E T

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with
MATHEMATICS
VOLUME 1: MATHEMATICS
II. Algebra
CET sail with
MATHEMATICS
Topic Outline
II. Algebra
1. Algebraic Expressions and
Other Terminologies
2. Laws on Exponents
3. Special Products and
Factoring
4. Equations and Functions
5. Sets and Set Notation

E T
CAIL!
S
1 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

I. ALGEBRAIC
EXPRESSIONS AND
TERMINOLOGIES
Algebraic Expression - a combination of numbers and letters connected
by arithmetic operations.
3 2
Ex. 6x + 4y + 10

Constant - a number that does not change. In the example, the constants
are 6, 4, and 10.
Variable - a symbol, usually a letter, that changes value depending on the
problem. In the example, x and y are the variables.
Like Terms - terms having the same variables wherein addition and
subtraction are possible.
Unlike Terms - terms having different variables wherein addition and
subtraction are impossible.
n
Polynomial - an algebraic expression in the form ax wherein “a” is a real
number and “n” is an integer that can be characterized based on the
number of terms (e.g. monomial, binomial) or based on the order (highest-
degree term: e.g. first, second, third).
FOIL Method - a technique used for multiplying binomials; stands for “First,
Outside, Inside, Last.”
Evaluation - a process by which a variable is replaced with a number such
that arithmetic operations can be performed.
2 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

II. LAWS OF
EXPONENTS
8 Rule Equation

10
Addition/Subtraction Axʸ ± Bxʸ = (A±B)xʸ
Exponent

Multiplication (xᵃ)(xᵇ) = x⁽ᵃ⁺ᵇ⁾

Base Division (xᵃ)/(xᵇ) = x⁽ᵃ⁻ᵇ⁾

Power of a Power (xᵃ)ᵇ = x⁽ᵃ⁾⁽ᵇ⁾

Power
Power of a Product (xy)ᵃ = xᵃyᵃ
= 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x
10 x 10 x 10 x 10 Power of a Fraction (x/y)ᵃ = xᵃ/yᵃ

Exponential Equations Zero Exponent x⁰ = 1

Practice for rules of exponents
Express/simplify equation if possible Negative Exponent x⁻ᵃ = 1/xᵃ
Example:
5 ˣ⁺³ = 25ˣ x+3 = 2x Fractional Exponent xᵃ/ᵇ = ᵇ√xᵃ or (ᵇ√x)ᵃ
5 ˣ⁺³ = 5²ˣ x=3
3 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

III. SPECIAL PRODUCTS

AND FACTORING
Special Products
Below are the most common special products and their expanded factors
that one must know by heart to save time in calculations.

a² - b² = (a - b)(a + b)
a³ ± b³ = (a ± b) (a² ∓ 2ab + b²)
(a ± b)² = (a² ± 2ab + b²)
(a ± b)³ = (a³ ± 3a²b + 3ab² ± b³)
(a + b + c)² = (a² + b² + c² + 2ab + 2bc +2ca)

Factoring by Quadratic Formula:

when ax² + bx + c = 0;
a,b,c are constants, where a ≠ 0, x is unknown

Example:
-b ± b² - 4ac
x= x² - 5x + 3 = 0
2a
-(-5) ± (-5)² - 4(1)(3)
x=
2(1)

x= 5 ± √13
2
x= 5 + √13 , 5 - √13
2 2
4 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

III. SPECIAL PRODUCTS

AND FACTORING
Factoring
When there are no trends or patterns to apply knowledge in special products, one should
resort to traditional ways to factor an algebraic expression. The following methods are the
following:

Monomial/Binomial Factoring - involves factoring out a common factor: a

monomial or a binomial.
Ex. 10x³ + 5x²
= 5x²(2x+1); [5x² is the common factor]

Factoring a Second-degree Polynomial of Form ax² + bx + c

- involves finding two numbers whose product is “c”
and whose sum is “b”. (when a = 1)
Ex. x² + 13x + 36
= (x + 4) (x + 9); [c₁ x c₂ = 36, c₁ + c₂ = 13 = b; c₁ = 4 c₂ = 9]

