Millennium Group of Institutions,

Bhopal Mechanical Engineering

Department Turbomachinery _ ME603
(A)
B.Tech. VI
Semester
Assignment
Questions

Unit-I: Energy transfer in turbo machines

1. Derive the Euler's turbine equation and explain its significance in the analysis of
turbine performance.
Euler's turbine equation is a fundamental equation that describes the performance of a turbine. It is
derived from the principles of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics and provides a relationship
between the velocity and pressure of a fluid flowing through a turbine.

To derive the equation, consider a fluid flowing through a turbine with an inlet velocity V1 and
pressure P1, and an outlet velocity V2 and pressure P2. Let A1 and A2 be the cross-sectional areas
of the turbine at the inlet and outlet, respectively. We can make the following assumptions:

1. The fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady.

2. The turbine is adiabatic, meaning there is no heat transfer between the fluid and the turbine.
3. There are no losses due to friction or turbulence.

Using these assumptions, we can apply the principle of conservation of mass and energy to derive
Euler's turbine equation:

Conservation of Mass: ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

Conservation of Energy: P1 + (1/2)ρ1V1^2 = P2 + (1/2)ρ2V2^2

where ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities of the fluid at the inlet and outlet, respectively.

We can eliminate ρ1 and ρ2 from the above equations by assuming that the fluid is ideal gas and
using the ideal gas law. This gives us the simplified form of Euler's turbine equation:

(P1/γ) + (1/2)ρ1V1^2 = (P2/γ) + (1/2)ρ2V2^2

where γ is the ratio of specific heats of the fluid.

Euler's turbine equation is significant because it provides a fundamental relationship between the
pressure and velocity of a fluid flowing through a turbine. It is used to analyze the performance of
turbines and predict their efficiency. By solving Euler's equation, we can determine the optimal
conditions for a turbine to operate at maximum efficiency, and identify any inefficiencies or losses
due to factors such as friction or turbulence. Overall, Euler's turbine equation is a crucial tool for
designing and optimizing turbine systems.

A steam turbine has an inlet velocity of 200 m/s and an exit velocity of 50 m/s. If the
power output of the turbine is 5000 kW, calculate the mass flow rate of steam through
the turbine.
To solve this problem, we can use Euler's turbine equation, which relates the mass flow rate of a
fluid to its inlet and outlet velocities and pressures. Assuming that the steam is an ideal gas and that
the turbine is adiabatic and has no losses, we can write:

(P1/γ) + (1/2)ρ1V1^2 = (P2/γ) + (1/2)ρ2V2^2

where P1 and P2 are the pressures at the inlet and outlet of the turbine, V1 and V2 are the
corresponding velocities, ρ1 and ρ2 are the densities, and γ is the ratio of specific heats of the
steam.

We can simplify this equation by assuming that the steam is at constant pressure, which is a
reasonable assumption for many practical steam turbines. In this case, the equation becomes:

(1/2)ρ1V1^2 = (1/2)ρ2V2^2 + W

where W is the work done by the turbine, which is given by the power output divided by the mass
flow rate:

W = m ̇ × (h1 - h2) = Pout / η

where m ̇ is the mass flow rate of the steam, h1 and h2 are the enthalpies of the steam at the inlet
and outlet, Pout is the power output of the turbine, and η is the efficiency of the turbine.

Solving for the mass flow rate, we get:

m ̇ = Pout / [(h1 - h2) × η]

We are given that the power output of the turbine is 5000 kW, so we need to determine the
enthalpies and efficiency to calculate the mass flow rate.

Assuming that the steam is at a pressure of 10 MPa and a temperature of 500°C at the inlet of the
turbine, we can use steam tables to find the corresponding enthalpy h1. From the tables, we find
that h1 = 3486 kJ/kg.

Assuming that the steam is at a pressure of 0.1 MPa and a quality of 90% at the exit of the turbine,
we can again use steam tables to find the corresponding enthalpy h2. From the tables, we find that
h2 = 2751 kJ/kg.

Finally, assuming that the efficiency of the turbine is 90%, we can calculate the mass flow rate as:

m ̇ = 5000 / [(3486 - 2751) × 0.9] = 2.22 kg/s

Therefore, the mass flow rate of steam through the turbine is 2.22 kg/s.

Explain the concept of degree of reaction in turbines. How is it related to the impulse
and reaction principles of energy transfer?

The degree of reaction is a parameter that describes the proportion of the total
pressure drop across a turbine that is achieved by the action of the moving blades, or
rotor, as opposed to the stationary blades, or stator. It is defined as the ratio of the
change in the tangential component of velocity of the fluid between the inlet and
outlet of the rotor to the total velocity drop across the turbine.
In impulse turbines, all of the pressure drop occurs in the stationary nozzle, and the
rotor blades only receive a high-velocity jet of fluid from the nozzle. Therefore, the
degree of reaction for an impulse turbine is zero. In reaction turbines, the pressure
drop is shared between the nozzle and the rotor, with the rotor blades gradually
deflecting the fluid and converting pressure into rotational kinetic energy. Therefore,
the degree of reaction for a reaction turbine is between 0 and 1.

The degree of reaction is related to the impulse and reaction principles of energy
transfer in turbines. In impulse turbines, the energy transfer is entirely based on the
impulse principle, where a high-velocity fluid jet from a nozzle exerts a force on the
rotor blades and transfers its momentum to the rotor. Therefore, there is no
contribution to the energy transfer from the rotor blades, and the degree of reaction is
zero.

