Materials

Materials

Material Manual - Maintainability Website

http://www.hpbc.bdg.nus.edu.sg/
Common problems

Materials
Concrete Plastic

Material Manual https://www.hpbc.bdg.nus.edu.sg/

Chemical Physical Mechanical Thermal

Decomposition Density Strength Conductivity
Charring Expansion Elasticity Specific heat
Softening Strain Diffusivity
Melting Creep Inertia
Spalling
Timber Glass
Materials

Type of Cracking
A, B, C Plastic settlement Concrete & Masonry
D, E, F Plastic shrinkage
G, H Early thermal contraction
I Long-term drying shrinkage
J, K Crazing or mesh
L, M Corrosion of reinforcement
N Alkali-silica reaction

Shear cracks

Tension
ineffective joint
bending cracks

Crack at
kicker joints

Rust stain

From Concrete Society Technical Report 22 http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/re

active/v02issue02.cfm
Materials

Manufacture of Cement
• Cement itself is made by roasting together crushed chalk (calcium carbonate)
and clay slurry in giant steel kilns to a temperature of 1,450C.

• During this process water and carbon dioxide escape, and the dry residue is
crushed to form cement powder. This consists mainly of a mixture of
calcium and aluminium silicates:

3CaCO3(s) + Al4Si4O10(OH)8(s)→ Ca3SiO5(s) + Al4Si3O12 + 4H2O(g) + 3CO2(g)

http://www.pmhl.co.uk/cement.aspx

• During the roasting process, some calcium carbonate decomposes to

calcium oxide, but does not then become neutralised by the clay, so the
cement, and the subsequent concrete, contain unreacted calcium oxide, a
strong base:
CaCO3(s)→ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
• Concrete is quite a porous material and, as rain water soaks through it,
the calcium oxide dissolves to form calcium hydroxide solution
(limewater)
CaO(s) + H2O(l)→ Ca(OH)2(aq)
Materials
ASR
1. Calcium hydroxide is also alkaline. Silica, SiO2, being the oxide of a non-metallic element, is acidic and, in the presence of water, reacts with the alkali in the
cement in what is called an 'Alkali-Silica Reaction' (ASR)

Silicic acid Calcium silicate hydrate (swelling gel)

Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 → Ca2+ + H2SiO42− + 2 H2O → CaH2SiO4 · 2 H2O
2. During the Alkali-Silica Reaction, a gel is formed that swells as it draws water from the surrounding cement paste.

3. In absorbing water, these gels expand, thus inducing pressure and subsequent cracking of the aggregate and surrounding paste.

CaH2SiO4

SiO2 SiO2

Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2

Reactive silica Formation of

in cement paste silica gel

CaH2SiO4
H2O
SiO2

H2O H2O
Ca(OH)2
Gel swelling cause Gel absorbs
cracking of paste water and swell Examples of alkali-silica reaction (courtesy of Greensboro North Carolina)
 ASR
Materials
Video – ASR-1 Video – ASR-2
ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore
solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (eg: chert, quartzite,
opal, strained quartz crystals).
Typical visual symptoms include unusual
expansion of the concrete evidenced by
longitudinal cracks, map cracking (random
cracking pattern), closed joints, spalled surfaces,
displacement of adjacent structural components,
popouts, efflorescence, or discoloration
(darkened or blotchy areas). http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/concrete/reactive/v02issue02.cfm

http://www.hpcbridgeviews.com/i51/Article3.asp The best technique for the

identification of ASR is the
examination of concrete in thin
section, using a petrographic
microscope. Alternatively,
polished sections of concrete can
Typical crack pattern of the alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The be examined by scanning
gel exudations through the concrete cracks have a characteristic
yellow color and a high pH. The fatty aspect of the exudations
electron microscopy (SEM).
imbibing the concrete porosity along the cracks is also a
distinctive feature of ASR.
http://www.cement.org/tech/faq_ASR_diagnosing.asp https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali%E2%80%93silica_reaction
 ASR
Materials
Petrography
NUS - Analysis of
concrete thin section
under the optical
fluorescent microscope
METASERV 2000 Grinder/Polisher

