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 1.2 MECHANISM OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Plastic deformation is a process in which the size and shape of the object
changes due to an external load or forces such that it does not regain its
original shape and size even after removal of external load or forces.
Plastic deformation takes place due to slip, twinning, and the
combination of slip and twinning
1.2.1 Slip
I n this mechanism, one plane slides over another plane.
This sliding of one plane over another plane does not affect the crystal
structure of the metal.
Also, no change is observed in the arrangement of atoms at this time.
 Slip
SlipSlip takes place in one
particular direction and in one Slip plane
(111)
particular plane. These
directions and planes are known
as slip directionss Slp
direction
and slip
planes respectively.
It is
analogous
cards when it is
to a deck of

one end.
pushed from
Slip occurs when shear stress
applied exceeds a critical value.
Fig. 1.2.1: Plastic
deformation due to slip
Slip planes and slip directions for basic
below in table form. crystal structures are given
Table1.2.1: Slip planes and slip
directions for basic crystal structures
Crystal Structure Slip Planes
Slip Directions Metal Example
B.C.C (1 10) <111>
F.C.C.
Mo, Fe
(111) <10>
Al, Cu
H.C.P.
(0001) <1120> Mg. Co
A slip occurs due to the motion of dislocation.
There are two types of
such motions as given below:
1. Glide motion 2. Climb motion
1.3.2 Friction 2
Metal forming processes involve larger forces for deformation and
exist between the contact surfaces of the tool
hence high pressures
and the work metal.
Since, friction is the resistance to sliding along an interface, higher
the contact pressures, higher will be the friction resulting in an
increase in the deformation resistance of the work metal.

Although a certain amount required for some forming

of friction is

processes, for example, like rolling, where the workpiece is drawn

into the rolls due to the friction between the rolls and the work.
However excessive friction is always undesirable due to the

following:
a. Friction increases the amount of force or power required to

perform an operation.
Friction reduces metal flow, hence induces inhomogeneity in
b.
the formed part leading to certain defects.

C. Friction increases heat at the interface resulting in wear of the

working tools.
d.
d. Friction between the work and the tool give rise to shearing
stresses along the contact surface.
Friction is typically characterized by a coefficient of friction (),
which is the ratio of the frictional resistance force (shear stress, t)
to the normal force (p), which presses the surfaces together.
The value of the coefficient of friction (u) depends on the
following factors:
a. Work metal being formed
b. Tool material used
C.
C. Surface roughness of the work and the tool
d. Speed of deformation
e. Temperature
f. Type of lubricant used.
It is important to note that friction changes from point to point at
the interface and hence it is difficult to measure. For this reason,
the coefficient of friction (u) is assigned a constant value.
1.3.1 Temperature 2 operations,

its
Temperature is an important factor in metal f o r m i n g

increase
in

because the properties of a metal change wwitn

"ge
ith
an

temperature. to
the
sa m e
s

Therefore the metal will differently under different

manufacturing operation if it is performed ifferent

different

possess

temperatures, and also the manufactured part may

properties. strength
and
finish,
At low temperatures, although good surface the
achieved in forming,
hardness, and close tolerances can be
amount of stress required to deform the metal is morc
becomes easier,
deformation
With increasing temperatures, metal will bDe
structure of the
auctility increases, and the grain However, the
properties.
refined resultingin better physical
strength of the metal decreases.
obtained is not good due to the scale
Also, the surface finish
temperatures.
formation resulting from surface oxidation at higher
temperatures-
Also, the life of the working tools reduces at higher
a crucial factor
Hence, selecting the working temperature becomes
in determining the quality of the final product.
The temperature of the workpiece metal in metal forming depend=
on the following factors:
a. The initial temperature of the tools and the work material.
b. Heat generation due to plastic deformation.
C. Heat generated by friction at the die and work interface.
d. Heat transfer between the deforming material, dies and t
surrounding environment.
1.3.4 Strain rate

During deformation processes, the speed of the operation is

usually measured by strain rate.
h

Ram Work

Die
Fig. 1.3.1: Variables used in strain rate

Strain rate or deformation velocity (e) is defined as the ratio of the

deformation speed (v) or speed of ram, to the instantaneous height
of the work metal being deformed (h).