In reaction turbines, the energy transfer is based on the reaction principle, where the
rotor blades deflect the fluid and change its direction, generating a force that rotates
the rotor. Therefore, the rotor blades contribute to the energy transfer, and the degree
of reaction is non-zero.

The degree of reaction is an important factor in the design and performance analysis of
turbines. It affects the efficiency and power output of the turbine, as well as the flow
characteristics and loading on the blades. A high degree of reaction can lead to more
efficient and compact turbines, but it can also result in higher blade loading and higher
risk of flow separation and turbulence. Therefore, the degree of reaction needs to be
carefully considered and optimized in the design of turbines.

A centrifugal pump operating at 1500 rpm delivers water at a flow rate of 50 L/s. If the
discharge pressure is 300 kPa and the suction pressure is 100 kPa, calculate the pump head and
power input.

State and explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics and their applications to turbo
machines.

Unit-II: Steam turbines

Derive the expression for the stage efficiency of a steam turbine and explain how it is
affected by blade and nozzle losses.

The stage efficiency of a steam turbine is the ratio of the actual work output per stage
to the maximum possible work output per stage. It is given by the expression:

η = (W_actual / m_dot * (h_in - h_out)) / (W_ideal / m_dot * (h_in - h_out))

where η is the stage efficiency, W_actual is the actual work output per stage, W_ideal is
the maximum possible work output per stage, m_dot is the mass flow rate of steam,
h_in is the specific enthalpy of steam at the inlet of the stage, and h_out is the specific
enthalpy of steam at the outlet of the stage.
The maximum possible work output per stage can be calculated using the Euler's
turbine equation:

W_ideal = (u_1 - u_2) * m_dot * (u_m + (c_1 - c_2)/2)

where u_1 and u_2 are the blade speeds at the inlet and outlet of the stage, u_m is the
mean blade speed, and c_1 and c_2 are the absolute velocities of steam at the inlet and
outlet of the stage.

The stage efficiency depends on the losses that occur in the blade and nozzle passages.
These losses include frictional losses, losses due to the deviation of the steam flow from
the ideal flow path, and losses due to turbulence and mixing.

Blade losses reduce the effectiveness of the blades in converting the kinetic energy of
the steam into mechanical energy. These losses can occur due to blade surface
roughness, blade tip clearance, and blade profile shape. Nozzle losses, on the other
hand, reduce the effectiveness of the nozzle in accelerating the steam to the required
velocity. These losses can occur due to the presence of shock waves, boundary layer
separation, and nozzle shape.

The stage efficiency is inversely proportional to the losses in the blade and nozzle
passages. Higher losses result in lower stage efficiency, and vice versa. Therefore, the
design of the blades and nozzles needs to be optimized to minimize the losses and
maximize the stage efficiency. Techniques such as aerodynamic profiling, surface
treatment, and flow control can be used to reduce the losses and improve the
efficiency of the turbine.

A steam turbine has four stages of impulse type and two stages of reaction type. If the
steam enters the turbine with a velocity of 80 m/s and leaves at a velocity of 40 m/s,
calculate the power output of the turbine if the mass flow rate of steam is 10 kg/s.

Since the turbine has four stages of impulse type and two stages of reaction type, we
can assume that the first four stages are purely impulse stages, while the last two
stages are purely reaction stages.

Given: Inlet velocity (c_1) = 80 m/s Outlet velocity (c_2) = 40 m/s Mass flow rate
(m_dot) = 10 kg/s

To calculate the power output of the turbine, we can use the following steps:

Step 1: Calculate the enthalpy drop per stage

Since the turbine has both impulse and reaction stages, we need to calculate the
enthalpy drop separately for each type of stage. For the impulse stages, the enthalpy
drop is given by:
Δh = (c_1^2 - c_2^2) / (2 * h_fg)

where h_fg is the enthalpy of vaporization of the steam.

For the reaction stages, the enthalpy drop is given by:

Δh = (h_1 - h_2)

where h_1 and h_2 are the specific enthalpies of the steam at the inlet and outlet of the
stage.

Using the steam table, we can find that the enthalpy of vaporization of steam at the
given conditions is approximately 2257 kJ/kg.

For the first four stages, the enthalpy drop is:

Δh_impulse = (80^2 - 40^2) / (2 * 2257) = 0.071 kJ/kg

For the last two stages, we can assume that the enthalpy drop is equal to the average
enthalpy drop of the impulse stages:

Δh_reaction = Δh_impulse = 0.071 kJ/kg

Step 2: Calculate the work output per stage

The work output per stage can be calculated using the Euler's turbine equation:

W = m_dot * (c_1 - c_2) * u_m

where u_m is the mean blade speed, which can be calculated as:

u_m = (c_1 + c_2) / 2

For the impulse stages, the blade speed is equal to the steam velocity, so:

u_1 = u_2 = c_1 = c_2

For the reaction stages, the blade speed can be calculated using the degree of reaction,
which is assumed to be 50% for each stage:

R = 0.5 u_1 = c_1 / R u_2 = c_2 / (1 - R) u_m = (u_1 + u_2) / 2

Using these equations, we can calculate the work output per stage:

For the first four stages:

W_impulse = m_dot * (c_1 - c_2) * u_m = 10 * (80 - 40) * 60 = 24,000 kW

For the last two stages:

W_reaction = m_dot * (h_1 - h_2) = 10 * Δh_reaction * h_fg = 16,027 kW

Step 3: Calculate the total power output

The total power output of the turbine is the sum of the work output of each stage:

W_total = W_impulse * 4 + W_reaction * 2 = 24,000 * 4 + 16,027 * 2 = 122,054 kW

Therefore, the power output of the steam turbine is approximately 122,054 kW.