Gel in air void and cracks. Ordinary polarized light

Petrobond Curing Fixture

Concrete thin-section, viewed with a petrographic microscope, showing a

chert aggregate particle (at the right of the image) from which alkali-silica gel
has extruded into adjacent cracks. http://www.understanding-cement.com/alkali-silica.html

Leica DMLP Microscope

Vacuum impregnation

Alkali silica gel filling air void

Fluorescent light Plane Polarized Light micrograph of alkali silica reaction (ASR)
http://www.concrete-experts.com/pages/optical.htm
induced cracking of andesite aggregate https://rjlg.com/2014/12/petrography
-tell-you-about-concrete-structures/
 ASR
Materials
Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning electron microscope

Same image as in Figure 3, with X-ray spectra superimposed showing how
alkali-silica gel composition changes with distance from the source, and time
Detail of the chert particle in the previous
image and adjacent cement paste, showing
alkali-silica gel extruded into cracks
within the concrete. Ettringite is also
present within some cracks.

Polished section of concrete,

viewed with a scanning
electron microscope,
showing a chert aggregate
This SEM micrograph shows the cracking typical of alkali-silica reactions. The particle with extensive
cracking is likely due to the loss of moisture after the sample was removed from internal cracks due to ASR.
the deck and during sample preparation in the lab. The corresponding EDS The cracks extend from the
spectrum for ASR gel shows the presence of potassium and silicon, essential aggregate into the nearby
components of ASR. concrete (arrowed).

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/05may/03.cfm
http://www.understanding-cement.com/alkali-silica.html
 ASR
Materials https://www.ndtjames.com/v/vspfiles/templates/neon/images/DataSheets/ASR-Detect.pdf

Chemical tests James instruments

ASR Detect exploits the cation-exchange and
compositional properties of ASR gels to pinpoint
ASR degradation in a chemically specific way.
Most gels contain cations (positively charged
atoms or molecules) that readily exchange with
other cations in solution. ASR Detect’s two
reagents react with cations found in the two gels
associated with ASR. The first reagent
exchanges sodium with the potassium found in
some ASR gels and then reacts to form a bright
yellow precipitate. The second reagent reacts
with calcium-rich ASR gel to form a bright pink
stain. In concrete containing ASR, the result is a
brightly colored surface showing the presence of
ASR DETECT - COLORED DYE FIELD TEST TO DETECT ASR the targeted gels; concrete with no ASR is
unaffected.

Concrete tested with yellow gel only Concrete tested with pink and yellow gels
Concrete tested with pink gel only
Untreated Concrete showing beginning stages of ASR showing both beginning and advanced
showing advanced ASR degradation
degradation stages of ASR
Materials

Carbonation Chloride Ion attack

The mechanism of
depassivation of the
protective layer around
reinforcement due to
Steel depassivation
carbonation and chloride
ion attack

Increase in steel volume Corrosion products

https://www.materialsperformance.com/articles/material-
selection-design/2018/01/test-samples-of-reinforced-concrete-

Pitting
are-often-too-small

Surface corrosion

Concrete cracking and

spalling

Cross-section failure Bond failure Cross-section

failure of steel
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S

of concrete 0950061811001632

STRUCTURAL FAILURE
Fig.EE Concrete spalling due to carbonation (top) and steel pitting due to chloride ion attack (bottom)

CO2
Carbonation depth
outside CO2 outside
CC

inside inside
CC – Concrete cover Surface Corrosion – a uniform flat gray surface
attack leading to corrosive deposits.

air
O2 O2 • Chloride ions can enter concrete in two ways:

Na+ - added during mixing either deliberately as an

O2 Na+ Cl- O2
Na+ Cl- admixture or as a contaminant in the original
Cl- OH-
OH- OH- Fe(OH)3 Fe(OH)3 OH- constituents.
- enter the set concrete from an external
Cl- Fe2+ source such as sea water.
H+ e- Passive film
e-
Fe2+ H+ Cl- e-
e-
Cl- H+ • Once chloride ions have reached the
Cl- reinforcement in sufficient quantities they will
H+
depassivate the embedded steel by breaking
steel down the protective oxide layer normally
maintained by the alkaline environment.
Steel pitting Pitting Corrosion is the localized corrosion of a metal surface
confined to a point or small area, that takes the form of cavities.
Materials

Carbonation phenolphthalein solution

• Cement paste contains 25-50 wt% calcium hydroxide

(Ca(OH)2), which mean that the pH of the fresh cement
paste is at least 12.5. The pH of a fully carbonated paste is
about 7:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H2O
• Normal carbonation results in a decrease of the porosity
making the carbonated paste stronger. Carbonation is
therefore an advantage in non-reinforced concrete.
However, it is a disadvantage in reinforced concrete, as
pH of carbonated concrete drops to about 7; a value
below the passivation threshold of steel.

http://www.testech.com.my/gallery.html
 Chloride Ion Attack
Materials

http://www.arrb.com.au/infrastructure/concrete.aspx

Video - De-icing
Pitting
Video – Cathodic Corrosion
is the
protection localized
corrosion
of a metal
surface
confined to
a point or
small area,
that takes
the form of
cavities.
ASTM G46-94(2018) – standard guide for examination and evaluation of pitting corrosion pitting in pipe
Materials

Chloride Ion Attack

Chloride Concentration Measurement Half-Cell Corrosion Potential Mapping
With this method, the concentration of acid soluble chlorides is measured. In most cases, this is
equivalent to total chloride concentration.
Half Cell corrosion mapping offers
a rapid, cost-effective and non-
A sample of powder is obtained by drilling and careful quartering. Then an accurately weighed
destructive way for corrosion assessment.
3 gr. (0.1 oz) sample is dissolved in 20 ml (0.67 fl. oz.) of extraction liquid which consists of a
The test provides valuable information on
precise, measured concentration of acid. For sampling wet concrete a 3 gr. (0.1 oz.) sample of
the likelihood of corrosion, and helps in
mortar (i.e. without coarse aggregate) is used.
the quality assurance of concrete repair
and rehabilitation. Several standard
The chloride ions react with the acid of the extraction liquid in an electrochemical reaction. An
associations have standardized the test
electrode, with integral temperature sensor, is inserted into the liquid and the electrochemical
procedure including the ASTM C
reaction measured. A uniquely designed instrument converts the voltage generated by the
876, UNI 10174 and RILEM TC
chloride concentration. The instrument automatically applies the temperature correction and it
154. Depending on the measured half cell
shows the chloride concentration on a LCD display in either lbs. per cu. yd. or percentage by
corrosion potential value, the probability
weight.
of active corrosion is determined.
https://www.fprimec.com/corrosion-monitoring-of-reinforced-concrete-structures/
Once the sample is obtained, test results can be determined and read in less than five minutes.

Corrosion Rate Measurement

Half-cell potentials do not provide any information
on the kinetics of the reactions. Why is that
important? The kinetics can help us predict how fast
reinforcing bars are corroding. This can help predict
the remaining service life of a structure, and help
prepare a comprehensive maintenance plan. Several
techniques are available for measuring the corrosion
rate. Most of them rely on predicting the polarization
resistance of reinforcement. Conventional test
methods require a connection to reinforcement mesh;
recent developments in the industry offer connection-
less methods, which makes it faster, and less
http://ndtjames-old.com/catalog/corrosionTesting/chlorideTest_technical.html intrusive. https://www.utest.com.tr/en/23504/Measurement-of-Reinforcement-Corrosion-R
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Efflorescence is the formation of salt
Efflorescence deposits, usually white, on or near the surface
of concrete causing a change in appearance.
Video -
efflorescence

1. Efflorescence : in French -"to flower out“. 1 1

2. Salt dissolved in water, move to places
by different means and paths.

3. On the surface, water evaporates but not

the salt.