where,
true strain rate
h =
instantaneous height of workpiece being deformed
From the above relation, it is clear that the strain rate
for any
particular metal forming process is directly related to the speed at
which deformation is taking place.
A greater rate of deformation of the workpiece would mean a
higher strain rate.
At higher strain rates, the flow stress of the material increases,
leading to higher loads on the equipment.
The temperature of the workpiece also increases due to adiabatic
heating, and there is also an improved lubrication at the tool-workk
interface.
The effect of strain rate on
strength properties is known as strain-
rate sensitivity. The effect of
strain rate on flow stresses is shown
in Fig. 1.3.2.
1 . 1 0 . 4 Difference between Hot Working and Cold Working 2

Sr HotWorking Cold Working

No
1. Done at temperatures above Done at temperatures below
recrystallization temperature. recrystallization temperature.
2 Force required during hot Force required during cold
working is less as the metal working is more as the metal
working temperature is high. working temperature is low.
3. It is a relatively faster process as It is relatively slower process
a
compared to cold working. as compared to hot working.

4. New crystals are formed due to Recrystallization does not

recrystallization. occur in cold working.

5. There is no strain hardening of The material is strain hardened

the material. in cold working.
Sr. Hot Working ColdWorking
No.
6. Due to continuous Amount of deformation during
recrystallization, material can cold working is limited.
take more deformation.

7. Blow holes, porosity and cracks Excessive cold working can

are eliminated due to internal lead to production and

propagation of cracks.
welding.
8. Handling hot work products is Handling cold work products is
difficult, hence heat resistant easy as compared to hot work
tools are required. products, hence heat resistant
tools are not required.
Dimensional accuracy is Poor. Better dimensional accuracy.
9
Close dimensional tolerances Close dimensional tolerances
10
cannot be obtained. can be obtained.

Oxidation and scaling results in | Cold working gives better

11.
poor surface finish. surface finish.
Deformation per pass can be Deformation per pass is less.
12.
much higher.

13. It can be used to produce thick It can be used to produce thin

sheets. sheets.
1.7.3 Advantages of Metal Forming Processes over other
Manufacturing Processes 4
Metal forming process possesses a high effectiveness owing to
following advantages over other manufacturingprocesses
1. Higher productivity: Availability
of modern machinery results in
manufacturing of hundreds of tonnes of end products during each
working shift. Thus are suitable for mass production owing to their high
production rate.
2 End products have higher strength, and better corrosion and wear
resistance, as compared to casting and machining processes.
3 Formed components have a high strength to weight ratio.
4 Very less wastage of material as compared to other
manufacturing
processes such as machining.
5. Dimensional accuracy is very high.
6. Surface finish obtained is better as
compared to other manufacturing
processes such as casting.
7. Any strength within a permissible limit can be
obtained by controllin8
the end forming
temperature and the degree of deformation.
 1.7.4 Disadvantages of Metal Forming Processes
1. Force and energy required for the required amount of deformation is
very high.
2 In order to increase the rate of production, automation is required which
makes this process costly.
3. Crossover and undercut are difficult to produce
2.4 TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS S
The types of the rolling process can be classified into the following
ways
(A) Thread/Gear Rolling (B) Shape Rolling
(C) Ring Rolling (D) Tube Piercing
(E) Transverse Rolling/Roll Forging
(F) Skew Rolling (G) Roll Bending
(H) Flat Rolling (I) Controlled Rolling

(A) Thread/Gear Rolling

The thread/gear rolling is a cold-forming type of rolling process
used to cut gear or threads on a cylindrical blank.

In this process, the threaded dies are fitted on cylindrical rollers of

the rolling machine.

 The cylindrical
blankK presses
roll againy
the faces, which displace the material and form threads on
cylindrical blank.
the
thread-rolling process has the of generatino benefit
The
(due to cold working), without any
any ma read
materiallos
with high strength
surface finish. The thread/gear rollino
is
(scrap) and good
etc. in mass quantities.
used fo
the production of screws,
bolts,
Rolling/Profile Rollina
Rolling/Structural Shape
B) Shape
shapes on the me
to cut different
The shape rolling is used metal
involve any signiticant change in thicknes
workpiece. It does not kness.
Ir's a special type of cold rolling
that is suitable for produecine
ucing
molded sections such as irregular shaped channels and trim. I
used to roll construction shapes such as l-beams, L-beams, and u
channels, rails for railroad tracks, and round and square bars and
rods, etc.
T h e applications ofshape rolling are -