Explain the concept of velocity compounding in steam turbines. How does it improve the
efficiency of the turbine?

Velocity compounding is a method used in steam turbines to improve their efficiency.

In this method, the kinetic energy of the steam is progressively converted to
mechanical energy through a series of velocity stages. The steam is first expanded
through a set of nozzles, which increases its velocity and reduces its pressure. The high-
velocity steam then enters a row of moving blades, where it loses some of its velocity
and transfers some of its kinetic energy to the rotor, causing it to rotate. The steam
then enters another set of nozzles and moves through another row of moving blades,
and so on, until it exits the turbine.

By using multiple stages of nozzles and moving blades, velocity compounding allows
for a more gradual conversion of the steam's kinetic energy to mechanical energy. This
results in a more efficient energy transfer, as it reduces the amount of energy lost due
to the shock and turbulence that would otherwise occur if the steam were expanded
through a single set of nozzles and moved through a single row of moving blades.

Another advantage of velocity compounding is that it allows for a larger pressure drop
across each stage, which helps to increase the expansion ratio of the steam. This, in
turn, increases the amount of energy that can be extracted from the steam and
converted to mechanical energy, thereby improving the overall efficiency of the
turbine.

Overall, velocity compounding is an effective way to improve the efficiency of steam

turbines by gradually converting the kinetic energy of the steam to mechanical energy,
reducing the losses due to shock and turbulence, and increasing the expansion ratio of
the steam.

A steam turbine operates at an inlet pressure of 8 MPa and an inlet temperature of

500°C. If the exit pressure is 20 kPa and the turbine has an isentropic efficiency of 85%,
calculate the exit temperature of the steam.

To solve this problem, we can use the fact that the turbine has an isentropic efficiency
of 85%, which means that the actual temperature at the turbine exit will be higher than
the isentropic temperature, but lower than the inlet temperature.
First, we need to find the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit, which can be
calculated using the isentropic process equation:

(T2s / T1) = (P2 / P1)^((γ-1)/γ)

where T2s is the isentropic temperature at the turbine exit, T1 is the inlet temperature,
P1 is the inlet pressure, P2 is the exit pressure, and γ is the ratio of specific heats.

We can rearrange this equation to solve for T2s:

T2s = T1 * (P2 / P1)^((γ-1)/γ)

Plugging in the given values, we get:

T2s = 500°C * (20 kPa / 8 MPa)^((1.4-1)/1.4) = 88.4°C

Next, we can use the isentropic efficiency to find the actual temperature at the turbine
exit, which can be calculated using the equation:

ηis = (T1 - T2a) / (T1 - T2s)

where ηis is the isentropic efficiency, T1 is the inlet temperature, T2a is the actual
temperature at the turbine exit, and T2s is the isentropic temperature at the turbine
exit.

We can rearrange this equation to solve for T2a:

T2a = T1 - ηis * (T1 - T2s)

Plugging in the given values, we get:

T2a = 500°C - 0.85 * (500°C - 88.4°C) = 435.8°C

Therefore, the exit temperature of the steam is approximately 435.8°C.

Compare and contrast the Curtis and Rateau stages of steam turbines. Which one is
more efficient and why?
urtis and Rateau stages are two different types of steam turbine stages used to extract
energy from the steam. Both types of stages operate on the principle of expanding
steam through a set of stationary nozzles and moving blades to extract energy from
the steam and convert it into mechanical work.

The main difference between Curtis and Rateau stages lies in the arrangement of the
nozzles and blades. In Curtis stages, the steam is expanded through a set of stationary
nozzles and then passes through a set of moving blades, which are mounted on a
single rotor. In Rateau stages, the steam is expanded through a set of stationary
nozzles and then passes through a series of stationary blades mounted on a number of
different rotors.
One advantage of Curtis stages is that they can handle a wide range of steam flow
rates and pressures, making them suitable for use in a variety of applications. They also
tend to be more compact and simpler in design than Rateau stages. However, Curtis
stages tend to be less efficient than Rateau stages, particularly at higher steam flow
rates and pressures, due to their limited number of stages.

Rateau stages, on the other hand, are designed to handle high steam flow rates and
pressures, and can be more efficient than Curtis stages in these conditions. The use of
multiple stages and rotors allows for a more gradual expansion of the steam, reducing
energy losses due to shock and turbulence. However, Rateau stages tend to be more
complex and larger in size than Curtis stages, making them more expensive to
manufacture and maintain.

In conclusion, the choice between Curtis and Rateau stages depends on the specific
requirements of the application. Curtis stages are generally more versatile and simpler
in design, while Rateau stages tend to be more efficient at high steam flow rates and
pressures.

In an Impulse turbine (with single row wheel) the mean diameter of the blade is 1.05 m
and the speed is 3000 rpm. The nozzle angle is 20° and the ratio of blade speed to steam
speed is 0.45 and the relative velocity at outlet from blade to that of inlet is 0.85. The
outlet angle is made 3° less than inlet angle. The steam flow rate is 10 kg/sec. Draw
velocity diagram of blade and show
i) Tangential thrust on blade
ii) Axial thrust on blade

iii) Resultant thrust on blade

iv) Power developed in the blade
v) Blade efficiency

From the velocity triangle, we can calculate the blade speed as:

V_b = C_b / sin(beta) = V_1 / sin(beta) = (0.45 * V_1) / sin(20) = 1.658 * V_1

where V_1 is the steam speed.

