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MINERALOGY

I. INTRODUCTION: History & Definition

A. All substances were divided into 3 kingdoms:

Animal – all animal forms observed in land, sea and air zoology.
Vegetable – plants and trees – botany, forestry and agriculture.
Mineral – whole inanimate world – minerals, rocks, soils and water of the earth:
The stone ages were divided into rough (Paleolithic) and smooth stone
ages (Neolithic). Man emerged from use of stone to copper, bronze,
fron and coal (oil) ages.

The principal sources of raw materials used by man are the mines, quarries, farms, forests, sea and
the atmosphere. (Sea source of metallic magnesium and atmosphere source of nitrogen). From these
exploitation of human activities rose agriculture, mining, commerce and industry. Agriculture –
knowledge of the composition of nature of soils are necessarily. Soils consists to a very large extent of
minerals and mineral products.

From mining are developed trade and migration, commerce and industry and agriculture. Today, as
never before, the mineral resources of a nation are recognized as one of its foundation or power, in fact its
most valuable assets (Opec nations – oil).

B. Relation of Mineralogy to other sources: Mineralogy is considered a fundamental

science in our present civilization: a subject of vital importance to students of geology,
chemistry, pharmacy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, and forestry, soils, engineering and
other sciences. Many of the important chem.. processes are dependent wholly or in part
upon the use of minerals – specially in inorganic chemistry: (Solvay process for
manufacture of alkalis uses as raw materials limestone, halite and coal).

C. Definitions:

1. Mineralogy – science of the study of the formation, properties, occurrence,

alteration and the utilization of minerals and rocks.
2. Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic substances having definite chemical
composition and fairly constant chemical composition.
3. Crystals are the outward expression of an internal order arrangement of atoms.
4. Rocks are aggregates of 1 or more minerals.
5. One minerals are minerals that can be extracted at a profit.
6. Rock forming minerals are minerals that usually make the composition of rocks
and are divided into:

1) essential minerals – principal constituents which determine the nature of the

rock (i.e. quartz, feldspar in granite)

2) Characterizing minerals – minerals which may be found in adequate

amounts to characterize the rock (i.e., hornblende diorite).
3) Accessory minerals – minerals which occur in every small quantities in any
rock (i.e. apatite, zircon, magnetite <2%).
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7. Crystalline minerals are minerals which occur with external geometrical forms or
crystal outlines.
8. Amorphous minerals (non-crystalline) are those which do not have a definite
forms but follows the form of the container.

D. Divisions of Mineralogy:

1. Crystallography – the science which deals with the form and various properties
of crystalline substance.

2. Physical Mineralogy – includes the consideration of various Physical properties

of solid substances such as hardness (H), cleavage, color, streak, specific gravity,
density (D), etc.

3. Optical Mineralogy – involves discussions of optical properties of solids,

descriptions of various optical instruments and methods necessary in the
determination of minerals and thru their optical properties.

4. Crystal Structure and X-ray Analysis – includes a brief survey of the

development of the modern theory of crystal structure. X-ray methods are
described and some results obtained by X-ray analysis given.

5. Chemical Mineralogy – various chemical properties of minerals their origin and

formation are studied. The determination of chem.. constituents is treated in detail
(blow-pipe, chem.. spot test, etc.).

6. Descriptive Mineralogy – discusses physical, crystal and chemical properties,

occurrences, associations and uses and relationships to mankind.

7. Determination Mineralogy – acquiring facility in rapid determination of

minerals be means of their physical and chemical properties.

8. Geochemistry – abundance of chemical elements (including isotopes) in the

earth, their distribution and laws which govern this distribution.
9. Gemology – study of origin, occurrence and properties of precious minerals,
knowledge of imitations, synthetic gems, etc.
10. Study of meteorites – mineralogy of solid extraterrestrial bodies which collide or
not with the earth.
11. Biocineralogy – science of mineral substance which occur in human and animal
bodes and plants (gallstones, pneumoconiosis, kidney and urethra stones, etc.).
12. Petrology – study of the formation, properties and alteration of rocks.
13. Applied mineralogy forms a bridge between mineralogy and its application to
other branches of science and technology, i.e. geology, metallurgy, chemistry,
physics, biology, astronomy, medicine, archaeology, geography, mining, oil,
ceramics glass, electrical industries, nuclear technology, rock and soil mechanics,
water supply, fertilizer manufacturing etc.
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II. General Mineralogy: (crystallography, crystal growth and chem. And phys.)

Structural crystallography is the science of the atomic structure of crystals.

Crystal morphology is the study of the external form of crystals.
Correspondence is the relationship between crystal structure and morphology.

Crystals are homogeneous, anisotropic bodies (a homogeneous body is materially and

physically uniform; an anisotropic body has different physical and chem.. properties in
different directions. In contrast, an isotropic body has the same physical and chemical
properties in different directions, for example; glass).

Homogeneous bodies may be isotropic or anisotropic

Isotropic Anisotropic
Disordered in every direction (Ordered in 3 specially different
Amorphous bodies (i.e., glass) directions)
Gases Crystals
Most liquids “Liquid crystals” (only ordered in 2
directions or in 1 direction only)

The units of crystal structure are atoms, ions or molecules, which exhibit a rigorous 3-dimensional
arrangement in space. The spacing of these structural units are of the order of magnitude of 10 -º = 1
Angstrom unit (Å).