o Construction materials
O Ceiling panel
o Metal furniture
o Household appliances
O Partition beam
Steel pipe
o Automotive parts

o Roofing panels
o Door and window frames and other metal
products
(C) Ring Rolling
Ring rolling is a type of hot rolling that increases the diameter a
of
ring. Two rollers i.e. main and idler are
same direction to each other in this
arranged rotated in the
and
process.
Due to the rotation of the roller, the
ring rotates and the rollers then
start moving close to each other, with
a decrease in
and hence this results in an increase in its
ring thickness
diameter.
To maintain the height of the ring, a
pair of edge rollers are used,
which does not allow metal flow in the
direction of height. This
process gives material finish and high accuracy.
 Common applications of ring rolling include -
o Large bearings
Turbines
O Airplanes
O Railway tyres
Gears
oO Rockets
Pipes
o Pressure vessels.
(D) Tube Piercing
Tube piercing is another rolling process in which you can find a
stationary mandrel at the center of tube and cavity form, due to
tensile stress in a cylindrical rod when subjected to external
compressive stress.
Two rolls are rotated in the opposite direction in this process which
compresses the tube and feeds it against the mandrel which creates
a hollow cavity in it. This process is used to make seamless hollow
tubes of a thick wall.
(E) Transverse Rolling/ RolI Forging
Also called cross rolling, which is used to produce table knives,
leaf springs, tapered shafts, and hand tools.
In this process, both rollers rotate in the same direction and the
heated bar is cut to length and is fed transversely between rolls.
Usually, circular wedge rolls are used in the transverse rolling.

(F) Skew Rolling

This is a process similar to roll forging. Typically used for making
ball bearings.
In this process, round wire or bar is fed directly into specially

designed rollers which continuously form spherical balls by rolling

action.
Used for the mass production of small size spherical balls.

(G) Roll Bending

from plate
In roll
bending, a cylindrical shaped product is produced
or steel metals.
 The rolls cting acting
change shape during rolling because of f o r c e s

on them,
which tends to bend
the elasticity
thels
o
the
during
during
o f the rolls
elastic high, then the
rolling. If the elastic modulus of the roll
roll deflection would material 1is
be smaller. thicker at
thicker at the
Compared its edges, the rolled
to
strip tends to
t
be
center. We can avoid this rolls in such a
problem by grinding than at their
way that their diameter at the center is slightly larger
edges.
(H) Flat Rolling
the starting and end
his is the basic form of rolling in which
most
material both have a rectangular cross-section.
rotate in opposite
The material is fed in between two rollers that
directions.
The two rollers in flat rolling are called working rolls. The gap
between the two rolls is less than the thickness of the starting

material, which causes the deformity of it.

The material, which is pushed through due to the friction at the
interface between the material and the rolls, even elongates due to
the decrease in material thickness.
However, the friction between the rolls limits the amount of
deformation possible in a single pass.
The rolls just slip over the material and do not draw it in if the
change in thickness is too great.
(I) Controlled Rolling
It's a type of thermo-mechanical processing which combines heal
treating and controlled deformation.
The workpiece is brought above the recrystallization temperau
with the help of heat, which performs the heat treatments to
avo
any subsequent heat treating.
Controlling the nature, size, and distribution of variou

transformation products; production of a fine grain structure"

controlling the toughness; inducing precipitation hardening ar

some of the types of heat treatments included.

lled a
The entire process must be
closely monitored and conu
achieve this.
 2 . 6 DEFECTS IN ROLLED PRODUCTS
Defects in the Final Product of Mechanically worked metal ma metal may have
originated from any one or a combination ofthe following
The ingot used for MW may contain defects (pores, microcr
or inclusions) which may remain as such or get
Deracks
aggravated de

working operation.
uring
Operational Parameters Localized to a particular type of MW proc
process
(not following the proper practice).
Defects in Rolled Products

1. General
2.
Operational
1 .1. General
The defects may arise due to

(i) Surface irregularities

The ingot or the raw material may be having irregularities due to
scaling which will get trapped in the metal and remain inside the
metal surface as laps. This needs to be
removed by grinding and
there will be metal loss.
If the defect is deep and severe the
product may get rejected.
(i) Non-metallic inclusions
The inclusions may result from oxides
or nitrides or silicates
etc.
especially in steels. These are present in the molten
metal during
the preparation.
If less in volume may cause small
cracks in the metal and if more
in volume will result in
severe cracks called crocodile cracks
separating the product into two halves.
(ii) Internal Pores