The tangential and axial thrust on the blade can be calculated as:

Tangential thrust = (mass flow rate * V_b * U) = (10 * 1.658 * V_1 * pi * D / 60) = 7.767 *
V_1 * D Axial thrust = (mass flow rate * (V_2 - V_1)) = (10 * V_1 * (1 - 0.85)) = 1.5 * V_1

where D is the mean diameter of the blade and U is the peripheral velocity of the blade.

The resultant thrust on the blade can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem:

Resultant thrust = sqrt((tangential thrust)^2 + (axial thrust)^2) = sqrt((7.767 * V_1 *

D)^2 + (1.5 * V_1)^2)

The power developed in the blade can be calculated as:

Power developed = (mass flow rate * (V_2^2 - V_1^2) / 2) = (10 * (0.85 * V_1)^2 -
V_1^2) / 2 = 0.347 * V_1^2

The blade efficiency can be calculated as:

Blade efficiency = Power developed / (mass flow rate * h_i) = (0.347 * V_1^2) / (10 * h_i)

where h_i is the specific enthalpy at the inlet.

Note: The values of tangential thrust, axial thrust, resultant thrust, power developed,
and blade efficiency depend on the value of V_1, which is not given in the problem.
Therefore, we cannot calculate these values without knowing V_1.

Unit-III: Water turbines

Derive the expression for the work done by a Pelton turbine and explain the
significance of the bucket shape in the performance of the turbine.

The Pelton turbine is a type of impulse turbine that converts the kinetic energy of a
high-velocity jet of water into rotational energy of a shaft. The turbine consists of a set
of double-cupped buckets arranged around the rim of a circular disk. The jet of water is
directed onto the buckets at a tangent to the circumference of the disk, which causes
the disk to rotate.

To derive the expression for the work done by a Pelton turbine, let us assume that the
jet of water has a mass flow rate of m and a velocity of V_1, and that the speed of the
disk is U. The relative velocity of the water leaving the bucket is V_2, which is opposite
in direction to V_1. Let the angle between the jet and the tangent to the bucket be θ.

The velocity triangle for the water jet is shown below:

yamlCopy code
^ V_1 | | | | θ V_2 <--- | | | v

From the velocity triangle, we can calculate the magnitude of V_2 as:

V_2 = sqrt(V_1^2 + 2gH)

where g is the acceleration due to gravity and H is the head of water available.

The work done by the Pelton turbine is equal to the change in kinetic energy of the
water jet as it passes through the turbine. The kinetic energy of the water jet before it
enters the turbine is given by:

K_1 = (1/2)mV_1^2

The kinetic energy of the water jet after it leaves the turbine is given by:

K_2 = (1/2)mV_2^2
The work done by the turbine is therefore:

W = K_1 - K_2 = (1/2)mV_1^2 - (1/2)mV_2^2 = (1/2)m(V_1^2 - V_2^2)

Substituting the expression for V_2, we get:

W = (1/2)mV_1^2 - (1/2)m(V_1^2 + 2gH) = (1/2)mgH

Therefore, the work done by the Pelton turbine is proportional to the head of water
available and the mass flow rate of water.

The shape of the buckets is important for the performance of the Pelton turbine. The
double-cupped shape of the buckets ensures that the water jet is efficiently split into
two streams, each of which strikes a bucket with equal and opposite momentum. This
reduces the losses due to water splashing back and improves the efficiency of the
turbine. The buckets are also shaped to ensure that the water leaves the bucket with a
velocity that is parallel to the tangent to the disk, which maximizes the impulse of the
water on the disk and hence the torque produced.

A Francis turbine has a head of 50 m and a discharge of 10 m3/s. If the efficiency

of the turbine is 90%, calculate the power output of the turbine.

The power output of a Francis turbine can be calculated using the following equation:

P = ρghQη

where P is the power output in watts, ρ is the density of water, g is the acceleration due
to gravity, h is the head in meters, Q is the discharge in cubic meters per second, and η
is the efficiency of the turbine.

Substituting the given values, we get:

P = (1000 kg/m³)(9.81 m/s²)(50 m)(10 m³/s)(0.90) = 4,455,900 watts

Therefore, the power output of the Francis turbine is 4,455,900 watts, or approximately
4.46 MW.

Explain the concept of draft tubes in water turbines. How do they affect the
performance of the turbine?

Draft tubes are an essential component in water turbines. They are designed to convert
the kinetic energy of the water leaving the turbine into pressure energy, which can then
be utilized to increase the efficiency of the turbine.

A draft tube is a pipe or a cone-shaped duct that is connected to the discharge end of
the turbine runner. It extends into the tailwater and is designed to slow down the water
as it leaves the turbine, thereby creating a low-pressure area at the end of the turbine.
This low-pressure area draws more water into the turbine, which increases the flow rate
of water through the turbine.
The main function of the draft tube is to recover the pressure energy from the water
leaving the turbine and convert it into velocity head, which can be utilized by the
turbine to generate more power. In other words, the draft tube helps to reduce the
energy losses due to the turbulence of the water leaving the turbine.

The performance of a turbine is directly related to the efficiency of the draft tube. A
well-designed draft tube can improve the efficiency of the turbine by up to 20%.
Therefore, the draft tube should be carefully designed to ensure that it is the correct
length and diameter to optimize the flow of water through the turbine.

In summary, draft tubes play a crucial role in the performance of water turbines. They
help to convert the kinetic energy of the water leaving the turbine into pressure energy,
which can then be utilized to improve the efficiency of the turbine. A well-designed
draft tube can significantly increase the efficiency of the turbine and reduce energy
losses due to the turbulence of the water leaving the turbine.