A crystal is defined either as : 1) a 3-dimensional periodic arrangement of atoms, ions or

molecules; 2) the external expression of an internal orderly arrangement of atoms. The arrangement of
particles in a crystal is represented by a crystal lattice or space lattice (Fig. A) Planes lying in different
directions thru the lattice.
- points are called lattice – planes. Crystal faces represents lattice.
- planes (Fig. B). the ordered structure of crystal lattices is however not always reflected by the crystal’s
possession of a distinct crystal forms. The space lattice is build up by repetition of the smallest 3-D units,
the unit cells. The spacing from 1 lattice point to another is the unit translation. The shortest spacing in the
3 direction in space are labeled ao, bo, co, (characteristic spacing, lattice constants) Fourteen (14) different
types of unit cell Bravais lattices are possible (Fig. C).

ac

Co

bo Fig. b Lattice Plane

Fig. a (Space lattice)
(Simple Lattice with unit cell)
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GENERAL MINERALOGY

a)
b) c) d) e) f)

g) m)
h) i) k) l)

Figure c. The 14 Bravais-lattices (translation-lattices): (a) triclinic

(simple primitive; (b) simple monoclinic; (c) face-centered monoclinic;
(d) simple orthorhombic; (e) end-centered orthorhombic; (f) body-
centered orthorhombic; (g) face-centered orthorhombic; (h) hexagonal;
(i) rhombohedral; (k) simple tetragonal; (l) body-centered tetragonal;
(m) simple cubic; (n) body-centered cubic; (o) face-centered cubic.

n) o)

Symmetry – the same pattern, in both external crystal form and space lattice, can be repeated by
certain geometric operations (i.e., rotation and reflection). Symmetry relationships are characteristic of
crystal bodies. End point of the space lattice (lattice point) has an identical environment which is
dependent on the lattice type.

The symmetry is the mirror image of a side of a crystal that is split in half. (symmetry of a crystal).

Space groups – there exist 230 ways in which all the various possible symmetry operations can be
combined. Each of these combinations is termed a space group and all crystals belong to 1 or other of the
230 possible space groups.

Crystal classes – a number of point groups, all of which posses a particular point group symmetry,
comprise each of 32 crystal symmetry class.

Crystal systems – The 32 crystal classes may, in turn, be largely grouped into 6 crystal systems,
The sides of the unit cells drawn show the orientation of these systems. (based on the crystallographic
axes arrangement):

1) cubic system – 3 equal axes, all perpendicular to each other - example diamond, galena,
magnetite, salt.
2) tetragonal system – 3 axes, 2 are equal and the 3rd axis is either longer or shorter than the
other 2, all axes are perpendicular – i.e. zircon
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3) hexagonal system – 4 axes, 3 equal horizontal axes and the 4 axis is perpendicular to the
th

plane containing the 3 horizontal axes which are the 120º from 1 another. Example –
quartz, beryl, calcite.
4) orthorhombic system – 3 unequal axes, all perpendicular to each other, example – barite
5) monoclinic – 3 axes only 1 is perpendicular that is b is perpendicular to c unequal example
– orthoclase
6) triclinic – 3 unequal axes, no perpendicular example – albite.

Combination of all symmetry operations in space lattice – 230 point group. Collection of point
groups with common symmetry relationships are 32 crystal classes (extremely distinguishable in some
cases). Consideration of the co-ordinate systems in the 32 crystal classes: 6 crystal system (often
extremely distinguishable).

Law of constancy of interfacial angles – the interfacial angles measured between like faces, are
constant for all crystals of a given material under constant physical conditions (and temperature)
regardless of shape of the face. Crystal types may be identified by measuring such interfacial angles.
a c

Cube system a Orthorhombic b

a
a
c c

monoclinic b
Tetragonal
a
a

c c
120°

Tetragonal triclinic
a1 a2
a b
120°
120°

Types of crystal faces – in order to form faces corresponding to their symmetry, crystals need
both space and time. If, for some reasons, the crystal grows much faster in 1 direction than in another,
aberrant shapes result in which, although the law of constancy of interfacial angles still holds, the forms of
faces of like kind are different.

1) pyramid face – if a face intersects all 3 xtl axes

2) prism face – if a face intersects 2 axes is parallel to the third.
3) pinacoids face – if a face intersects only 1 axis, parallel to the other 2
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In the cubic system, the pinacoids are termed cube-faces, prism faces are called rhomb
dodecahedral faces and pyramid faces and pyramid faces are named octahedral faces.

The notation used to characterize crystal faces is that of “Miller’s Indices” (111) (100) (431) (202)
etc. which refer to the reciprocals of the distances at which the faces intercept the xtl axes, or the inverse
of parameters.

Crystal form is the sum of all faces of the crystal. These forms can be influenced by growth
environment (i.e. composition of solution, space, temperature etc.)

Crystal habit – xtl’s frequently exhibit an external form which becomes characteristic of certain
minerals i.e. asbestos, fibrous; mica-platy, apatite-columnar. Habit is dependent on growth conditions.
Changing conditions can result in a change of crystal habit.
Habit modifications – denote alterations of forms and habit by external influences. May be
termed as xtl irregularities and can be shown as:

1) variations in the form and dimensions of xtl

a) certain faces bring larger or smaller than the ideal geometrical solid or xtl – distortion
as irregular or symmetrical.
b) a cube lengthened or shorted along 1 axis becomes a right square prism or if carried in
the direction of 2 axes rectangular prisms.

2) imperfections of the surfaces of crystals

a) striations due to oscillatory combinations – each little ridges on a striated surface is

enclosed by 2 narrow planes or regular.
b) striations due to repeated twinning – albite
c) markings from erosion and/or dissolutions.
d) Curved surfaces from any of above causes or from a mechanical cause from faces
becoming curved or convex.

Variations in the angles of crystals here, the imperfections produce

1) convex, curved or striated faces necessarily cause such variations. Also, 2) circumstances of heat or
pressure under which crystal are formed may result in distortion of form and variation in angles. 3) There
is also subsequent change in completed crystals due to pressures on the matrix in which they were formed
(metamorphism). 4) change in composition due to pseudomorphous crystals are accompanied by an
irregular change of angle, so that pseudomorphous of a species vary much in angle. 5) change in chemical
composition.