4. Salt crystalizes to the atmosphere on

exposure to air.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ausbl%C3%BChungen.JPG#filehistory

3 4
2 It is the spontaneous loss of water by a
hydrated salt, which occurs when the
aqueous vapor pressure of the hydrate
is greater than the partial pressure of
the water vapour in the air. For
example, because the vapour
pressures of washing soda
(Na2CO3·10H2O) and Glauber’s salt
(Na2SO4·10H2O) normally exceed that
of the water vapour in the atmosphere,
Possible means
these salts effloresce (i.e., lose all or
and paths of
water soluble
part of their water of hydration), and
salts that form their surfaces assume a powdery
efflorescence appearance.

http://www.buildingscience.com/documents/insights/bsi-011-capillarity-small-sacrifices/images/bsi11_figure_03.jpg http://activerain.com/image_store/uploads/6/5/9/8/1/ar124742615318956.JPG
Materials
Calthermite stalactite – deposit of calcium carbonate
Calthemite is a deposit derived from concrete, mortar or lime, which can be mistakenly assumed to be efflorescence. Calthemites
are usually deposited as calcite which is the most stable polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(aq) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalactite

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(aq)

Materials https://www.engineeringexpress.com/wiki/spacing-edge-distance-embedment-important-concrete-anc
Failure modes of anchorage

Edge Distance and Spacing Reduction Concrete Spall Cone Bond Failure

Video

• A rule of thumb is that an anchor

should generally have a minimum of
12x the diameter of anchor spacing to
an adjacent anchor or to any concrete
edge.

• Also, the concrete should have a

minimum thickness of 1.5x the depth
of embedment of the anchor.

• Consult manufacturer’s instructions.

https://www.asdipsoft.com/anchor-rod-design-complex-aci-provisions-part-2/ http://www.itwredhead.com/red_workprinc03.asp https://encorus.com/2020/10/23/concrete-anchors/

Common problems
Shrinkage & cracks

https://www.flexomeric.com/Types-of-Cracks-in-Concrete_ep_50.html
Materials Local newspapers say the Land Transport Authority (LTA), which is building the underground Telok
Ayer Station as part of the new Downtown Line, believes there is no structural damage and the building
Singapore's oldest Chinese clan building, Ying Fo Fui Kun
is safe for occupation.
have had serious cracks appear in it since January, 2009. Old
ones have also widened in the 188-year-old building in Telok
Ayer Street.

http://www.asiaone.com/News/AsiaOne+News/Singapore/Story/A1Story20101224-254564.html
The Straits Times 24 December 2010
Materials

http://www.cncrestore.info/p/foundation-repair.html

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seattle_-_619_Western_-_crack_in_wall.jpg

http://s1.zetaboards.com/L_Anon/topic/4170835/6/
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials

17 March 2017 43-year old flat at Marine Terrace

In the wee hours of Monday morning, Madam Chen Xiuying was on her
way to the toilet when concrete pieces from her kitchen ceiling landed in
front of her – just a dangerous 2m away.
Her husband, retiree Lee Zhanwu, said: “We had noticed two cracks of
about 30cm a while back but thought we would report them later on. We
didn’t think too much about it.”

http://www.thefinder.com.sg/healthy-living/home-living/true-story-what-do- https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/ceiling-concrete-slab-falls-
when-your-home-ceiling-starts-falling/ toilet-old-toa-payoh-flat-narrowly-misses-domestic-worker
Materials
Common problems
Precast construction

Splice sleeve adopted in connection joints between precast concrete components

NMB Splice Sleeve

Conceptualized representation of splice

sleeve in precast concrete wall Installation of Hollow Precast Concrete Wall with embedded splice sleeve
https://www.slideshare.net/JustinDinale/nmb-splice-sleeve-
Common problems Precast construction https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322632100_The_Chilean_Eart
hquake_of_February_27_2010_Mw_88/figures?lo=1
https://www.carrasquilloassociates.com/project/foundatio
n-movements-welding-defects-precast-parking-garage/