Factoring by Grouping - involves (a) grouping two terms together, (b)

factoring out GCF from the binomials from the earlier step, then (c)
factoring out a common binomial.
Ex. x³ + 7x² + 2x + 14 TRICK: AC Method Ex. 2x² - 5x + 3
= (x³ + 7x²) + (2x + 14) -involves finding two = 2x² - 2x - 3x + 3
numbers whose product
= x²(x + 7) + 2(x + 7) is “a x c” and whose sum
= 2x(x - 1) - 3(x + 1)
= (x² + 2) (x + 7) is “b”. (when a ≠ 1) = (2x-3) (x + 1)
5 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
An equation is a statement in mathematics that shows equality between two mathematical
expressions, separated by an equals sign, =. Equations can be used to solve for unknown
variables.

Functions
-relates two sets of variables, where each object in the first set (domain),
matches with exactly one in the second set (range). A function is often
denoted by a symbol f(x) (pronounced f of x), where x is the element of
the domain, and f(x) is the element of the range.

Example: x y or f(x)
f(x) = 2x + 14 -1 12
0 14
when x = 0
f(x) = 2(0) + 14
1 16
= 14 2 18

-It relates an input (x) to an output (y) in a one-to-one or Function

many-to-one relationship
Vertical Line Test: if a vertical line crosses the curve
only once, it’s a function. Otherwise, not a function
Domain: possible inputs for a function (x)
Range: all possible outputs of a function f(x) Not a
Function
6 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Linear Function (x¹) - higher order is 1

Equation of a Line Forms

m = slope
Slope-Intercept y = mx + b
b = y-intercept

m = slope
Point-Slope y - y₁ = m(x-x₁)
(x₁, y₁) = point on the line

Standard Form ax + by = c *when a > 0

a = x-intercept
Intercept Form x/a + y/b = 1
b = y-intercept

Vertical x=a a = vertical line, x-intercept

Horizontal y=b b = vertical line, y-intercept

7 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Quadratic Function (x²) - higher order is 2

Quadratic Equation Forms

Standard Form y = ax² + bx + c a, b, c = constant

a = point of reflection
Point-Slope y = a²(x - h)² + k h = x-coordinate vertex
k = y-coordinate vertex

a(-p)(-q) = y-intercept
Intercept Form y = a(x - p)(x - q)
p, q = x-intercept

Types of Functions
Higher-order Polynomials (xⁿ, where n is an integer > 2)
For solving roots:
Determine possible nature of roots by Decartes' Rule of Signs
Determine whether factorable (e.g. sum of squares)
- if factorable, determine the remaining roots
If not factorable, list down possible rational roots from the
coefficients of the highest and lowest order (p/q)
- determine one root by substitution, and possibly solve for
remaining roots by division
8 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Rational Function - equation containing at least one fraction whose
numerator and denominator are polynomials
Example:
f(x) = 2x + 14 g(x) = 2x² - x + 5 h(x) = 5
3x - 2 x+1 x²

Properties of Rational Functions

Property Description How To Solve

set of all x-values that function determine all values of x that do

Domain
will give a real answer. not equate the denominator to 0.

a. replace f(x) with y.

set of all y-values that the b. solve equation for x.
Range
function can produce DO NOT INCLUDE values that make
the denominator x.

a. factor if applicable
Points of a function that are If factorable, determine root.
Holes
not present in function. To determine y-coordinate, substitute
x in function
9 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Rational Function - equation containing at least one fraction whose
numerator and denominator are polynomials

Properties of Rational Functions

Property Description How To Solve

imaginary line, which the a. simplify function

Vertical graph of a function never b. set denominator to 0 and solve for x
Aymptote touches, from y-axis. (or get the excluded values of the
( x = constant ) domain, aside from hole)