Internal imperfections and inclusions – the transparency of crystals is often destroyed by disturbed
crystallization and also by the presence of foreign matter resulting in partial chemical change (inclusion)
caused by:

a) rapid crystallization or (quenching) liquid and gas inclusions

b) mechanical inclusion- hematite scales or magnetite or radioactive particles in
mica, or glass in feldspar.
c) microscopic crystals in larger minerals: microlites, crystallites, Peles Hair in feldspars
e) symmetrically arranged inclusions – in closed carbonaceous impurities arranged
symmetrically in andalucite.
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Twinned crystals – (intergrowth of crystals of identical type)
Intergrowth of xtl of same kind and form, which create an additional symmetry element which does not
occur in the single crystal is termed twinning. Twinning is described by means of certain twinning laws:

a) the component parts of a twin crystal are geometrically related to each other, either as if
1 part was derived from the other by reflection over a plane common to both, or as if 1
part was derived from the other by a revolution of 180º about some xtl line common to
both or as if these 2 operations occurred simultaneously. The plane and axes involved
in these operations are known as the twinning plane and twinning axis.
b) Such twinning planes and twinning axis have in all ordinary cases simple and rational
relations to the crystals axes.
c) In rare cases, their relations to the axes may not be rational but they have simple
relations to other axes or planes which do possess such rational characters.
d) No plane that is a symmetry plane in the individual xtl can become a twinning plane in
its compound.
e) No axis of even symmetry (binary, tetragonal or hexagonal) in the individual xtl can
become a twinning axis in the compound crystal.
f) A symmetry plane or axis of a class or higher symmetry may become a twinning plane
or axis of a xtl belonging in the same xtl system but to a class of lower symmetry. Such
a twin xtl may therefore assume a symmetry higher than that belonging to its
components.
g) Twin crystals of all crystal classes possessing a center of symmetry will have both a
plane of twinning and an axis of twinning normal to the plane. Where a center of
symmetry is lacking, a twinning plane or axis may occur independently.

Crystal growth – xtl form melts, solutions or vapors as soon as these reach a certain degree of
under cooling by super saturation. Initially, nuclei are formed by agglomeration of atoms, ions or
molecules. When these nuclei reach a certain critical size, they continue growing, spontaneously, into
crystal. Foreign particles and impurities, may also act as crystallization centers. In the final stage of
growth the xtl will be bounded by those which possess the lowest growth velocity. The growth velocity of
faces can be changed by the addition of impurities, i.e. NaC1 xtl from solution normally in the form of
cubes but octahedral form if urea is used as solvent.

Crystal growth is also a matter of form and habit modification. Crystal nuclei can also form by the
condensation of vapor, when small drops of liquid form on a volt surface and are then frozen out. In the
growth of crystals, block upon block (atom, ion, molecule) of building material is deposited successively
on the surface of the nucleus, and complete lattice planes are gradually build up.

Ideal crystals are very rare in nature. Atomic imperfections are caused by lattice vacancies or by
atoms or ions which occur in anomalous unstable or met a stable position in the structure.

III. Crystal Chemistry

This treats the relationships between lattice – structure, lattice energy, external form or behavior of
crystals, the latter bring determined by the former 2 factors. Crystal Chemistry, in contrast to molecular
chemistry is concerned with the inter-action between an infinite number of atoms or molecules.

Each compound has a characteristic crystal structure but substitution of elements by other, related
elements similar in size (ionic radius) may occur, with the crystal form being only slightly altered (i.e.
KH2PO4 and KH2AsO4) in which P and As may mutually replace one another. This is ISOMORPHISM
(chemical compound which have an analogous composition and a closely related crystalline form)
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Aragonite Group Barite Group

CaCO3 Aragonite CaSO4 Anhydrite
BaCO3 ¿ BaSO4 Barite
SrCO3 Strontianite SrSO4 Celestite
PbCO3 Cerrusite PbSO4 Anglesite

The members of each series crystallize in closely similar forms. The carbonates are orthorhombic
with axial ratios not far from one another (Axial ratios are the mathematical ratios of 1 crystallographic
axis to another). The sulfates also form similar orthorhombic series.

It is generally true with an isomorphism series that the various molecules may enter in more or less
degree into the constitution of 1 of the members of the series without causing any marked change in the
crystal character.

Isomorphism in the broader sense expresses the relations that exist between a series of substances
of analogous chemical formulas and analogous crystal structures. Analogous formulas possess an equal
number of atoms and of positive and negative constituents. Analogous structures are composed of
geometrically similar elementary parallel lipids in which an equal number of atoms are arranged in a
geometrically similar manner. Such isomorphism occurs when the relative size of the atoms and certain of
their physical properties are nearly the same. This is called volume isomorphism which accounts for the
fact that elements of distinctly different chem. Character, and even of different valence, may substitute for
each other without changing the crystal structure. It would explain why calcite CaCO 3 and calcite (CaCO3)
and sodium nitrate (NaNO3) crystallize in closely related forms and also why solution upon a cleavage of
rhombohedra of CaCo3 with parallel orientation.

Isomorphism used in a narrower sense expresses the ability of qualitatively different substances to
form together in a mixed crystal. Usually the elements that may substitute for each other are chem. closely
related: volume of atoms and the volume of atomic groups be nearly equal (Feldspar series of plagioclase
NaA1si308 (Albite) – CaA12Si208 Anorthite.

Morphotropy – is a phenomenon in which an element is replaced by another of a significantly

different size, however the lattice structure is not changed.

Mixed crystals – these are solid phases in which a continuous change of composition occurs,
without a change of crystal structure. Further, a chem. substance may, under different physical conditions
form crystal of quite differing types, that is, crystal with differing lattice structures (i.e. graphite,
hexagonal system and diamond, cubic system) are both forms of carbon. This is POLYMORPHISM. A
chemical compound, which crystallizes in 2 forms genetically distinct, is said to be dimorphous, if in 3
trimorphous – and in general polymorphous. This phenomena is called DIMORPHISM or Polymorphism.
This explanation lies in the different molecular structure that the 2 substances possess. This proves that the
physical properties of a mineral depend not only upon the chem. character of its constituent atoms but also
definitely upon the manner in which they are arranged in the crystal structure.