Foundation movements and welding defects in a precast

parking garage
Crack at corbel supporting a full precast beam Corbel failure of precast building

Water Leakage
and Stain Marks

Repair at joint between precast column and slab Repair at joint between precast facade and slab
Materials
Falling tiles Video – Tiles
1990:
- Ministry of Environment Building
- PUB Building
- Yen San Building

1992:
- Parkway Builders Centre – injured a
pedestrian.

1992 - PWD (now BCA) issued a memo,

discouraging the use of tiles (ceramic
and stone tiles bedded with adhesive)
on facades of buildings exceeding 4 storeys.
Materials
Anatomy of a tiling system Direct shear test

substrate

tile

adhesive

Slant shear test

Materials
Falling of mosaics Different mechanisms of failure

Massive shrinkage
Materials
Falling of big tiles

Damp bedding with possible re-emulsification of polymer Behind a hollow sounding tile Survey: over 43,000 fallen tiles found in two economic
housing buildings – Macau Daily – 02 June 2021

Buckling of tiles on building facade Failure of plaster substrate instead of ceramic tiling
In 2018, the
Shenzhen News
Network also
reported on a
situation where
bricks fell off the
exterior wall of
Garden City Phase
III.

https://inf.news/en/home/f663e69d04ad2ab7acc45cb8e265257c.h
tml
Materials
Tile Explosion Video Video - HDB
The Housing and Development Board (HDB) on Tuesday (16 Jan 2018) said there have been 700
reported cases of dislodged tiles in the first half of January.

"Dislodgement of tiles occurs due to natural deterioration

and differential thermal expansion or contraction of the tiles,
which results in a loss of adhesion between the tiles and the
screed surface over time," said HDB.
It also said that significant changes in temperature can
"cause more stress to be built up" beneath the
tiles, contributing to the loss of adhesion.
Materials
Sealants

Backer rod

Backer rod

sealant

Concrete pavement – Changi Terminal 2

Materials
Sealants
Concrete pavement – Changi Terminal 2
Materials
Sealants Concrete pavement – Changi Terminal 2
Common problems
Sealant - durability Video – sealant application at POMO
Materials

Performance data of high-range two part sealants

(serve as a general guide only – differs among suppliers)

Polysulfide Polyurethane Silicone

Recovery Good Excel Excel

Expected life (yrs) 20 20+ 30

UV resistance Crazes Good Good

Ozone resistance Crazes Good Good

Heat aging resistance Toughens Good Good

Resistance to compression Moderate High High

Resistance to expansion Moderate High High

Cut, tear, abrasion resistance Good High Poor

Materials Concrete pavement –
Changi Terminal 2

Grit blasting
Cleaning & surface preparation
Grit blasting

Applying self-leveling sealant Priming

Taping to protect the sides
 Balance between slip resistance and stainability or cleanability?

The glass ‘water drops’ on the ceramic

tiles both prevent a slippery floor and at
the same time massage the feet of the
person walking on them, creating the
strange illusion of a rain splattered floor
that stays permanently dry. (Glass drop
floortiles are produced by Royal
Tichelaar Makkum)

Black slate floor tiles, features a

natural slip-resistant versatility Granito Slip Resistant vitrified
ceramic Floor Tiles

Chemical to Anti-slip treatment process alters the mineral structure of the floor surface which in turn increases
make floor tiles the slip resistive properties and makes the floor safer when wet.
As the treatment chemical is applied to the surface, it removes soft particles and exposes hard
less slippery -
particles of the flooring surface.
Etching So, what used to look like the 'great prairies' of Canada, now looks like the Rocky Mountains,
...only 'under a microscope'!!!

http://www.chem-solutions.com/index.php/concrete_floor_systems/anti-slip_flooring_systems/safe-stride/faq__safe-stride/
 Slip Resistance Test Methods
This pendulum device is portable and consists of a weighted foot with a test slider that swings
down and slides across the surface wetted with water.