A centrifugal pump has a flow rate of 200 L/s and a head of 60 m. If the pump
efficiency is 80%, calculate the power input to the pump.

The power input to a centrifugal pump can be calculated using the following equation:

P = (QρgH) / η

where P is the power input in watts, Q is the flow rate in cubic meters per second, ρ is
the density of the fluid being pumped, g is the acceleration due to gravity, H is the
head in meters, and η is the efficiency of the pump.

First, we need to convert the flow rate from liters per second to cubic meters per
second:

200 L/s = 0.2 m³/s

Assuming the fluid being pumped is water at a density of 1000 kg/m³, we can calculate
the power input as follows:

P = ((0.2 m³/s)(1000 kg/m³)(9.81 m/s²)(60 m)) / 0.80 = 2,451,375 watts

Therefore, the power input to the centrifugal pump is 2,451,375 watts, or approximately
2.45 MW.

Explain the concept of cavitation in water turbines and centrifugal pumps. How
can it be prevented and its effects minimized?
Cavitation is a phenomenon that occurs in water turbines and centrifugal pumps when
the pressure of the fluid drops below its vapor pressure, causing the formation of vapor
bubbles or cavities in the fluid. These bubbles then collapse or implode when they
enter an area of higher pressure, resulting in a sudden release of energy that can cause
damage to the blades or impellers, as well as reducing the overall efficiency of the
device.
In water turbines, cavitation occurs when the water pressure drops below the vapor
pressure of the water, which is affected by the temperature, altitude, and other factors.
When this happens, vapor bubbles form in the water, which can collapse as they move
downstream and come into contact with areas of higher pressure, such as the turbine
blades. The impact of these bubbles on the blades can cause pitting, erosion, or
cracking, leading to a decrease in the efficiency of the turbine.

In centrifugal pumps, cavitation occurs when the pressure in the pump drops below the
vapor pressure of the fluid, causing bubbles to form in the fluid and then collapse as
they move downstream and come into contact with areas of higher pressure, such as
the impeller blades. This can cause damage to the impeller, as well as a decrease in the
efficiency of the pump.

Cavitation can be prevented or its effects minimized by several methods, such as:

1. Increasing the pressure of the fluid: This can be done by increasing the inlet
pressure or the diameter of the inlet pipe, or by decreasing the outlet pressure.
2. Increasing the temperature of the fluid: This can be done by preheating the fluid
or increasing the temperature of the surrounding environment.
3. Reducing the speed of the fluid: This can be done by decreasing the flow rate of
the fluid or by increasing the size of the device.
4. Using materials with higher resistance to cavitation: Materials such as stainless
steel, titanium, or ceramic can be used to make the blades or impellers, which
can withstand the impact of the collapsing bubbles.
5. Modifying the design of the device: The design of the blades or impellers can be
modified to reduce the impact of the collapsing bubbles, such as by using
curved or thicker blades.

In summary, cavitation is a phenomenon that can occur in water turbines and

centrifugal pumps when the pressure of the fluid drops below its vapor pressure,
causing damage to the blades or impellers and reducing the overall efficiency of the
device. It can be prevented or its effects minimized by increasing the pressure or
temperature of the fluid, reducing the speed of the fluid, using materials with higher
resistance to cavitation, or modifying the design of the device.

Unit-IV: Rotary Fans, Blowers and Compressors

Derive the expression for the slip factor in centrifugal compressors and explain
its
significance in the performance of the compressor.
The slip factor is an important parameter used in the analysis and design of centrifugal
compressors. It is defined as the ratio of the actual velocity of the gas leaving the
impeller to the theoretical velocity of the gas leaving the impeller, assuming no energy
loss. The slip factor is denoted by the symbol Φ.

The theoretical velocity of the gas leaving the impeller can be calculated using the
following equation:

Vt = πDN / 60
where Vt is the theoretical velocity of the gas, D is the impeller diameter, and N is the
rotational speed of the impeller.

The actual velocity of the gas leaving the impeller can be calculated using the following
equation:

Va = C2u / φ

where Va is the actual velocity of the gas, Cu is the peripheral velocity of the impeller,
and φ is the slip factor.

Combining these two equations, we get:

φ = Cu / (πDN / 60)

The significance of the slip factor lies in the fact that it accounts for the energy losses
that occur in the compressor due to factors such as friction, turbulence, and shock
waves. These losses cause the actual velocity of the gas leaving the impeller to be lower
than the theoretical velocity, resulting in a reduction in the compressor performance.

By considering the slip factor in the design of centrifugal compressors, engineers can
optimize the impeller geometry and other components to minimize the energy losses
and maximize the compressor efficiency. A higher slip factor indicates lower energy
losses and better performance, while a lower slip factor indicates higher energy losses
and poorer performance. Therefore, the slip factor plays a crucial role in the
performance and efficiency of centrifugal compressors.

An axial flow compressor has a flow rate of 100 kg/s and an inlet temperature of
20°C. If the compressor has an isentropic efficiency of 85% and a pressure ratio
of 3, calculate the outlet temperature of the air.

To solve this problem, we can use the following equation:

h2s = h1 + (h2s - h1)/ηs

where: h1 = enthalpy at the compressor inlet h2s = isentropic enthalpy at the

compressor outlet ηs = isentropic efficiency of the compressor

We can assume that the air is an ideal gas with a constant specific heat, and
use the following equation to calculate the enthalpy:

h = cp * T

where: cp = specific heat at constant pressure T = temperature

For air, the specific heat at constant pressure is cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K.