There may be pores in the

product due to the presence of gasses
ike hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc.,
Tf too much gasses are
prescnt leads to elongation of the pores and
the product may become weaker. Sometimes
separation may take
place resulting in eracks.
(a) Barrel
Due to friction at the edges of the product barrel action takes
place.
Surface in contact experiences severe friction as
compared to
the center of the work. Hence, with
heavy reduction in the
work the center tends to expand laterally more than the outer
surfaces in contact with the dies and produces barreled
edges.
b) Non uniform deformation:
When the rolling conditions are such that only the surface of
the work piece is deformed.
The cross section of the slab is deformed into the shape as
shown.
The middle portion is less deformed as compared to the outer
surface. This may be due to variation in temperature in the
metal.
Surface temperature being more than the inside temperature
of the slab.
(c) Alligator Cracks
metallurgical weakness in the metal (due to the
f there is any
the slab,
presence of inclusions) along the centerline of
fracture will occur.
to the
This results in the separation of the layer giving rise
mouth in the
opening of the slab which looks like an alligator
opening position. Hence, the name.
 28)

Barreling Non uniform Alligator cracks

deformation

Fig. 2.6.1
(d) Hydrogen cracks
During preparation of the melt in the furnace several gasses
try to get into the melt.
Out of this Hydrogen gas diffuses into the melt to a large
extent and is retained in the solid metal.
Due the presence of
hydrogen in excess internal cracks
appear through the cross section during rolling and cannot be
used. It is a major problem with alloy steels especially.
(e) Non metallic inclusion
Inclusions are non metallics appearing in the metal as a result
of entrapment.
During the preparation of the molten metal non metallic like
Oxides, nitrides, silicates enter the melt and remain as such in
the solid metal. These discontinuities in the metal and
are

reduce the properties of the metal.

On rolling they may result in cracks which may reach a
critical value and make the product rejectable.
 Iy
(2-24) lech. (MO
Holling)....
Pageno. From example:
Forming Tech. (MU Sem.6-Mech) from
Metal 30 % no.
Sem.8-Mech) (Aolling)... Page
rolled (2-25)
is hot slab is
Calculate the rolling load if steel sheet P
EX. 2.5.1: mm-diameter rol stress is
900 flow
slab a
using plane-strain
40 mm-thick
0.30. The from
the roll gap 4h
Assume u = exit
6 0 m m wide. at the
MPa
140 MPa at e n t r a n c e
and 200
velocity. 8
(Rh,bRah
due to the increasing
P 14.6 MN 4x0.034
P170A0004+10.76)0450012
Soln.
ho 100 30 Ex. 2.5.2: The
ho previous
= 30
under very example neglected the influence
(40)-2, 100 x
high loads. If the of roll
40 under load rolling
is deformed flattening
radius R of a
hf= 28 mm C 2.16 x given in roll
= mm
10 Equation =
(1).
-

(28) 12
-
= (40) using
= hf
Pa'.P 13.4 MPa
Ah h, Soln.: from previous
(40) +O
example.
34 mm
2 R R1 CP
(0.30)V450x 12 b (ho-h
RAh ..(1
oQ (34) Where C =
16 -

h h (1 V) /TE, P =
roll radius. Rolling load based on the
enranceOesit 0t =17O MPa deformed

R
From Equation (10) 0.45s 126x10" (134x10' )
0.76 x0.012 0.464 m
Po - 1)byRAh We know use R to calculate a
of R' new value of P and in urn
0.65 -
0.012 another value
P 170 655 1) (0.76) y0.45 x
=13.4 MN o RAh 0.30 464 x12 = 0.66
34
Sticky friction situation
3.
sticky friction occurs P170 d66 -1)
What would be therolling load if
0.76 0.464x0012=13.7 MN
in strain
plane
Continuing the analogy with compression R =0.45\| 2.16x 1013.7x10
0.76 x 0.012 |=0.465m
-1)- The difference between
stop the estimations of R is not large. So we
calculation at this
From Equation (8), point.
P pbLp