass casted products

Introductions to materials and behavior of materials, metal
processes
TWO CATEGORIES OF CASTING PROCESSES

Expandable mold process Permanent mold process

Mold is sacrificed to remove part Mold is made of metal and can be used to
make many castings

Advantage: more complex shapes are Advantage: higher production rate

possible to cast

Disadvantage: Production rates are often Disadvantage: geometries limited by need

limited by time to make mold rather than to open mold
casting itself. Expensive process
 Expandable mold process - categories
Permanent pattern & Expandable Pattern mold process

MADE OF – SAND, PLASTER CERAMIC AND SIMILAR MATERIAL

Sand Mold Plaster Mold

 Types of Sand Mold
Green‑sand molds -mixture of sand, clay, and water; “Green" means mold
contains moisture at the time of pouring.
Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than clay, And mold is baked to
improve strength
Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of a green‑sand mold to a
depth of 10 to 25 mm, using torches or heating lamps

Green-sand Mold Dry-sand Mold Skin-Dried Mold

 Making the Sand Mold
The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a pattern,
then separating
The mold into two halves and remove the pattern
The mold must also contain a gating and riser system
If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be included in mold
A new sand mold must be made for each part produced

Closed Sand Mold

Open Sand Mold

 Steps in Sand Casting
Pour the molten metal into sand mold
Allow time for metal to solidify
Break up the mold to remove casting
Clean and inspect casting
Separate gating and riser system
Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve metallurgical properties

[Link]
v=K8SYhISGxN4 -animation of sand
casting

Closed Sand Mold

 The Pattern
A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
Shrinked - casted product

Pattern materials:
Wood - common material because it is easy to work, but it
warps
Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much longer
Plastic – a compromise between wood and metal

Shrinked - casted product

 Types of Patterns
1. ONE –PIECE PATTERNS: used for simpler shapes and low-quality production. Typically
made of wood and are inexpensive