Example 1) Calcite CaCO3 is dimorphous with aragonite CaCO3

crystallizes rhombohedra hexagonal - orthorhombic system
Sp. Gr. 2.7 2.9
Ti02 2) rutile (Ti02) octahedrite brookite
? tetragonal tetragonal orthorhombic
Sp. Gr. 4.25 3.9 4.15
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Isodimorphism – a phenomenon in which 2 or more analogous compounds are at the same time
isomorphous and dimorphous.

Marcanite groups Pyrite groups

Marcosite FeS2 Pyrits FeS2
Safflorita CaAS2 Smaltite CoAS2

Types of bonding in Crystals:

Crystals may be classified on the basis of the forces which act between elements, and thus bond
the crystal lattice.

1. Heteropolar bonding (ionic, polar, electro covalent bonds) In these cases the structural units
of the crystals are electrically charged particles (anion and cations). The smaller the inter-ionic
distance and the larger the charge of the ion, the stronger is the ionic bond. Melting and boiling
points increase with decrease in inter-ionic spacing, i.e. NaC1, KBr, NaF, Mgo, CuO, BaS).

2. Polarization – ions may be deformed by their mutual electrical influence. When 2 ions of
differing charge touch one another, the cation attracts the electron cloud of the anion, i.e.: the
orbits of the outer electrons will be deformed in the direction of the cations, i.e. polarized.

3. Homopolar bonding (covalent bond) This type of bonding can occur between electrically –
neutral lattice – elements of the same kind. Bonding between these similar atoms is brought
about because in some cases 2 atoms possess a common electron pair. Melts of homopolar
crystals are non-conductors, but ionic melts are conductors. i.e.: CuBr, CuC1, 2S and the C-C,
C-Si, -Si Bonds.

4. Metallic bonding – every metal consists of “atomic cores” from which have been detached a
certain number of volume electrons which move, more or less freely, in the metal lattice. A
metal lattice consists, therefore of a regular arrangements of positively changes “electronic
cores”, immersed in a cloud of free electrons. Bonding is due to the attraction between the
positive atomic cores and negatively charged electrons, i.e. metals and metalloids.
5. Van der Waals bonding (intermolecular bond) – electrically neutral molecules can represents
dipoles, owing to non-uniforms distribution of positive and negative charges. A dipole may
also be induced in an intrinsically, neutral molecule, by neighboring ion or dipoles. Completely
neutral particles, which approach one another, may also form dipoles because of charge
mobility. These forces which act between neutral structures are Van der Waals. They are
always present in addition to the other bonding forces, but their effect is very limited. The only
solids of this bonding alone are crystallized inert gases.

6. Hybrid (mixed) bonding – Single bond types occur only rarely in a lattice. Usually several
bond types are present in a crystal. In most cases, bonding forces in crystal lattice are of a
mixed or transitional type.

Homodesmic ( a single bond type predominates – diamond)

Heterodesmic (several bond type together i.e. – graphite)

Atomic and ionic radii in crystal lattices – atoms and ions in crystal lattice may be regarded as
spheres which are packed together. Their spacing is the sum of the radii of 2 touching atoms or ions. The
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radius of each of these structural units are determined by its atomic number and degree of ionization.
Atoms and ions are deformed to a bigger or smaller extent because of the mutual influence they exert on
one another. Atomic and ionic radii play a significant role in the chemistry of crystals. Ionic radii decrease
with in creasing positive charge.

Classification of Crystal Lattices:

Crystal lattices are classified according to their conformity to crystal chemical laws.

1. M. lattice – (lattice with predominantly metallic bonding) which try to achieve the greatest
possible space filling of the structural units and a high symmetry. True metals, (about 80%)
crystals in 1 or more of the following structures:

a) close packing – 1) cubic close packing (face centered cubic)

2) hexagonal close packing (face hexagonal lattice, 1 over
the other).
b) body centered cubic packing in the closest packing each atom is surrounded by 12 like
neighbors with identical spacing, in cubic packing, each layer is repeated in exactly the
same position, every fourth layer in the stack. Space filling in body centered cubic
packing, each atom has 8 like neighbors.
Cubic close packing – Ag Au Cu A1, etc.
Body centered cube – Li Na K V Ta
Hex. Close packing – Bi Mg Zn Rn Os
Many true metals of identical structural type exhibit isomorphism and therefore form
mixed crystals called alloys.

2. Lattice with bonding which resonates between (homopolar) polar and nonpolar (ionic).

Resonance is the alteration of different bonding states by which the lowest energy state is
established (mosemerism)

a) lattices with ionic – covalent resonance but with predominantly covalent bonding i.e.
diamond, zincblende, wurtzite.
b) simple lattice with ionic covalent resonance but with predominant polar bonding.

1) AX types (1 cation + 1 anion) NaC1, Si0, Ba0, Ca0

2) AX2 types (1 cation + 2 anion) Fluorite CaF 2, U02, Ti02, Si02 – structures
(showing characteristic transitions to homopolar bonding Si02BeF2).
3) Simple ternary lattice with ionic-covalent resonance S mBnXp (simple anion type
with 2 different kinds of cation) peroskite (Ca Ti03)
Spinal (AB204-Zn A1204, CaA1204)

c) Complex lattice with ionic covalent resonance. Certain ionic groups (complex) form
structural units of a higher order within the lattice.

