Endogenetic and exogenetic forces

Introduction
The endogenic and exogenic forces
causing physical and chemical
changes on the earth‘s surface are
known as geomorphic processes.
Geomorphic: relating to the form of
the landscape and other natural
features of the earth’s surface. The
endogenic and exogenic forces
causing physical and chemical
changes on the earth’s surface are
known as geomorphic processes.
Diastrophism and volcanism are
endogenic geomorphic processes.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion,
and deposition are exogenic
geomorphic processes.
Geomorphic agent: mobile medium
(like running water, moving ice
masses, wind, waves, and currents,
etc.) which removes, transports, and
deposits earth materials.
Endogenic Forces
The interaction of matter and
temperature generates these forces
or movements inside the earth’s
crust.
The earth movements are mainly of
two types: diastrophism and sudden
movements.
The energy emanating from within
the earth is the main force behind
endogenic geomorphic processes.
This energy is mostly generated
by radioactivity, rotational and tidal
friction and primordial heat from the
origin of the earth. This energy due
to geothermal gradients and heat
flow from within induces
diastrophism and volcanism in the
lithosphere.
Diastrophism
Diastrophism is the general term
applied to slow bending, folding,
warping, and fracturing.
Warp==make or become bent or
twisted out of shape, make
abnormal; distort.
All processes that move, elevate or
build up portions of the earth’s crust
come under diastrophism.
They include:
orogenic processes involving
mountain building through severe
folding and affecting long and
narrow belts of the earth’s crust;
In the process of orogeny, the
 crust is severely deformed into
folds.
epeirogenic processes involving
uplift or warping of large parts of
the earth’s crust;
Due to epeirogeny, there may be
simple deformation. Orogeny is a
mountain-building process whereas
epeirogeny is a continental building
process.
Through the processes of orogeny,
epeirogeny, earthquakes, and plate
tectonics, there can be faulting and
fracturing of the crust. All these
processes cause pressure, volume,
and temperature (PVT) changes
which in turn induce metamorphism
of rocks.
Diastrophism
Epeirogenic or Continent Forming
Movements [Vertical Movements]
Epeirogenic movement refers to
upheavals or depressions of
land exhibiting long wavelengths
[undulations] and little folding.
The broad central parts of continents
are called cratons and are subject to
epeirogeny.
Epeirogenic or continent forming
movements act along the radius of
the earth; therefore, they are also
called radial movements.
Their direction may be towards
(subsidence) or away (uplift) from
the center. The results of such
movements may be clearly defined in
the relief.
Uplift
Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut
terraces, sea caves and fossiliferous
beds above sea level are evidences
of uplift.
Raised beaches, some of them
elevated as much as 15 m to 30 m
above the present sea level, occur at
several places along the Kathiawar,
Nellore, and Thirunelveli coasts.
Several places which were on the
sea some centuries ago are now a
few miles inland.
For example, Coringa near the
mouth of the Godavari,
Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta
and Korkai on the coast of
Thirunelveli were all flourishing
seaports about 1,000 to 2,000 years
ago.
Subsidence
Submerged forests and valleys, as
well as buildings, are evidences of
subsidence.
In 1819, a part of the Rann of
Kachchh was submerged as a result
of an earthquake.
The presence of peat and
lignite beds below the sea level
in Tirunelveli and the Sunderbans is
an example of subsidence.
The Andamans and Nicobars have
been isolated from the Arakan
coast by the submergence of the
intervening land.
On the east side of Bombay island,
trees have been found embedded in
the mud about 4 m below the low
watermark. A similar submerged
forest has also been noticed on the
Thirunelveli coast in Tamil Nadu.
A large part of the Gulf of
Mannar and Palk Strait is very
shallow and has been submerged in
geologically recent times. A part of
the former town of Mahabalipuram
near Chennai (Madras) is submerged
in the sea.
Orogenic or the Mountain-Forming
Movements [Horizontal
Movements]
Orogenic or the mountain-forming
movements act tangentially to the
earth’s surface, as in plate tectonics.
Tensions produce fissures (since this
type of force acts away from a point
in two directions)
and compression produces folds (bec
ause this type of force acts towards
a point from two or more directions).
In the landforms so produced, the
structurally identifiable units are
difficult to recognize.
In general, diastrophic forces that
have uplifted lands have
predominated over forces that have
lowered them.
Ocean-Continent Convergence
Sudden Movements
Sudden geomorphic movements
occur mostly at the lithospheric
plate margins (tectonic plate
margins).