One piece pattern in wood

 Types of Patterns
2. SPLIT PATTERN: these are two-piece patterns, made so that each part forms a portion
of the cavity for the casting, thus allowing casting for complicated shapes.
 Types of Patterns
3. MATCH-PLATE PATTERNS: these are a common type of mounting pattern, in such
construction, the gating system can be mounted on the drag side of the pattern.
 Types of Patterns
4. COPE AND DRAG: In foundry work, the terms cope and drag refer respectively to the
upper and lower parts of a two-part casting flask, used in sand casting.
 Types of Patterns
5. CORES -
Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of the part
It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core to
form the casting's external and internal surfaces
May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring,
called chaplets
 Desirable Mold Properties
Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass through voids in sand
Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact with molten metal
Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow casting to shrink without cracking the casting
Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be reused to make other molds?
Foundry sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to endure high temperatures
Small grain size yields a better surface finish on the cast part
Large grain size is more permeable, allowing gases to escape during the pouring
Irregular grain shapes strengthen molds due to interlocking, compared to round grains
Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
Binders
Sand is held together by a mixture of water and bonding clay
Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and phosphate)
Additives are sometimes combined with the mixture to increase strength and/or permeability
 SHEET METAL WORKING
Introduction
Sheet metal is simply metal formed into thin and flat pieces. It is one of the fundamental forms used in metalworking and can
be cut and bent into a variety of different shapes. Countless everyday objects are constructed of material. Thicknesses can vary
significantly, although extremely thin thicknesses are considered foil or leaf, and pieces thicker than 6 mm (0.25 in) are
considered plate.
Sheet metal processing
The raw material for sheet metal manufacturing processes is the output of the rolling process. Typically, sheets of metal are
sold as flat, rectangular sheets of standard size. If the sheets are thin and very long, they may be in the form of rolls. Therefore
the first step in any sheet metal process is to cut the correct shape and sized ‘blank’ from a larger sheet.
Sheet Metal Forming processes
Introduction
1. Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and lower forces than bulk forming
2. Almost all sheet metal forming is considered to be secondary processing
3. The main categories of sheet metal forming are
• Shearing
• Bending
• Drawing
 Metal finishes
Metal Finishes: A Concise Overview
Electroplating
Electroless plating
Electrocoating
Passivation
Case hardening
Powder coating
Electropolishing
Buff polishing
Brushed metal
Metal grinding
Abrasive blasting
Types of metal finishes
Metal finishing involves treating the exterior of a metal product or component with a thin layer of augmenting material or
removing material from the component’s surface. Metal finishes improve metal surfaces in a variety of ways, including
Improved durability Abrasion resistance
Corrosion resistance Reducing friction
Chemical resistance Making a surface conductive
Electrical resistance Decorative appeal
 Metal finishes
Electroplating
Electroplating, i.e., electrodeposition, passes an electric current through an electrolyte solution (basically a bath filled with the
electrolyte or property you’re trying to imbue upon your product). Two electrodes are placed into the solution and hooked up to
a battery source that connects an electrical circuit between the electrodes, electrolyte and battery. Electricity flows through the
circuit, breaking up the electrolyte which causes the metal atoms to form on one of the electrodes (which is the product you’re
ultimately trying to electroplate). The electrolyte can consist of whatever type of plating your product needs. For example, a zinc
plating (i.e. galvanization) will help prevent corrosion, while gold plating provides an aesthetic appeal.
 Metal finishes
Electroless plating
This method is non-galvanic, meaning no electric current is involved in the plating process. This process is also known as
autocatalytic plating or conversion plating and no external power source is used. Instead, the part is placed in a solution filled
with nickel or copper, creating a catalytic reduction of the solution that breaks up the material’s ions.
Electroless plating is particularly popular in industries where corrosion resistance is important. This plating method makes parts
very hard and nonporous, increasing corrosion resistance. Other benefits include reduced friction, increased strength and
uniform deposition. Thus, electroless plating is great for industries like oil & gas, food & beverage manufacturing, automotive
and aerospace. Any environment that’s subject to harsh and/or corrosive environments is perfect for electroless plating.
 Metal finishes
Electrocoating
Electrocoating, i.e., e-coating involves the same principles as electroplating. An
electric current and solution work together to coat a component's substrate.
However, the solution contains electrically charged paint particulars (typically
acrylics or epoxies) that create a primer over the substrate. The primer helps with
adhesion when material needs to be painted in the field or at a shop.
Cathodic epoxy e-coatings are setting the standard for corrosion resistance,
although they require topcoat for UV resistance when components are exposed
to sunlight.
E-coating is known for being a very low-cost-per-square-foot finishing option
because of its ability to accommodate part complexity and volume. They’re also
popular because of their ability to apply to almost any metal. However, other
factors like equipment repair and maintenance should be considered.
 Metal finishes
Powder coating
Most industrial coatings come in liquid form, but powder coatings are a powder-based alternative. Powder coatings provide
greater thickness than liquid coatings, and different pigments, level agents, flow modifiers, and other additives can be added to