1) Borates – BO3 group structural unit

2) Silicates – anions types of silicate structure arises thru bonding of Si0 4 groups
(Si04 tetrahedral) The ways in which bonding of these group occurs are:

1) silicate with separate groups of 1 or more Si0 4 tetrahedral: silicate with isolated
single Si04 group (orthosilicates)
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i) nesosilicates i.e.: olivine (MgFe)2 Si04

ii) sorosilicates, which are isolated group of 2 or more Si04 tetrahedral

thus giving the formula (Si207) – thortveitite Sc (Si207)6-

iii) ring silicates (cyclosilicates) with linkages of three Si04 – groups and
the formula (Si309)6- i.e. benitoite Ba Ti (Si309). There are also
silicates with linkage of 4 (Si4012)8- and six (Si609)12- silica tetrahedral
i.e. Beryl A12Be3 Si6018.

2. Chain silicates (inosilicates): the Si04 – groups are linked to form infinite
chains. Nearly all crystals with this structure have, therefore, a column, acicular
(needle shaped) or fibrous habit. One – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 7 – chained structures
occur, i.e. 2-naturally-linked single chains in the group (Si206)4- as pyroxene; 2
double chains with group (Si206)6- as in amphiboles.

3. Sheet silicates (phyllosilicates): these are formed by the linkage of 2 double

chains in such a way that a 2 dimensional network or sheet is build up of
(Si4010)4- groups – clay, talc, mica, and pyrophyllite.

4. Framework silicates (tectosilicated) these are formed when each Si04

tetrahedron is linked by all four corners, so each one is shared by 2 tetrahedral.
A 3-dimensional framework is then build up i.e. quartz, feldspar, nepheline,
leucite. Relatively, large open spaces occur in the framework structure, so
foreign ions or molecules can easily become accommodated in it without
essential change in framework – zeolites which absorb H20.

d) Ionic covalent resonance lattices with unlinked complexes: these form isolated groups,
which are so strongly bonded that they were able to retain a structural units in solution, i.e.
structures with BX3 complex such as CaCO3 (trigonal) aragonite CaCO3 (orthorhombic)
structures with BX4 complexes such as anhydrite CaSO4, Scheelite CaWO4.

3. M- resonance lattice (metalloid lattice) – possessed by crystal which exhibit

resonance bonding with a characteristic metallic, tendency, i.e. graphite, selenium,
sulfides with isometric structures (Pbs), Nicollite NiAs, pyrites, marcasites
chalcopyrite, with sheet structures i.e. molybdinite MoS2, and with chain structures
antimonite SbS3.SiS2. The intermediate compounds (Hume-Rothery phases, Zinth
phases, Laves phases) also belong to this class.

4. Molecular lattice: These are structures in which chemically specific, molecules, which
behave as more or less independent groups, form structural units of the lattice.

a) Lattice with simple molecules (molecular gases, sulfur, simple

hydrocarbons).
b) Lattices with chain shaped molecules: long chain aliphatic hydrocarbons,
long chain alcohols, ketones, esters, rubber, cellulose.
c) Lattices with planar molecules: aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, quinone
sugar
d) Lattices with complicated 3.D molecules: globular proteins
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IV. Calculation of a formula from an analysis: The results of an analysis gives the proportions in a
hundred parts of the mineral, of either the elements themselves or of their oxides or other
compounds obtained in the chemical analysis. In order to obtain the atomic proportions of the
elements:

1) Divide the % of the elements by the respective atomic weights or divide the %
amounts of each by their molecular weights, then find the simplest ratio
Ex: an analysis of bournomite gave the results (1) below. These % divided by the
respective atomic weights give the numbers under (2). Finally the ratic of this numbers
gives very nearly 1:3:1:1. Hence, the formula derived is CuPbSbS 3. The theoretical values
called for by the formula are added under 4.

1 2 3 4

Sb 24.34 : 120 = 0.203 1 24.7

S 19.76 : 32 = 0.617 3 19.8
Pb 42.88 : 206.4 = 0.208 1 42.5
Cu 13.06 : 63.2 = 0.207 1 13.0
100.04 100.0

Solid Solutions – there are cases where a compound may, in a certain sense, dissolve another unrelated
substance and form what is known as a solid solution. This is recognized in artificial salts and in certain
minerals. Artificial iron sulfide FeS (pyrrhotite) can dissolve an excess of sulfur up to about 6% and
natural pyrrhotite can absorb excess sulfur, thus the chem. formula is Fe x Sx+1. The excess S is variable
but maximum amount is about 6%.

Mineral gels – amorphous hydrated minerals frequently do not conform in their analyses to the
usually accepted formulas and can’t be regarded in the strict sense as definite chem. compounds. They
show properties of solid colloids or mineral gels. A colloidal solution maybe considered as being
intermediate in its characters between a true solution in which the salt in solution exists in particles of
molecular size and the case where the mineral material is definitely in suspension in a liquid, its particles
being visible and removable by filtration. The mineral gels or hydrogels (water is the liquid involved) are
apparently formed from such colloidal solutions by some process of coagulation and consists of
microheterogenous mixture of excessively minute particles of mineral material and water. These mineral
gels are formed at low temperatures and pressures and found among the products of rock weathering and
in oxidized sones of ore deposits or in hot spring deposits.

Metacolloids – are minerals originally colloidal but become more or less crystalline in character
thru a molecular rearrangement and develop a fibrous or foliated structure.

One important character of gel minerals is their power to absorb foreign materials. If thru some
change in condition one of these hydrogen should lose a part of its water content, the remaining material
would be finely divided and porous structure exactly adopted to exert a strong power of adsorption: opal,
bauxites, psilomilane, phosphates, etc.

Chemical and microchemical methods of analysis are of importance especially when only a minute
amount of the material is available for testing.
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Alteration of minerals – pseudomorphs. A crystallized mineral which has thus suffered change
so that its form no longer belongs to its chemical composition is defined as a pseudomorph. Pseudomorphs
are classed under:

1) pseudomorphs by substitution
2) pseudomorphs by simple deposition, i.e. incrustation or infiltration.
3) pseudomorphs by alteration by:

a) paramorphism – without a change of composition

b) loss of an ingredient
c) assumption of a foreign substance
d) partial exchange of constituents.