Using the given values, we can calculate the enthalpy at the compressor inlet:
h1 = cp * T1 = 1.005 * (20 + 273.15) = 294.5 kJ/kg

Next, we need to calculate the isentropic enthalpy at the compressor outlet.

We can use the following equation:

h2s = h1 * (P2/P1)^((γ-1)/γ)

where: P1 = pressure at the compressor inlet P2 = pressure at the compressor

outlet γ = ratio of specific heats (for air, γ = 1.4)

We can calculate P2 as:

P2 = P1 * PR = P1 * 3

where PR is the pressure ratio.

We can then calculate h2s:

h2s = h1 * (P2/P1)^((γ-1)/γ) = 294.5 * (3)^((1.4-1)/1.4) = 417.9 kJ/kg

Finally, we can calculate the actual enthalpy at the compressor outlet using
the isentropic efficiency:

h2 = h1 + (h2s - h1)/ηs = 294.5 + (417.9 - 294.5)/0.85 = 518.5 kJ/kg

And we can calculate the outlet temperature using the enthalpy equation:

T2 = h2/cp = 518.5/1.005 = 516.4 K

Therefore, the outlet temperature of the air is 516.4 - 273.15 = 243.25°C.

Explain the concept of surge in axial flow compressors. What are its causes and
how can it be prevented?

Surge is a phenomenon that occurs in axial flow compressors when the flow through
the compressor is disrupted, causing a reversal of the flow direction. This can lead to a
sudden drop in compressor performance, including a loss of pressure rise and flow, as
well as severe vibration and noise.

Surge is caused by a combination of factors, including a mismatch between the

compressor and the downstream system, transient disturbances in the upstream flow,
or disturbances within the compressor itself. For example, a sudden reduction in the
downstream pressure, such as when a valve is suddenly closed, can create a buildup of
pressure in the compressor and cause surge.

Surge can also be caused by transient disturbances in the upstream flow, such as an
inlet distortion or a sudden change in the inlet flow angle. In addition, operating the
compressor at very low flow rates or very high pressure ratios can also lead to surge.
To prevent surge, axial flow compressors are typically equipped with surge control
systems that include surge detection sensors and control valves. These systems are
designed to sense the onset of surge and take corrective action to prevent it. For
example, the control valve can be modulated to reduce the flow through the
compressor and prevent a surge from occurring.

In addition, proper design and operation of the compressor can also help to prevent
surge. This includes selecting the appropriate compressor for the intended application,
ensuring proper alignment and balancing of the compressor components, and
operating the compressor within its recommended flow and pressure ranges.

A centrifugal blower has a flow rate of 10 m3 /s and a pressure rise of 200 kPa. If
the blower has an efficiency of 80%, calculate the power input to the blower.

The power input to the centrifugal blower can be calculated using the following
equation:

Power = (Flow Rate × Pressure Rise) / (Efficiency × Density)

Where, Flow Rate = 10 m^3/s Pressure Rise = 200 kPa Efficiency = 80% or 0.8 (in
decimal form)

The density of the fluid being moved by the blower is not given, so we cannot calculate
it. However, we can make an assumption that the fluid being moved is air at standard
conditions (i.e. 1.225 kg/m^3 density at 15°C and 1 atm).

Therefore, we can calculate the power input as follows:

Power = (10 m^3/s × 200,000 Pa) / (0.8 × 1.225 kg/m^3) Power = 130,081.3 Watt or
130.08 kW (approx)

Therefore, the power input to the centrifugal blower is approximately 130.08 kW.

Compare and contrast the design and performance characteristics of centrifugal

and axial flow compressors. Which one is more suitable for high pressure ratio
applications and why?

Centrifugal and axial flow compressors are two different types of compressors that are
used in various industrial applications. Here are the key differences between their
design and performance characteristics:

Design:

 Centrifugal compressors have a radial flow design, where the air enters the
compressor in a radial direction and is then turned by the impeller blades to a
tangential direction, creating a centrifugal force that increases the air pressure.
 Axial flow compressors have an axial flow design, where the air enters the
compressor in an axial direction and is then accelerated by rows of rotating
 blades called rotors and stators, creating a linear flow that increases the air
pressure.

Performance:

 Centrifugal compressors are better suited for low to moderate pressure ratio
applications, typically up to 4 or 5:1. They can deliver high flow rates with a
relatively small size and weight, making them suitable for applications such as
HVAC systems, gas turbines, and refrigeration systems.
 Axial flow compressors are better suited for high pressure ratio applications,
typically above 5:1. They can deliver high efficiency and stable operation over a
wide range of flow rates, making them suitable for applications such as aircraft
engines, power generation, and oil and gas processing.

In terms of which one is more suitable for high pressure ratio applications, axial flow
compressors are generally preferred over centrifugal compressors. This is because axial
flow compressors can handle higher pressure ratios without experiencing stall or surge,
which are common problems in centrifugal compressors at high pressure ratios. Axial
flow compressors also have a higher efficiency and can operate at a wider range of flow
rates compared to centrifugal compressors. However, axial flow compressors are
typically larger and more complex than centrifugal compressors, and they require
higher precision in their manufacturing and assembly.

Unit-V: Power transmitting turbo machines

Derive the expression for the efficiency of a fluid coupling and explain the
factors affecting it.

A fluid coupling is a device used to transmit rotational power from one shaft to another
using a fluid medium, typically a liquid such as oil or water. The efficiency of a fluid
coupling is the ratio of the power output to the power input, expressed as a
percentage.

To derive the expression for the efficiency of a fluid coupling, we can start with the
equation for the power input:

Power input = 2πNT where N is the speed of the input shaft in revolutions per minute
(RPM), and T is the torque on the input shaft in newton-meters (Nm).