the powder to provide the desired protection and aesthetic appeal. Once the coating is selected, electrostatic spray deposition
(ESD) is used by coating professionals to apply the coat to the metal substrate. A spray gun is typically used to apply the
coating, and then the components enter a curing oven that heats the components, causing a chemical reaction that binds the
coating and substrate.
 Metal finishes
Electropolishing
Electropolishing is the exact opposite of electroplating. Rather than depositing metal ions onto the component’s surface,
electropolishing removes those metal ions from the substrate. The material is immersed in an electrolyte bath and an electrical
current is applied. The material becomes the anode, and ions flow from it, removing defects, rust, etc.
The end result is a surface that’s polished, smoothed and removed of bumps and pocks. Even at a microscopic level, peaks and
valleys will be removed. This is an excellent option for materials that need to have a clean and pristine look.
 Metal finishes
Buff polishing
Buff polishing is an alternative to electropolishing that doesn’t
involve the electrochemical process. Buff polishing is similar to
buffing a car–a machine equipped with a cloth wheel polishes
and buffs the surface of your components. The result is a glossy
and shiny finish that’s ideal for metallic components that need a
high-quality look.
Brushed metal
Brushed metal is similar to buff polishing in that you’re
effectively removing metal ions from your components. With
brush polishing, the metal is brushed in a unidirectional manner
that creates a specific aesthetic. You might have seen this look
on different stainless steel appliances like toasters or on the
hood of your car. Brushed metal is popular in small appliance
and automotive industries, and it’s commonly used on stainless
steel, aluminum and nickel. When you want your product to
have distinct, parallel lines, brushed polish is a good option.
 Metal finishes
Metal grinding
Again, metal grinding is a metal finish that reduces a component by
grinding away metal ions. Metal grinding involves a machine that uses
abrasion and friction to smooth out a metal surface. Handheld power
tools, grindstones, grinding machines, bench grinders and wheel
grinders are all options for various applications. Metal grinding is best
suited for hard materials (e.g. hardened steel) that required shallow
cuts.
Abrasive blasting
Abrasive blasting is a cost-effective solution that applies to both facility
exteriors and metal components. It combines surfacing cleaning and
finishing into one process. With abrasive blasting, a high-pressure
stream of abrasive media (material) is blasted against a surface to
remove debris, alter shape and texture and provide a smooth finish.
Abrasive blasting can also act as surface preparation for coatings and
plating to increase durability.
A typical blasting system is made of an air compressor that adjusts
pressure and volume, a moisture separator to reduce humidity, a
water-assisted system for dust suppression, air supply line, a blast
machine to store media, remote controls and a hose and nozzle.
 Metal finishes
PVD (physical vapor deposition) coating, also known as thin-film
coating, is a process in which a solid material is vaporized in a vacuum
and deposited onto the surface of a part. These coatings are not
simply metal layers though. Instead, compound materials are deposited
atom by atom, forming a thin, bonded, metal or metal-ceramic surface
layer that greatly improves the appearance, durability, and/or function
of a part or product.
Automotive Paint finish - The terminology for automotive paints has
been driven by the progression of technologies and by the desire to
both distinguish new technologies and relate to previous technologies
for the same purpose. Modern car paints are nearly always an acrylic
polyurethane "enamel" with a pigmented basecoat and a clear
topcoat. It may be described as "acrylic", "acrylic enamel", "urethane",
etc. and the clearcoat in particular may be described as a lacquer.
True lacquers and acrylic lacquers are obsolete, and plain acrylic
enamels have largely been superseded by better-performing paints.[8]
True enamel is not an automotive paint. The term is common for any
tough glossy paint but its use in the automotive industry is often
restricted to older paints before the introduction of polyurethane
hardeners.
PLASTIC
Are you
ready?
 Introduction to Plastics
Definitions OF PLASTICS AND P0LYMERS
Plastics are materials composed principally of large Molecules (polymers) that are Synthetically made or, naturally occurring, are
highly modified.
In addition to their similar nature to synthetic polymers, all plastic materials have the property that at some stage, they have
been or can be readily formed or molded into a shape.
Most synthetic polymers are those that do not occur naturally and are represented by Materials such as nylon, polyethylene, and
polyester.
Some synthetic polymers could be manufactured copies of naturally occurring materials (such as synthetic rubber) or even
natural polymers that have been so radically modified that they no longer possess the general properties of the original natural
polymer, such as celluloid or cellophane, which are derived from cellulose and only available in form of rod, sheet and tube
form.
Definition, plastics include all non-naturally occurring polymers, all synthetic elastomers, and all highly modified natural polymers
The result of the combination is, of course, a chain-like molecule (polymer).
All molecules, whether the small type or the large type that result when particular small molecules join together, are made up of
atoms (such as carbon. hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen) When any small molecule is formed, the atoms join together into a
specific arrangement that is characteristic of the particular molecule. The types of atoms and their arrangement determine the
properties of the molecule.
 Introduction to Plastics
What is a Resin?
Another term that is often associated with polymers and plastics is resin. Although no definition for resin is universally accepted,
a convenient definition is a resin is a polymer that has not yet been formed into its final useful shape.
When initially made, polymers are usually viscous liquids or, if solid, are granules(powders) or flakes.