Chemical examination of minerals:

1) Examination in the wet way – reagents, solubility
2) Examination by means of blowpipe, fusibility
3) Examination closed and open tubes, charcoal heating, treatment on the platinium wire.

V. Crystal Physics

The physical behavior of crystals are dependent in direction:

4) Scalar properties: physical quantities without direction
5) Vectorial properties: physical quantities with direction

A. Scalar properties of Crystals or Minerals

1) Density of crystals, usually deviates from the true value to presence of inclusions and
impurities. Most non-metallic minerals have D lower then 2.9 while metallic minerals
have D higher than 3.9. Minerals with D higher than 2.9 are heavy minerals.

2) Specific heat of crystals are always temperature dependent and smaller than water. The
quantity of heat added is converted into vibrational energy of the lattice. Each lattice
unit has a characteristic frequency and thus the specific heat of a crystal is related to its
lattice energy (the amount of energy released when 1 gm-molecule of a particular
lattice structure is formed). Specific heats of minerals with a metallic appearance are
much lower than those of minerals a non-metallic appearance (given in cal/g/degree).

Gold - 0.031 Sulfur - 0.2

Diamond - 0.11 Gypum - 0.26
 14

A. Vertical Properties:

1. Hardness – the ability of a mineral to resist abrasion or indentation. Measured by Moh’s

Scale of hardness from 1-10.
Resistance to
Hardness No. Std. Mineral Simple Testing Agent Abrasion (Coul
-.100)
1 Talc Match 0.03
2 Gypsum Fingernail 1.25
3 Calcite Soft metal coin 4.5
4 Fluorite 5.0
5 Apatite Knife blade 6.5
Steel file, hard
6 Orthoclase 37
porcelain
7 Quartz Glass 120
8 Topaz 175
9 Corundum Carborundum (SiC) -1,000
10 Diamond 140,000
Hardness is determined by the lattice-structure, the smaller the spacings in the lattice and the
higher the particle valence, the greater is the hardness, which also increase with increasing lattice energy.

2. Cleavage – ability to break easily and smoothly along well defined planes of weakness.
These cleavage planes are those lattice planes between which the weakest bonding forces
are operative.

120° 88°

3. Deformation of Crystals: change of shapes when subjected to mechanical stress (pressure

extension)

a) Elastic deformation – strain disappears when the applied stress is removed –

lattice spacing.
b) Plastic deformation – permanent change – shape – translation gliding and twin
gliding. Glide planes are usually lattice planes of relatively dense packing.

Mechanical translation gliding produces all displacement of single “glide packets” which results in
a continuous deformation, without fracturing, at ordinary temperatures.

Mechanical twinning – symmetrically related undeformed parts of the lattice (twinning).

4. Thermal expansion (dilation) and thermal conductivity of crystals) – are direction oriented
(except to those of cubic system).
 15

Crystals with 3 equal axes possess 1 coefficient of expansion

Crystals with 2 equal and 1 perpendicular axes have 2 co-efficient expansion
Crystals with 3 unequal axes has 3 coefficient expansion

In calcite and graphite (hex.) expansion occurs in the direction parallel and a contraction
normal to the c axis. Crystals of close packed lattice or 1 which is closely related show only
very small differences of the thermal expansion in different directions.

5. Thermal Conductivity – only cubic crystals and glasses behave in an isotropic manner.
Silicates and quartz are better conductors of heat than water, quartz glass in poorer conductor
of heat than quartz.

6. Electrical conductivity. This is very variable in different kinds of crystal. It is possible to

differentiate between ionic conductivity and electron conductivity. Conduction in crystals is
generally due to a mixture of ionic and electron conduction. Both forms of conductivity are
conditioned by lattice imperfections. Ionic conductivity is predominant in rock salt and
electron conductivity is predominant in metals (metallic conductivity under the influence of an
applied electrical field, ions in ionic crystals diffuse in a preferred direction. This leads to a
flow of electricity. In electron conductivity mobile electrons are continuously available and
under an applied electrical field, these flow in a preferred direction.

Examples of specific electrical resistance:

Silver (cubic system – 0.016 x 10-4 ohm/cm

Quarts (hex. Trigonal 3 x 1014 ohm/cm
Quarts (hex. Normal to C-axis 3 x 1016 ohm/cm

(Thus the difference between silver and Quartz extends to a factor of 1020).

Piezoelectricity – this occurs only in crystals without a center of symmetry – (all faces of a crystal
with a center of symmetry occur as pairs arranged in equivalent positions and parallel orientations on
opposite sides of a central point.) Ex. of crystals without a center of symmetry are quartz, tourmaline,
tartaric acid, zinc blende, sodium chlorate, unrefined sugar. In such crystals an electric charge in a specific
(polar) direction results from application of pressure or a tensile stress. A polar direction is 1 in which
equivalent faces do not appear on opposite sides of a crystal. The effect can be reversed by application of
an electric potential and contraction or dilation of the crystal results. A fixed cycle pf contraction and
dilation results from the application of an alternating current. Small rods of single crystals (quarts fo i.e.)
are used in this way as hi-frequency oscillators. Of the 32 crystals classes, 20 exhibit a polar direction,
thus piezoelectricity.
An explanation of the piezoelectricity effect according to lattice structure is as follows: The
spacing between cations and anions in the polar direction are changed by increase in pressure or tensile
stress. The electrical neutrality is disturbed by this displacement and the opposing charge occurs at the end
of the polar axis.

Pryelectricity – this also depends on the absence of a center of symmetry, and on the polarity of
such crystals. In this case however, the polar direction must coincide with a principal crystal axis,
piezoelectricity does not depend on this condition. Polar principal axes may be recognized by the fact that
the kinds of crystal faces at one end of the crystal are different to those occurring at the other end. On
heating such crystal at one end, the heated end becomes negatively charged and the other positive charged.
 16
Only 10 crystal classes occur in which pyroelectricity is possible i.e.: tourmaline, unrefined sugar, tartaric
acid, willemite, scolecite.