The plate margins are highly unstable
regions due to pressure created by
pushing and pulling of magma in the
mantle (convectional currents).
These movements cause
considerable deformation over a
short period.
Earthquakes
It occurs when the surplus
accumulated stress in rocks in the
earth’s interior is relieved through
the weak zones over the earth’s
surface in form of the kinetic energy
of wave motion causing vibrations
(at times devastating) on the earth’s
surface. Such movements may result
in an uplift in coastal areas.
An earthquake in Chile (1822)
caused a one-meter uplift in coastal
areas.
Earthquakes may cause a change in
contours, change in river courses,
‘tsunamis’ (seismic waves created in
the sea by an earthquake, as they are
called in Japan) which may cause
shoreline changes, spectacular glacial
surges (as in Alaska), landslides, soil
creeps, mass wasting, etc.
Volcanoes
Volcanism includes the movement of
molten rock (magma) onto or toward
the earth’s surface and also the
formation of many intrusive and
extrusive volcanic forms.
A volcano is formed when the
molten magma in the earth’s interior
escapes through the crust by vents
and fissures in the crust,
accompanied by steam, gases
(hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide,
hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide,
etc.), and pyroclastic material.
Depending on the chemical
composition and viscosity of the
lava, a volcano may take various
forms.
Pyroclastic => Pyroclastic flow is a
dense, fast-moving flow of solidified
lava pieces, volcanic ash, and hot
gases. It occurs as part of certain
volcanic eruptions.
A pyroclastic flow is extremely hot,
burning anything in its path. It may
move at speeds as high as 200 m/s.
We have been
discussing geomorphic processes in
our previous articles in the
Geography section. We have already
seen that geomorphic processes are
classified into endogenic processes
and exogenic processes.
As endogenic processes are already
covered in detail, in this post we
focus on exogenic forces and
exogenic processes.
Exogenic (Exogenetic) Processes
Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are
a direct result of stress-induced in
earth materials due to various forces
that come into existence due to the
sun’s heat.
Force applied per unit area is called
stress. Stress is produced in a solid
by pushing or pulling.
The basic reason that leads to
weathering, erosion, and deposition
in the development of stresses in the
body of the earth’s materials.
Temperature and precipitation are
the two important climatic elements
that control various processes by
inducing stress in earth materials.
Denudation
All the exogenic geomorphic
processes are covered under a
general term, denudation.
The word ‘denude’ means to strip off
or to uncover.
Weathering, mass
wasting/movements, erosion, and
transportation are included in
denudation.
Denudation mainly depends on rock
type and its structure that includes
folds, faults, orientation and
inclination of beds, presence or
absence of joints, bedding planes,
hardness or softness of constituent
minerals, chemical susceptibility of
mineral constituents; permeability,
or impermeability, etc.
The effects of most of the exogenic
geomorphic processes are small and
slow but will, in the long run, affect
the rocks severely due to continued
fatigue.
Denudation: 4 Phases
Weathering
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition
Weathering
Weathering is the disintegration of
rocks, soil, and minerals under the
influence of physical (heat, pressure)
and chemical (leaching, oxidation
and reduction, hydration) agents.
As very little or no motion of
materials takes place in weathering.
It is an In situ disintegration or
breakdown of rock material.
The weathered material is carried
farther away by erosion.
There are three major groups of
weathering processes:
Physical or mechanical
chemical
biological
Mechanical Weathering
Physical weathering involves
mechanical disintegration of
rocks due to temperature changes,
freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry cycles,
crystallization of salts, animal and
plant activity, etc.
Various mechanisms of mechanical
weathering are explained below.
Exfoliation due to pressure release
or unloading
Intrusive igneous rocks formed deep
beneath the Earth’s surface are
under tremendous pressure due to
overlying load.
Removal of the overlying load
because of continued erosion causes
vertical pressure release with the
result that the upper layers of the
rock expand and fracture parallel to
the surface.
Over time, sheets of rock break
away from the exposed rocks along
the fractures, a process known
as exfoliation.
Exfoliation due to pressure release is
also known as “sheeting“.
Exfoliation due to thermal stress
weathering
Thermal stress weathering results
from the subsequent expansion and
contraction of rocks caused by
diurnal and seasonal variations in
the temperatures.
The surface layers of the rocks tend
to expand more than the rock at
depth, and this leads to peeling off
of the surface layers (exfoliation).
This process is most effective in dry
climates and high elevations where
diurnal temperature changes are
drastic.