Determine Coefficient of highest power in

imaginary line, which the
Numerator (N), and Denominator (D)
Horizontal graph of a function never
If N < D, HA is y = 0
Aymptote touches, from x-axis.
If N > D, no HA
( y = constant ) If N=D, then y = N/D

Occurs only when higher power of N is

imaginary line, which the
Oblique or one greater than the highest power of D
graph of a function never
Slant

touches diagonally
Asymptote Divide numerator by denominator. Its
(expressed by line) quotient is the equation of the line.
10 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Inverse Function - the inverse of a function, f(x) is represented f⁻¹(y)
To determine the inverse of a function:
Replace f(x) with y.
Interchange x and y.
Solve for y.

Composite Function - functions within a function f[g(x)] or (f ∘ g)(x)

To solve for function:
Substitute inner function to the outer function
[treat x of the outer function as g(x)]
Simplify

Piecewise Function - function that is defined on a sequence of intervals.

Example:
f(x) = { 5x + 3 for x < 0
2x - 3 for x ≥ 0
|x+5| = { x+5
-x - 5
if x ≥ -5
if x < -5

Sample Find f⁻¹ Find f[g(x)]

Given: y = 5x+3 f(g(x)) = 5(2x-3)+3
f(x) = 5x+3 x = 5y+3 f(g(x)) = (10x-15)+3
g(x) = 2x-3 f⁻¹ = (x-3) / 5 f(g(x)) = 10x-12
11 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Types of Functions
Logarithmic Function - inverse of an exponential function, expressed as
x is the logarithm of n to the base b
aˣ = n x = logₐn
Types of Logarithm:
Common Logarithm - logarithms with base 10
log₁₀a = log a
Natural Logarithm - logarithm with base e = 2.7182828
logₑa = ln a

Logarithmic Laws

Products logₐ mn = logₐm + logₐn

Ratios logₐ m/n = logₐm - logₐn

Powers logₐ nᵖ = p logₐn

Roots logₐ ˢ√n = 1/s logₐn

Change of bases logₐn = logₜn / logₜa

12 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

IV. ALGEBRAIC
EQUATIONS & FUNCTIONS
Inequalities
Mathematical statement that compares algebraic expressions using
greater than (>), less than (<), and other inequality symbols
To solve for Inequalities:
solve similar to standard equations
BUT, note that multiplying or dividing values with negative signs
REVERSES the inequality (i.e. > will be <, and vice versa)

Systems of Equations
Solving two or more equations to provide a common solution or value
of variables (such as in terms of x & y)
1. Solving by Elimination:
Set up equations similar to normal addition/subtraction that allow
one variable to be canceled
Solve for the remaining equation of the variable
Substitute the value of the variable to one of the original equations
to solve for the other value.
2. Solving by Substitution:
Setup one equation in terms of x or y
Substitute variable of the setup equation with the other equation
Solve for missing variable and substitute value to the setup
equation to solve for the other value.
13 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set
a well-defined collection of distinct mathematical objects called elements
usually named using capital letters
elements are enclosed in braces
unordered, meaning the order or arrangement of the elements does not
matter

Definition Examples

describes the elements of a

Statement/ A = {even numbers
set in words/well-defined
Description terms
between 10 and 20}

lists all of the elements

Roster A = {12, 14, 16, 18}
explicitly

Set Builder
has a general form {x | A = {x | x = 2n, n ∈ ℕ, 6 ≤ n ≤
properties} 9}
14 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Theory Symbols
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Examples

A = (1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23}

{} Set a collection of elements
B = {7, 13, 15, 21}

A ∪B Union
elements that belong to A ∪ B = {1, 7, 9, 13, 15,
set A or set B 21, 23}

A ∩B Intersection
elements that belong to
both the sets, A and B
A ∩ B = {7, 13, 15}

⊆B
Subset has few or all
A Subset elements equal to the {7, 15} ⊆ {7, 13, 15, 21}
set