Pendulum Mean BPN

AS/NZS 4586 AS/NZS 4663 Notional contribution of the floor
Four S TRL Classification surface to the risk of slipping when wet

>54 >44 V Very low

45 – 54 40 – 44 W Low

35 - 44 - X Moderate

25 – 34 - Y High

Wet Pendulum Slip Test <25 - Z Very high

Video – Pendulum
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sPqcX62DfPU&feature=related

A battery operated machine commonly referred to as the "dry FFT“ or "Tortus". The dry FFT
measures the force opposing the motion of a 9 mm diameter test slider of Four S rubber as it
moves across the surfaces at a constant speed of 1m/min.

Floor friction tester AS/NZS 4663 Notional contribution of the floor

AS/NZS 4586 Classification
mean value surface to the risk of slipping when dry

≥0.40 F Moderate to very low

<0.40 G High to very high

Video – Tortus
Dry Floor Friction Slip Test http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6QZTDGb1DlI
http://www.safeenvironments.com.au/slip-resistance-test-methods/
Wide route connecting to all spaces and facilities with braille and tactile signages. Must be slip-resistant Should not project onto a road surface

Detectable warning surfaces at kerb ramps

Tactile paving (also called tenji blocks, truncated domes, detectable warnings, tactile
tiles, tactile ground surface indicators, tactile walking surface indicators, or detectable
warning surfaces) is a system of textured ground surface indicators found on stairs and railway
station platforms, to assist pedestrians who are vision impaired.

Its modern form can be classified into two types: one has small, round bumps upon the surface of
the block, which are felt through a sole (known as warning block), and the second is a directional
aid, with long, slender bumps being installed on the surface (known as directional block).
Braille tactile signage on a handrail
Provision of anti-slip at locations in common areas subjected to frequent wetness.

A staircase upper landing with detectable warning surfaces,

non-slip tread, visible nosings with grit, and handrails. A
ramp with handrails for wheelchairs is on the left.
A pedestrian walkway with a course floor Detectable warning surface on the
surface in a carpark near a washing bay. lower landing and visible anti-slip grit
nosings at the edge of every step of a
staircase.
Fig. 6.3. (a). Visible signs and contrasting colours to prevent slips, trips and falls.

A ramp to a basement carpark with visible contrasting A ramp of a carpark with a large warning sign showing
colour on the hump and kerb a sharp turn and with protective rubber along the
parapet

. Carpark ramp with blockage on a slope (undesirable).

Reflective sign showing the exit path to a pressurised Security barriers with visible contrasting colours at the
stairwell entrance of a facility
Fig. 6.3. (b). Visible signs and contrasting colours to prevent slips, trips and falls.

Visible
contrasting
colour of
warning signs
on the landings
of a steep stair

Visible contrasting colour of detectable warning surfaces,

anti-slip grit visible nosings of stairs

Visible contrasting colour at the edge of a kerb

Circulation route within a park.
Fig. 6.10. Falling objects from the ceiling.

Collapse of the ceiling panel due to the weight of accumulated leaked water Falling off of a ventilation duct due to the weight of accumulated leaked water

Concrete spalling from the ceiling of a Concrete spalling from the ceiling of a carpark
A shattered glass panel on the ceiling of canopy
common corridor
Mould growth on the ceiling of common areas (top) and falling of shattered glass and tiles from the side wall of common areas (bottom).
 GLASS
Video: How glass is made – part 1
How glass is made – part 2

• Glass is a "supercooled liquid" usually produced when the viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature, without
sufficient time for a regular crystal lattice to form.

• Glass is manufactured from silica sand (72%), soda (14%), lime (10%), and various oxides (4%), fused in a furnace at around 1500°C then (in the most
frequently used process) flowed continuously onto molten tin where it solidifies.