The lattice structural explanation is very similar to that for the piezoelectric effect, the only
difference being that, in this case, the ionic spacings is charged by heating.

Magnetism: Crystals may be classified into 3 groups on the basis of their magnetic properties:
diamagnetic crystals (i.e. rock salt, calcite); paramagnetic crystals (i.e. aluminum, siderite); ferromagnetic
crystals (i.e. iron, Co, Ni, Magnetic, ferrite).

The groups are differentiated by their magnetic susceptivity

K = M/H H = strength of magnetic field of the crystals

M = magnetic moment/unit volume

Diamagnetic crystals (K<O) those which, when suspended in strong magnetic field, arrange
themselves across the lines of force. Their magnetic is produced principally by induction. Paramagnetic
crystals (K>O) arrange themselves parallel to the lines of force. Atoms and ions of these crystals already
possess a magnetic moment; these are disordered due to thermal motion so that, initially, the crystals as a
whole exhibit no magnetic moment. The moments became ordered under the influence of external
magnetic field.

Ferromagnetic crystals (K>O) attains very high values) are dependent on the external magnetic
field. Ferromagnetism is a property of the crystals, not of atoms and is due to the fact that, in single
crystal, domains with strongly oriented magnetic moments occur. The moments of each of the various
crystal domains are oriented in different directions. Under the influence of an external magnetic field, the
moments become oriented in specific directions.

Crystal optic – except for cubic system, all crystals which transmit lights are doubly refracting, an
incident beam of light waves will split into 2 beams by the crystal. One beam (ordinary rays) pass thru
without being refracted whereas (extraordinary rays) the other ray is refracted.

Vibration direction of both the resultant beams are mutually perpendicular (polarized light)
whereas in a normal incident beam all vibration directions occur.

Pleochroism occur in many coloured, non cubic crystals, the color in different directions varies
quite distinctly. This depends on the variable kind and intensity of absorption of different wavelengths in
different directions in the crystal.

Refractive index of a crystal gives the relationship between the velocity of light in a vacuum to that
in the medium (crystal, glass). N means the velocity of light in the crystal. n = 1.5 means
300,000/200,000.

1) in cubic crystal, is same in all directions

2) non cubic doubtly refracting crystal :

c) optically uniaxial crystal – hex, tetragonal have Ne; No

b) optically biaxial crystal – ortho, mono and tri have n nß nr
OR nx ny nz
 17
Luminescene – this is the ability of may crystals to change other forms of energy into light
energy.

Various kinds of luminescence occur

1. Thermoluminescence: crystals which emit light on heating-Flourite

2. Electroluminescence: light emission on subjecting the crystal to the influence of an electrical
field (semi-conductor phosphors from a type of zincblende).
3. Cheluminescene: light emission produced by a chemical reaction.
4. Triboluminescence: light emission produced during mechanical stressing (zincblende, rock
salt, fluorite).
5. Crystalloluminescence: light emission during the crystallization of a compound (NaOH from
the melt).

Luminescence may be caused by lattice imperfections in a crystal (“crystal phosphors” Cds, ZnS,
scheelite CaWo4, Willemite ZnSiO4, alkaline earth sulphides). Chemically pure crystal show no light
emission. Luminescence is often caused by the presence of particular types of atoms (rare earths) in the
crystal lattice.

Electron Emission – of crystal is closely linked with luminescence. It occurs in crystals during
and after mechanical stressing, during bombardment with x-ray beams, ultraviolet and visible light. The
emission of electrons is always combined with visible light. The emission of electrons is always combined
with light emission.

Crystal and x-ray. The measurements of lattice-planes (spacings of lattice points) are of the order
of magnitude of angstrom units, the same order as that of x-ray wavelengths. When crystals are places in
the path of an x-ray beam, diffraction patterns result from which the lattice-symmetries of the crystal can
be determined. The resulted diffraction pattern is called a Lave diagram.

Relationship exist between the lattice spacing of the crystal an the angle of incidence and
wavelength of the x-ray beam used.

Electron beams – wavelength of which is smaller than that of x-rays.

Radioactivity – factors of mineralogical important are the rate of decay, the decay products, the
quantity of heat released by the decay process and the radiation involved.

Metallic minerals – large quantities of radioactive substances in a mineral can break down the
crystal lattice completely and make it isotropic. Such structurally disordered minerals are amorphous to x-
ray and in a state similar to glasses. The original crystal structures of metallic minerals can often be
restored by heating.

VI. Geochemistry is the study of the distribution and relative abundance of the chemical elements and
isotopes in minerals, rocks, soils, water, atmosphere and cosmos; the geochemistry cycle in relation
to the properties of their ions and atoms.

Practical application of geochemistry in mining, metallurgy, in the chem.. industry, agriculture, bio
(circulation and distribution of chem.. elements is closely bound up with biochem processes in organisms)
and in the exploitation of intrastellar space.

Composition of the earth (reliable up to depth of 20km.) (Earth’s radius is 6377 km.) consists of
spherical shells of differing densities and compositions.
 18

Depth Shelle Density

0-50 km. Sial – Silicate shell lithosphere 2.8
50-1200 km Sima 4.0
1,200-2,900 km Sulphide-oxide shell = 5.5
transition shell
2,900-6,377 km Nickel-iron core 8.10

Sial – principal elements are silicon and aluminum

Sima – principal elements are silicon and magnesium

Each of the shells show concentration of particular affinities for each other under specific physic-
chemical conditions.

These elements have a weaker affinity for sulfur and oxygen than for iron and dissolve easily in
iron, as elements or alloys.
These are known as siderophile elements. The important ones occur in group VIII or neighboring
elements of the periodic table and possess an incomplete outer electrons shell.