In some cases the granules or flakes are formed into some intermediate shape (such as small pellets), but these can also be
called resins because they are later formed into a shaped plastic part.
Because of this close connection between the terms resins, plastics, and polymers, they are sometimes used
interchangeably, although correctly used there are differences.
To summarize:
Polymers are any material made up of molecular chains;
Plastics are synthetic, long-chain polymers that can be or have been shaped; and Resins are solids or liquids that are
subsequently shaped into a plastic part
 Introduction & Applications of Plastics
Characteristics, Advantage/Disadvantage
- Low density- lightweight products/low structural strength
- Low melting point - Ease of processing/Lower useful thermal range
- High elongation-Low brittleness /Higher creep and lower yield strengths
- Low thermal conductivity - Good thermal insulation/Dissipates heat poorly
- Electrical resistance-Good electrical insulation/doesn’t conduct electricity
Uses of Plastic in modern society
Because plastics are so prevalent in the world today, only a partial list of applications can be given.
Even a complete and comprehensive list of current applications would quickly be outdated since the application of plastics
is such a dynamic segment of the industry.
The following list is intended to show the breadth of plastics applications across many industries and to illustrate
some applications that may be little known.
Packaging
Wrapping for thousands of different food items. These wraps can be single plastic or Multi-layered films using up to seven
different plastics and may be flexible or rigid.
Bottles and other containers for items such as milk, soda pop, shampoo, medicine, liquid laundry products, cleaning agents,
insecticides, distilled water, and microwavable food. motor oil (often with see-through windows to tell how much is left in
the bottle), and blood.
Blister packs for tools and small hardware items.
Trash bags and grocery sacks.
 Applications of Plastics
Medical
•Catheters and other tubes that assist in providing entry to the body's orgons
•Hip joint replacement parts.
•Artificial legs, feet, and arms.
•X-ray tables and other items that must be transparent to X-rays.
•Disposable surgical clothes and instruments.
•Artificial hearts, lungs, and other organs and synthetic blood vessels, valves, and foundation material for skin grafts.
•Eyeglass frames and lenses.
•Toothbrushes, combs, and other personal care items.
•Dental fillings, bridges, and coatings.
•Diagnostic equipment and tools.
Recreational
•Boat hulls, masts, kayaks, surfboards, canoes, and sails.
•Rackets, golf dubs, poles for vaulting, and oars.
•Bobsleds, go-carts, racing cars, dune buggies, and snowmobiles.
•Athletic shoes.
•Skis, jet skis, ski poles, ski boots, and ski-lift chairs.
•Golf ball covers, golf club shafts, and golf club heads.
•Bicycle parts, helmets, and pads.
 Applications of Plastics
Furniture, Appliances, and Housewares
•Telephones and other communication equipment.
•Computer and small appliance cabinets or housings.
•Foam cushioning, molded structural parts.
•Luggage.
•paint
•Floor coverings (carpets, vinyl flooring).
•Institutional seating.
•Components of washers, dryers, refrigerators, table tops, picture frames, clothes, Hampers, and lawn chairs.
Transportation
•Automotive components, including bodies (such as the Corvette), body panels,
•Interior trim, seats, and engine parts.
•Airplane components.
•Missiles and rockets.
•Train, monorail, and Light-rail cars.
•Seat coven and dashboard covers.
•Truck bed liners.
•Gas tanks.
•Recreational vehicle interior components.
 Prototyping
•Rapid Prototyping
Several systems have been developed to make prototypes much more quickly than could be done using traditional prototyping
methods. These systems use the CAD drawing of the part and then. by various methods, manufacture a part that duplicates the
CAD drawing.
The prototype may be of the same material or may be of some different material, depending on the rapid prototyping system.
Rapid prototyping systems are very valuable in shortening the time required to create a prototype, sometimes reducing the time
by a factor of 10. Such time saving allows several different prototypes to be compared and evaluated, thus improving the
efficiency of the entire product-realization process. All of the major rapid prototyping methods begin with a CAD
representation
STUDENT ACTIVITY: IDENTIFY AND EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLASTIC LISTED BELOW
TYPES OF PLASTICS
There are two main types of plastics:
THERMOPLASTICS - Polyethene, Nylon, PVC, PVA
THERMOSETTING PLASTICS
 Manufacturing process
•RAW MATERIALS OF PLASTICS
Plastics are made from the following materials:
Plasticizers: They improve the softening, and decrease the brittleness and workability of plastics. They are organic
substances.
Stabilizers: They prevent the chemical degradation of plastics. By nature they are antioxidants.
Fillers: They increase the tensile strength of plastics. They are wood flour and glass wool.
Reinforcing agents: They increase its mechanical strength. An example is glass fiber.
Pigments : They are used to impart a particular color to the plastic.
Molding Process:
•Extrusion,
•Injection molding,
•Blow molding,
•Thermoforming.
 Manufacturing process
Extrusion
Extrusion is a process of manufacturing long products of constant cross-
section (rods, sheets, pipes, films, wire insulation coating) forcing softened
polymer through a die with an opening.
Polymer material in form of pellets is fed into an extruder through a hopper.
The material is then conveyed forward by a feeding screw and forced
through a die, converting to a continuous polymer product.
Heating elements, placed over the barrel, soften and melt the polymer. The
temperature of the material is controlled by thermocouples.
The product going out of the die is cooled by blown air or in a water bath.
Extrusion of polymers (in contrast to extrusion of metals) is a continuous
process lasting as long as raw pellets are supplied.
Extrusion is used mainly for Thermoplastics, but Elastomers and Thermosets
are also may be extruded. In this case, cross-linking forms during heating and
melting of the material in the extruder.
The thermoplastic extruded products may be further formed by the
Thermoforming method.
 Manufacturing process