A ⊄B Not Subset
left set is not a subset
of right set
{1, 23} ⊄B

A ⊂B Proper/Strict subset has fewer ⊂

{7, 13, 15} {1, 7, 9, 13,
Subset elements than the set 15, 23}
15 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Theory Symbols
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Examples

A ⊃B Proper/Strict set A has more {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊃ {7,

Superset elements than set B 13, 15, }

A ⊇B Superset
set A has more
elements or equal to
{1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊇ {7,
13, 15, 23}
the set B

Ø Empty set Ø={} C = {Ø}

C = {4,7},
P(C) = {{}, {4}, {7}, {4,7}}

P (C) Power Set all subsets of C

Given by 2ˢ, wherein s
is number of elements
in set C

A ⊅B Not Superset
set X is not a superset
of set Y
{1, 2, 5} ⊅{1, 6}
16 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Theory Symbols
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Examples

A=B Equality
set A has more {1, 7, 9, 13, 15, 23} ⊃
elements than set B {7, 13, 15, }

A \ B or Relative objects that belong to A

{1, 9, 23}
A-B Component and not to B

U = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21,

all the objects that do
Aᶜ Complement 23, 28, 30}
not belong to set A
Aᶜ = {2, 21, 28, 30}

∆B
objects that belong to A
A
Symmetric
Difference
or B but not to their A ∆ B = {1, 9, 21, 23}
intersection

a ∈B Element of set membership

B = {7, 13, 15, 21}
∈
13 B
17 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Theory Symbols
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Examples

(a, b) Ordered Pair collection of 2 elements (1, 2)

x ∉A Not element of no set membership

A = {1, 7, 8, 13, 15, 23}
5 A ∉
the number of elements B = {7, 13, 15, 21}
|B| Cardinality
of set B |B|= 4

set of all ordered pairs {3,5} × {7,8} =

A×B Cartesian Product
from A and B {(3,7), (3,8), (5,7), (5, 8)}

natural/whole
N₁ numbers set N₁ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…} 6 ∈ N₁
(without zero)

natural/whole
N₀ numbers set (with N₀ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…} 0 ∈ N₀
zero)
18 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Theory Symbols
Consider a Universal set (U) = {1, 2, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 23, 28, 30}

Symbol Symbol Name Meaning Examples

Q
Rational Numbers
Set
Q = {x | x = a/b, a, b ∈ Z} 2/6 ∈Q

Z
Integer Numbers
Set
Z = {.…-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2,
3,…}
-6 ∈Z

C
Complex Numbers
Set - ∞
C= {z | z = a + bi,
∞ ∞
<a< ,- <b< ∞} 6 + 2i ∈C

R Real Numbers Set R= {x | - ∞ < x <∞} 6.343434 ∈R

19 CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

V. SET AND SET

NOTATION
Set Operations
Given the following sets:
A = {12, 14, 16, 18},
B = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15}, and
U = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18}

Union – gives all the elements in the given sets combined

A U B = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18}
B U A = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18}
Intersection – gives only the common elements among the given sets
∩
A B = {12, 14}
∩
B A = {12, 14}
Complement – gives all other elements outside the given set
A’ = U – A = {11, 13, 15, 17}
B’ = U – B = {16, 17, 18}
Difference – gives the difference between the given sets
A – B = {16, 18}
B – A = {11, 13, 15}
CET Sail: Mathematics, Algebra. 2023

REFERENCES
BYJU’S Learning (n.d.). Sets (Maths) - Notation, Types, Symbols
& Examples. Retrieved April 1, 2023 from
https://byjus.com/maths/sets/

Cheung, K.(2017). Set notation – Linear Algebra for Scientific

Thinkers. Retrieved April 1, 2023 from
https://people.math.carleton.ca/~kcheung/math/notes/MATH11
07/wk01/01_set_notation.html

Purplemath (n.d.). Set Notation. Retrieved April 1, 2023 from

https://www.purplemath.com/modules/setnotn.htm

openstax.org/subjects/math

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