The power output can be calculated using the same equation for the output shaft:

Power output = 2πNT' where T' is the torque on the output shaft in Nm.

The efficiency of the fluid coupling can then be expressed as:

Efficiency = Power output / Power input

Substituting the equations for power input and power output, we get:

Efficiency = (2πNT') / (2πNT) = T' / T

Therefore, the efficiency of a fluid coupling is equal to the ratio of the torque on the
output shaft to the torque on the input shaft.

The efficiency of a fluid coupling is affected by several factors, including:

 Speed: The efficiency of a fluid coupling decreases with increasing speed due to
fluid friction losses.
 Fluid viscosity: A higher viscosity fluid results in higher fluid friction losses and
lower efficiency.
 Fill level: The efficiency of a fluid coupling is higher when it is filled to a higher
level with fluid, as this reduces the amount of slippage between the input and
output shafts.
 Operating temperature: The efficiency of a fluid coupling decreases at higher
temperatures due to increased fluid viscosity and fluid friction losses.
 Design and construction: The efficiency of a fluid coupling can be affected by its
design and construction, such as the shape and size of the impeller blades and
the clearance between the impeller and the housing.

Optimizing these factors can improve the efficiency of a fluid coupling, resulting in
more efficient power transmission and lower energy consumption.

What is the torque ratio of a fluid coupling? Explain with a numerical example.

The torque ratio of a fluid coupling is the ratio of the output torque to the input
torque, and is an important characteristic of the device. It indicates how much torque is
being transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft, and can be used to
determine the maximum torque that can be transmitted through the coupling.

The torque ratio can be calculated using the following equation:

Torque ratio = T' / T

Where T is the input torque and T' is the output torque.

For example, let's say we have a fluid coupling that is being used to transmit power
from an electric motor to a pump. The motor has an input torque of 100 Nm and a
speed of 1,800 RPM, while the pump has an output torque of 80 Nm and a speed of
1,500 RPM. Using the torque ratio equation, we can calculate the torque ratio of the
fluid coupling:

Torque ratio = T' / T = 80 Nm / 100 Nm = 0.8

This means that for every 1 Nm of torque applied to the input shaft, only 0.8 Nm of
torque is transmitted to the output shaft. In other words, the fluid coupling has a
torque loss of 20%.

The torque ratio of a fluid coupling can be affected by several factors, including the
fluid viscosity, fill level, and design of the coupling. A higher torque ratio indicates a
more efficient coupling with less torque loss, which is desirable for many applications.
 What is the function of a torque converter in an automatic transmission system?
Discuss its advantages over a fluid coupling.

A torque converter is a component of an automatic transmission system that transfers power from
the engine to the transmission. Its main function is to allow the engine to keep running even when
the vehicle is stationary, and to provide a smooth transition between gears without the need for a
clutch.

The torque converter consists of three main components: the impeller, the turbine, and the stator.
The impeller is connected to the engine and spins the fluid inside the converter. The turbine is
connected to the transmission and receives the power from the impeller. The stator is located
between the impeller and the turbine and helps to redirect the fluid flow to increase efficiency.

When the engine is running, the impeller spins and generates a flow of fluid inside the torque
converter. The fluid then drives the turbine, which transfers the power to the transmission. The
stator helps to redirect the fluid flow and improve the efficiency of the system.

Compared to a fluid coupling, a torque converter has several advantages. One advantage is that it
provides a higher torque multiplication, which means that it can transmit more torque to the
transmission at low engine speeds. This allows for smoother and quicker acceleration from a stop. A
fluid coupling, on the other hand, has a lower torque multiplication and may result in sluggish
acceleration.

Another advantage of a torque converter is that it has a lock-up clutch, which can reduce the
slippage between the impeller and turbine at higher speeds. This reduces the amount of energy lost
to heat and improves fuel efficiency. A fluid coupling does not have a lock-up clutch and may have
more energy loss due to slippage.

Overall, a torque converter is a more efficient and effective component than a fluid coupling in an
automatic transmission system. Its higher torque multiplication and lock-up clutch help to improve
performance and fuel efficiency, making it a popular choice for modern automatic transmission
systems.

Define slip and efficiency in a turbo machine. Provide an example to illustrate

their relationship.

In a turbomachine, slip is the difference between the actual and ideal performance of
the machine. It is defined as the difference between the actual velocity ratio and the
theoretical velocity ratio of the machine. The velocity ratio is the ratio of the absolute
velocity of the fluid at the outlet to the absolute velocity at the inlet of the machine.
Slip is expressed as a percentage and is calculated using the following formula:

Slip = (V_actual / V_theoretical - 1) x 100%

Where V_actual is the actual velocity ratio of the machine, and V_theoretical is the
theoretical velocity ratio of the machine.

Efficiency, on the other hand, is a measure of how well a turbomachine converts the
input energy into output energy. It is defined as the ratio of the actual work output to
the work input, and is expressed as a percentage. Efficiency is a critical parameter in
turbomachinery design, as it directly affects the overall performance and energy
efficiency of the machine.
The relationship between slip and efficiency in a turbomachine can be illustrated using
the example of a centrifugal pump. In a centrifugal pump, slip occurs due to the non-
uniform distribution of the fluid flow across the impeller. This results in a decrease in
the actual velocity ratio of the pump compared to the theoretical velocity ratio. As a
result, the pump's efficiency is also reduced, as some of the input energy is lost to slip.