Although temperature changes are
the principal driver, moisture can
enhance thermal expansion in rock.
Granular Disintegration
Granular disintegration happens in
rocks composed of different types
of coarse-grained minerals.
Dark-colored minerals absorb more
heat than light-colored minerals.
This leads to differential expansion
and contraction of mineral grains
resulting in grain by grain separation
from the rock.

Granul
ar Disintegration
Frost Weathering
During the warm season, the water
penetrates the pore spaces or
fractures in rocks.
During the cold season, the water
freezes into ice, and its volume
expands as a result, this exerts
tremendous pressure on rock walls
to tear apart even where the rocks
are massive.
Frost weathering occurs due to the
growth of ice within pores and
cracks of rocks during repeated
cycles of freezing and melting.
Frost weathering is the collective
name for several processes where
ice is present.
These processes include frost
shattering, frost-wedging, and
freeze-thaw weathering.
Frost Wedging
Freeze wedging is caused by the
repeated freeze-thaw cycle.
Cracks filled with water are forced
further apart with subsequent
freezing and thawing.
 Frost
Weathering
Shattering
Severe frost can disintegrate rocks
along weak zones to produce highly
angular pieces with sharp corners
and edges through the process of
shattering.
Shattering piles up rock fragments
called scree at the foot of mountain
areas or along slopes.
 Shattering
Block Separation (freeze-thaw
weathering)
Repeated freeze-thaw cycles weaken
the rocks which, over time, break up
along the joints into angular pieces.
The splitting of rocks along the joints
into blocks is called block
disintegration.
Salt Weathering
Salt weathering occurs when saline
solutions seep into cracks and joints
in the rocks and evaporate, leaving
salt crystals behind.
Salt crystals expand during the
crystallization process and also when
they are subjected to above normal
temperatures.
The expansion in near-surface pores
causes splitting of individual grains
within rocks, which eventually fall off
(granular disintegration or granular
foliation).
Salt weathering is normally
associated with arid climates where
strong heating causes strong
evaporation and crystallization.
 Salt
Weathering
Role of Physical Weathering
Reduces rock material to smaller
fragments that are easier to
transport.
Increases the exposed surface area
of rock, making it more vulnerable to
further physical and chemical
weathering.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering involves
chemical decomposition of rocks and
soil.
Chemical weathering processes
include dissolution, solution,
carbonation, hydration, oxidation,
and reduction that act on the rocks
to decompose, dissolve or reduce
them to a fine state.
These weathering processes are
interrelated and go hand in hand and
hasten the weathering process.
Acids produced by microbial and
plant-root metabolism, water and air
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) along
with heat speed up all chemical
reactions.
Water is the main operator:
Dissolution:
 Many ionic and organic
compounds dissolve in water
Silica, K, Na, Mg, Ca, Cl, CO 3, SO4
H2O + CO2 + CaCO3 –> Ca+2 +
2HCO3-
water + carbon dioxide + calcite
dissolves into calcium ion and
bicarbonate ion
Acid Reactions
Water + carbon dioxide <—>
carbonic acid
Water + sulfur <—> sulfuric acid
H+ effective at breaking down
minerals
 Chemi
cal Weathering
There are Several types of Chemical
Weathering
Hydrolysis and oxidation
Hydrolysis is the most important
process in chemical weathering. It is
due to the dissociation of H 2O into
H+ and OH- ions which chemically
combine with minerals and bring
about changes, such as exchange,
decomposition of crystalline
structure and formation of new
compounds. Water acts as a weak
acid on silicate minerals.
Oxidation is the reaction of a
substance with Oxygen.
Acid Action
Chemical weathering is also
produced by acid action, most
commonly Carbonic Acid. Carbon
dioxide gets dissolved in water to
form a weak acid. Now a day since
the concentration of Sulphur oxides
and Nitrogen oxides is increasing in
the atmosphere because of the
burning of fossil fuels, the acidity of
the rain has also increased.
Carbonate sedimentary rocks,
especially limestone and marble are
highly susceptible to this type of
weathering.
Acid rain is also harmful to
architectural structures, especially
made of marble.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering is the
weakening and subsequent
disintegration of rock by plants,
animals, and microbes. It can occur
due to physical stress like in case of
penetration of plant’s roots, the
physical impact of the hooves of the
animal, etc., or due to chemical
changes caused by them like the
action of worms, lichens, etc.
 Biological
Weathering
Mass Wasting
Mass wasting, also known as slope
movement or mass movement, is the
geomorphic process by which soil,
sand, regolith, and rock move
downslope typically as a mass,
largely under the force of gravity,
but frequently affected by water
and water content as in submarine
environments and mudflows.