Injection molding,
This is the most common method of producing parts made of
plastic. The process includes the injection or forcing of heated
molten plastic into a mold which is in the form of the part to be
made. Upon cooling and solidification, the part is ejected and
the process continues. The injection molding process is
capable of producing an infinite variety of part designs
containing an equally infinite variety of details such as threads,
springs, and hinges, and all in a single molding operation.
thermoplastics are used primarily in injection molding
 Manufacturing process

Blow molding,
•Blow molding (also known as blow moulding or blow forming)
is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are
formed. In general, there are three main types of blow
molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and
stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with
melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or
preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole
in one end in which compressed air can pass through.
•The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is pumped
into it. The air pressure then pushes the plastic out to match the
mold. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold
opens up and the part is ejected.
 Assignment
Assignment:
Objective: to Understand analyze and explore different plastics used in the interior design trade

Deliverable: Discuss any five different types of plastic materials used in Interior, furniture, and Building industry with
their case examples,
Highlighting the material and processes, capabilities, limitations and functions & applications.
Upholstery
Are you
ready?
 Upholstery
Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats,
with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather covers.
The word also refers to the materials used to upholster
something.
The term is equally applicable to domestic, automobile,
airplane, and boat furniture, and can be applied to mattresses,
particularly the upper layers, though these often differ
significantly in design.
A person who works with upholstery is called an upholsterer. An
apprentice upholsterer is sometimes called a trimmer.
Traditional upholstery uses materials like coil springs (post-
1850), animal hair (horse, hog and cow), coir, straw and hay,
linen scrims, wadding, etc., and is done by hand, building each
layer up. In contrast, today's upholsterers employ synthetic
materials like dacron and vinyl, serpentine springs, and so on.
Over the years, a wide variety of materials have been used, from hay to horsehair to wool. Modern upholstered items use metal
springs and foam for greater durability. While the interior materials may not be visible, they make a big difference in whether the
piece is comfortable . And though fabric can always be changed—and may need to be, depending on wear and tear—choosing
high-quality inner layers will help make sure the piece will last for years to come.
 Upholstery
How to Choose the Best Upholstery Fabric

Assignment:
Objective: to Understand analyze and explore different upholstery & Fabric used in various furniture