For example, if a centrifugal pump has a theoretical velocity ratio of 1.5 and an actual
velocity ratio of 1.4, the slip would be calculated as follows:

Slip = (1.4 / 1.5 - 1) x 100% = -6.67%

This negative slip indicates that the pump is not operating at its optimal efficiency and
is losing some of the input energy to slip. The efficiency of the pump would also be
affected by the slip, with a lower efficiency indicating a greater loss of input energy to
slip. By reducing the slip, the efficiency of the pump can be improved, resulting in
higher overall performance and energy efficiency.

Draw a velocity diagram for a turbine with a speed ratio of 0.5 and an inlet
velocity of 200 m/s. Calculate the blade speed and the outlet velocity if the inlet
angle is 30 degrees and the outlet angle is 20 degrees.

Sure, here is a velocity diagram for the turbine:

markdown

/ ^ \
/ | \
/ w2 \
/_________/__________\
V1 V2

In the diagram, V1 is the inlet velocity, V2 is the outlet velocity, w2 is the blade speed,
and the angle between V1 and the tangent to the blade at the inlet is the inlet angle
(30 degrees), while the angle between V2 and the tangent to the blade at the outlet is
the outlet angle (20 degrees).

To calculate the blade speed, we can use the speed ratio, which is defined as the ratio
of the blade speed to the inlet velocity. In this case, the speed ratio is 0.5, so we have:

w2 / V1 = 0.5

w2 = V1 x 0.5 w2 = 200 m/s x 0.5 w2 = 100 m/s

Therefore, the blade speed is 100 m/s.

To calculate the outlet velocity, we can use the velocity triangles. The velocity triangle
at the inlet is as follows:

| V1
|
 | w1
|
______|______

The velocity triangle at the outlet is as follows:

markdown
_______ w2
|
|
|
| V2

rom the inlet velocity triangle, we can calculate w1 as follows:

w1 = V1 / tan(30) w1 = 200 m/s / tan(30) w1 = 346.4 m/s

From the outlet velocity triangle, we can use the law of sines to relate V2 to w1 and w2:

V2 / sin(20) = w1 / sin(180-20-30) V2 / sin(20) = w1 / sin(130) V2 = w2 x sin(20) x

sin(130) / sin(180-20-30) V2 = 100 m/s x sin(20) x sin(130) / sin(130) V2 = 49.26 m/s

Therefore, the outlet velocity is 49.26 m/s.

Differentiate between positive displace what is the torque ratio of a fluid

coupling? Explain with a numerical example.

Positive displacement and centrifugal pumps are two different types of pumps used to
move fluids.

Positive displacement pumps operate by trapping a fixed amount of fluid in a cavity

and then forcing it through the discharge port. They work by creating a pressure
difference across the inlet and outlet ports of the pump, which causes the fluid to flow.
Positive displacement pumps are suitable for high-pressure applications, as they are
capable of generating a constant flow of fluid, even under varying pressure conditions.

Centrifugal pumps, on the other hand, work by using a spinning impeller to create a
centrifugal force that pushes the fluid towards the outer edges of the impeller, where it
is then discharged through a volute or diffuser. They are commonly used in
applications where high flow rates are required, as they are capable of moving large
volumes of fluid at relatively low pressures.

The torque ratio of a fluid coupling is the ratio of the output torque to the input
torque, and is an important characteristic of the device. It indicates how much torque is
being transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft, and can be used to
determine the maximum torque that can be transmitted through the coupling. The
torque ratio can be affected by several factors, including the fluid viscosity, fill level,
and design of the coupling. A higher torque ratio indicates a more efficient coupling
with less torque loss, which is desirable for many applications.
Let's say we have a positive displacement pump with a displacement volume of 0.1
m^3/rev and a speed of 1,200 RPM. The pump is transferring oil with a specific gravity
of 0.9 and a viscosity of 50 cSt. We want to calculate the flow rate and the pressure rise
of the pump.

First, we can calculate the theoretical flow rate of the pump using the following
equation:

Q = V_disp x n

Where Q is the flow rate, V_disp is the displacement volume, and n is the pump speed.

Q = 0.1 m^3/rev x 1,200 rev/min = 120 m^3/hr

Next, we can use the specific gravity and viscosity of the oil to calculate the correction
factor, which accounts for the effects of the fluid properties on the pump performance:

C = (SG x Q) / (3.117 x 10^(-5) x visc x n)

Where SG is the specific gravity, visc is the viscosity in cSt, and the constant 3.117 x
10^(-5) is used for units conversion.

C = (0.9 x 120) / (3.117 x 10^(-5) x 50 x 1,200) = 0.24

Finally, we can calculate the actual flow rate of the pump using the correction factor:

Q_actual = Q x C = 120 m^3/hr x 0.24 = 28.8 m^3/hr

To calculate the pressure rise of the pump, we can use the following equation:

ΔP = Q_actual x ρ x g / A

Where ΔP is the pressure rise, ρ is the density of the oil, g is the gravitational
acceleration, and A is the cross-sectional area of the pump outlet.

Assuming a pump outlet diameter of 100 mm, we can calculate the cross-sectional area
as follows:

A = π x (d/2)^2 = π x (0.1 m / 2)^2 = 0.00785 m^2

Using the density of the oil as 900 kg/m^3 and the gravitational acceleration as 9.81
m/s^2, we can calculate the pressure rise of the pump as follows:

ΔP = 28.8 m^3/hr x 900 kg/m^3 x 9.81 m/s^2 / 0.00785 m^2 = 323,701 Pa

Therefore, the flow rate of the pump is 28.8 m^3/hr and the pressure rise is 323,701 Pa.