Ni-Fa core minerals: Fe, Ru, Os, Au, Ge, C (Pb)

Co, Rh, Ir, Sn, P (As)
Ni, PD, Pt, Mo (W)

The calcophile elements have a strong affinity for sulfur and are soluble in an FeS melt. They
belong to the B subgroups of the periodic table, whose have 18 electrons in the outer-shells.

Sulphide Shell (Transitional shell)

Cu Zn Ca (Ge) As A (Fe)
Ag Cd In (In) Sb Se (Mo)
Hg Fe Pb Bi Te (Cr)

The lithophile elements show the strongest affinity for oxygen. They readily form ions with 8
elelctrons in the outer shell.

(Sial and Sima) Li Be B, Rare Earths (C) F (Te) (Fe)

Na Mg A1 Si Cr C1 (Ge Mn)
K Ca Sc Ti W Br (Ge)
Rb Sr Y Zn U I (Sn)
Cs Ba Hf Th

The biosphere and the atmosphere also belongs to the earth. The biosphere – domain of plant and
animal organisms on the earth’s surface, in the water and air – elements are H C N O P V I K S.

Atmosphere elements are H N (C) (O) He Ne Ar, Kr Xe Rn

The supplement part of the crust (to a depth of 16 km.):

95% igeous rocks (chiefly granite)

4% shales - 5% sedimentary rocks
 19
0.75% sandstones - 5% sedimentary rocks
0.25% limestones - 5% sedimentary rocks

The elements (in the order of abundance are:

O This show O and Si make up nearly 75% by weight

Si of the entire crust of the earth. The 8 most
A1 abundant elements (O, Si, A1, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg)
Fe make almost 99% of the weight of the crust,
Ca with oxygen amounts to nearly half the total
Na weight. The earths crust can be regarded as
K a dense packing of oxygen ions with metal ions
Mg occurring in the intestinal spaces.
Ti Composition of the hydrosphere which is formed
H almost exclusively of sea water with only a
P negligible fraction of fresh water is: 85.8%
Mn O2 and 10.67% H2
S
Sr
Ba
C
C1
Cr
Zn

VII Petrology

Rocks are formed by geological processes in which chemical reactions, pressures, temperature
place of formation in the crust and the length of time involved in the formation, all play important roles.

Rocks are generally classified into 3

Group I - Igneous which solidified directly from the magma.

Group II - Sedimentary rocks are those which are formed from the break down of other
rocks, either igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rocks.

Group III - Metamorphic rocks are those formed by the transformation under a variety of
conditions or sedimentary rocks.

MAGMA
MELTING SOLIDIFIED
MELTINGS

METAMORPING IGNEOUS
ROCKS ROCKS

INCREASE IN BREAKDOWN,
TEMPERATURE TRANSPORTED
& PRESSURE & DEPOSITED,
SEDIMENTARY
THEN
ROCKS
CONSOLIDATE
D
 20

Igneous rocks are further subdivided into:

A. Plutonic Igneous rocks – those which solidified before reaching the

earht’s crust – i.e. granite, diocrite, gabbro.

B. Volcanic igneous rocks – those which solidified after reaching the earth’s crust – i.e.
rhyolite, and esite, basalt.

Sedimentary rocks are also subdivided into:

1. organically deposited – limestone, Oolites, shale, coal

2. mechanically deposited – conglomerate, sandstone

Metamorphic rocks are subdivide into:

1. directed pressure – schist gneiss, phyllites, catarlantite

2. non-directed pressure – hornfels, granulite

VI. Systematic Mineralogy

Classification of Minerals

I. Class : elements
II. Class : Sulfides and related compounds
III Class : Haloids
IV Class : Oxides and hydroxides
V Class : nitrates, carbonates, borates (oxy-salts with 0 in 3 fold coordinates)
VI Class : sulphates, chromates molybdates, tengstates (hexavalent cation
with 0 in 4 fold coordination)
VII Class : phosphates, arsenates, vanadates (pentavalent cation with 0 in 4
fold coordination)
VIII Class : Silicates
SiO4 – structures with single tetrhadedra
(mesosilicates)
SiO4 – structures with groups of tetrahedral
(sarosilicates)
SiO4 – chain structure –inosilicates
SiO4 – sheet structures – phyllosilicates
SiO4 – framework structures – tectosilicates

Summary of important ores and their uses:

Metal Principal Uses

A1 production, abrasives,
1. Aluminum Bauxite
element, oil
2. Antimony Corundum Refining, refractory bricks
Stibnite Uses in alloys, flame proofing
 21
agent for textiles, dyes, lacquer,
ammunition.
Pesticides, protective coating of
timber, enamels, alloys. Most of
the As produces is extracted
Arsenopyrite from gases formed by the
3. Arsenic
Orpiment, smelting of lead, Cu, Au and Sn
Realgar ores which contain arsenides
orthio-arsenides.

Steel processing , rocket and jet

aircraft materials, moderators in
4. Beryllium Beryl nuclear reactors, supersonic,
missile material, Cu-Be alloys to
gemstones.
Pharmacy, dyes, enamels,
glazing low, melting alloysl.
Native Bismuth
5. Bismuth Production of Bi comes from
Bismuthinite
smelting of Pb, Zn, Au, W and
Sn ores.
Low smelting alloys, glass
6. Cadmium Greenockite industry, reactor material, dyes,
rust-preventive, coating of iron.
Chrome-nickel steels,
chrometungsten stells, chromium
plating, no-chrome wires,
7. Chromium Chromite
refractory bricks and bodies,
wood preservation, tanning,
dyes.
Smaltite – hi-grade and hi-speed
8. Cobalt Cobaltite steel manufacturing, ceramic
pigments and catalysts.

References:

Dana, Textbook of Mineralogy

Kraus, Hunt & Ramsdel, Mineralogy
Kirsch, Helmit, Applied Mineralogy
Gilluly, Waters and Woodford – Principles of Geology
Holmes, Arthur, Principles of Physical Geology