Deliverable: Discuss any five different types of upholstery materials used in Interior & Furniture
Highlighting the material and processes, capabilities, limitations and functions & applications.
 Multi-Utility Furniture
Multi-Utility furniture is useful to us in more than a single way.
The modern-age market has developed numerous multi-utility
furniture. The masses at large are unaware of this revolution that
the market is going through.
As the available area slowly decreases from our dwellings, the
demand for smartly-built furniture, that can provide more than one
function, increases.
Sofa: Relax, Reserve, Repeat!
A sofa is a piece of furniture that is central to the living room. These
are available in the market in many designer styles, like chesterfield
sofas, upholstered sofas, sectional sofas, chaise lounges, etc.
Besides, there are variants in sofas that provide for multi-utility.
Sofa cum bed
As the name suggests, a sofa cum bed is both a sofa and a bed.
There are numerous designs of this furniture.
A sofa cum bed is a simple multi-utility class of sofas, which can be
extended to make a bed. These are available in wooden as well as
upholstered options.
 Multi-Utility Furniture
Sofa with storage
There are designs of sofas that also solve the issue of storage. The Wendel
Sofa set has storage, along with comfortable seats. It also has drawers under
every seat—if it's a single-seater sofa then there is one drawer, if it's a two-
seater sofa, then there are two drawers. Besides, there are shelves by the side
of the sofa, below the armrests, which can be used for keeping books,
magazines, or decorative items.
Study Table Equipped with Shelf
Coffee Table
Benches with storage
Murphy bed
 Multi-Utility Furniture
Modular design, or modularity in design, is a design principle that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules which
can be independently created, modified, replaced, or exchanged with other modules or between different systems.
Modular design can be seen in certain buildings. Modular buildings (and also modular homes) generally consist of universal parts
(or modules) that are manufactured in a factory and then shipped to a build site where they are assembled into a variety of
arrangements.
Modular buildings can be added to or reduced in size by adding or removing certain components. This can be done without
altering larger portions of the building. Modular buildings can also undergo changes in functionality using the same process of
adding or removing components.
For example, an office building can be built using modular parts such as walls, frames, doors, ceilings, and windows. The interior
can then be partitioned (or divided) with more walls and furnished with desks, computers, and whatever else is needed for a
functioning workspace. If the office needs to be expanded or redivided to accommodate employees, modular components
such as wall panels can be added or relocated to make the necessary changes without altering the whole building. Later, this
same office can be broken down and rearranged to form a retail space, conference hall or another type of building, using the
same modular components that originally formed the office building. The new building can then be refurnished with whatever
items are needed to carry out its desired functions.
Many misconceptions are held regarding modular buildings. In reality, modular construction is a viable method of construction
for quick turnaround and fast-growing companies. Industries that would benefit from this include healthcare, commercial, retail,
military, and multi-family/student housing.
 Multi-Utility Furniture
What is modular furniture?
When you hear "modular furniture", we'd wager that you envision pieces of furniture that either looks weirdly futuristic or ones
that look drab and boxy. We're here to tell you that modern modular furniture pieces are neither one of those. Modular furniture
is intelligently designed to be functional and comfortable so it can fit into any space, but it's especially perfect for homes and
offices that need an extra level of flexibility. In today's interior design climate, this fluidity is always welcome.
1. You Can Personalize Your Space with Modular Furniture
The biggest benefit of modular furniture is that it can adapt to the ever-changing needs of the space that it's in. It's both multi-
functional and accommodating, so you can easily personalize your space to fit your design aesthetic. Modular furniture is
designed to give options, so there's always something for everyone.
2. Modular Furniture Allows for Flexibility
Since you can mix and match your modular furniture, you're able to create any type of space you want. modular furniture can
create both of those spaces with simple reconfigurations.
3. Modular Furniture is Environmentally-Friendly
modular furniture, in general, is much more environmentally friendly than other types of furniture pieces. Due to the way modular
furniture is designed as a whole, it naturally produces less waste and is often made with recycled materials.
Modular furniture also boasts shorter production times and discourages throwaway culture, which saves time, money, energy,
and more. It also promotes the quick fix of broken parts so you and manufacturers won't have to sacrifice excess energy and
resources that can go elsewhere.
 Multi-Utility Furniture
4. Modular Furniture Saves You Money
Because of the functionality of modular furniture, it will inherently save you money in the long run. You're able to reconfigure your
space and your pieces easily, so whenever you think it's time for a change, your modular pieces can fit right into them.
5. Modular Furniture Works in Any Space
Because of the nature of modular furniture, it can fit into any space, even if it's small or oddly shaped. It's not uncommon for
people to stress out about what type of furniture to add to their homes if the layout isn't straightforward. With modular pieces,
you form them around your space, not the other way around.
Multi-Utility Furniture
Multi-Utility Furniture