Landslide
A landslide is the movement of rock,
debris or earth down a slope. They
result from the failure of the
materials which make up the hill
slope and are driven by the force of
gravity. Landslides are known also as
landslips, slumps or slope failure.
Types of landslide Movements
Falls are masses dislodged from very
steep slopes or escarpments which
then free-fall, bounce, or roll
downslope. Falls usually move
extremely rapidly
Topples are a forward rotation
around a pivot point low or below
one or more masses.
Lateral spreads are the result of
movement involving lateral
extension accommodated by shear
or tensile fractures. This type of
movement is earthquake-induced.
Slides displace masses along one or
more discrete planes. Slides may
either be
rotational or translational in their
movement.
Rotational movement is where the
plane is curved. The mass rotates
backward around a common point
with an axis parallel to the slope.
Translational movement is where
the plane is more or less planar or
gently undulating. The mass moves
roughly parallel to the ground
surface.
Flows are masses moving as a
deforming, viscous unit without a
discrete failure plane.
More than one form of movement
may be represented in some
landslides. Movement, in this case, is
often described as.
Causes of Landslides
Natural Causes
Groundwater pressure acting on the
slope.
Loss of vegetation
Weakening of slope due to melting
of the glacier or heavy rainfall
Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions
Human Causes
Vibrations from machinery
Blasting of mines
Earthwork which alters the slope
Construction, agriculture or forestry
activities which can affect the
amount of water entering the soil
Prevention of Landslides
Many methods are used to remedy
landslide problems. The best
solution, of course, is to avoid
landslide-prone areas altogether.
Listed below are some common
remedial methods used when
landslide-prone slopes cannot be
avoided.
Improving surface and subsurface
drainage: Because water is the main
factor in landslides, improving
surface and subsurface drainage at
the site can increase the stability of a
landslide-prone slope. Surface water
should be diverted away from the
landslide-prone region by channeling
water in a lined drainage ditch or
sewer pipe to the base of the slope.
The water should be diverted in such
a way as to avoid triggering a
landslide adjacent to the site.
Surface water should not be allowed
to pond on the landslide-prone
slope.
Excavating the head: Removing the
soil and rock at the head of the
landslide decreases the driving
pressure and can slow or stop a
landslide. Additional soil and rock
above the landslide will need to be
removed to prevent a new landslide
from forming upslope. Flattening the
slope angle at the top of the hill can
help stabilize landslide-prone slopes.
Buttressing the toe: If the toe of the
landslide is at the base of the slope,
fill can be placed over the toe and
along the base of the slope. The fill
increases the resisting forces along
the failure surface in the toe area.
This, in turn, blocks the material in
the head from moving toward the
toe.
Constructing piles and retaining
walls: Piles are metal beams that are
either driven into the soil or placed
in drill holes. Properly placed piles
should extend into a competent rock
layer below the landslide. Wooden
beams and telephone poles are not
recommended for use as piles
because they lack strength and can
rot.
Removal and
replacement: Landslide-prone soil
and rock can be removed and
replaced with stronger materials,
such as silty or sandy soils.
Preserving vegetation: Trees,
grasses, and vegetation can minimize
the amount of water infiltrating into
the soil, slow the erosion caused by
surface-water flow, and remove
water from the soil.
Rockfall protection: Rockfalls are
contained by (1) ditches at the base
of the rock exposure, (2) heavy-duty
fences, and (3) concrete catch walls
that slow errant boulders that have
broken free from the rock outcrop.
Erosion
Erosion is the act in which the earth
is worn away, often by water, wind,
or ice. It is an ex-situ process where
an external agent is involved. The
fragments break because of external
impact i.e. kinetic energy. Unlike
weathering where only gravity is
involved.
The rocks are broken at one place
and the broken particles are carried
by the agents to far distances and
are deposited. It is the most
destructive process shaping the
tertiary reliefs.
Agents of Erosion
There are broadly five agents which
cause erosion and carve distinct
landforms:
Running surface water – The
landforms made by surface streams
are called fluvial landforms.
Wind – these landforms are formed
in arid and semi-arid regions where
the action of the wind is dominating.
These landforms are called Aeolian.
Glaciers – These landforms are
carved by Glaciers in high alpine
mountains.
Waves – They are formed by the
action of waves on the edge of the
continent.
Karst – These landforms are formed
by the action of underground water
on the Karst or Limestone region.