Annealed Glass
Annealed glass (ordinary glass) is glass without internal stresses caused by heat treatment (ie toughening or heat strengthening). Glass becomes annealed if it
becomes heated above a transition point, then allowed to cool slowly, without being quenched (rapid cooling), to prevent cracking caused by thermal shock.

Annealed glass is the common glass that breaks into large, jagged shards that can cause serious injury, hence annealed glass is considered a hazard in building
applications. Building codes in many parts of the world restrict the use of annealed glass in areas where there is a high risk of breakage and injury, for example in
bathrooms, in door panels, fire exits and schools.

A glass panel from a window of an 11th floor unit

at The Tropica condominium had shattered and fallen
out (Oct 2016)
Tempered Glass (1/4)
Toughened glass (also known as tempered glass) is a type of safety glass that has increased strength and will usually shatter
in small, square pieces when broken. It is used when strength, thermal resistance and safety are important considerations.

Toughened glass is made from annealed glass via a thermal tempering process. The glass is placed onto a roller table,
taking it through a furnace that heats it above its annealing point of about 720 °C. The glass is then rapidly cooled with
forced air drafts while the inner portion remains free to flow for a short time.

The greater contraction of the inner layer during manufacturing induces compressive stresses in the surface of the glass balanced by tensile stresses in the body of the glass. For glass to be
considered toughened, this compressive stress on the surface of the glass should be a minimum of 69 MPa. For it to be considered safety glass, the surface compressive stress should exceed
100 MPa. The greater the surface stress, the smaller the glass particles will be when broken.
Tempered glass is about 4 times stronger than annealed glass due to the level of compression at the surfaces and edges. When
tempered glass breaks, all the stored energy is released at once and the glass breaks into small fragments, also called dices.
Video – tempered glass - NBA

Tempered Glass Shattering Nickel sulphide crystals have a high temperature form (>380oC) and a low temperature form. The dense crystal form at high temperature
swells on cooling to make a less dense crystal form at low temperatures.
- Brittle nature
In ordinary annealed glass nickel sulphide inclusions do not cause problems because the transformation occurs as the glass is cooled slowly
- Inherent glass imperfection during manufacture. However, the transformation is sluggish and when glass is rapidly cooled as part of the toughening process, the nickel
-Nickel sulfide (NiS) impurity sulphide remains trapped in its high temperature form until some years later when its transformation breaks the glass.
-Expansion of volume under room temperature
-About 0.1% to 0.5% glass formed with impurity
Inclusions larger than 60 μm in diameter can generate
potentially dangerous cracks in the surrounding glass. Failures
- Improper installation and handling continue for 10 years or more after installation.
-Chip or crack due to knocking
Three different types of approach have been adopted; which are:
- Support system and fixing details (1) Characterisation – find source of nickel
-Poor hinges, handles and catches (2) Destructive tests – Heat Soak Test
-Contact with metal part of hinge/slider/handle (3) Detection – optical imaging

Video – Nickel sulphide and Video – CNA

Video – Heat Soak Test (6.20-12.00) Nickel sulphide inclusions found on fracture surfaces of glass that failed by “spontaneous fracture”
spontaneous breakage
Tempered Glass (2/4)

Sun-burst crack pattern of spontaneous breakage caused by Backscattered image of Nickel Sulphide embedded in the glass A total of 11 panels out of the 5400 shower screen panels installed
expansion of Nickel Sulphide inclusion (image magnified at 450 times) have shattered in Trivelis. The developer revealed that the shower
panels are made of tempered glass and that though they may be
tougher than normal glass, they may contain Nickel Sulfide (NiS)
impurities which may lead to spontaneous breakage of the glass
(EL Development, 2015).

Crack originated from a screw in a bracket

Tempered Glass (3/4)

A 11-year-old boy escaped unhurt after an

automated glass door broke and shattered onto him
at the Suntec City mall on Friday night (May 2015)
On 29 November 2013, a mall in West Singapore
had an incident of a spontaneous shattering of a
Video – glass partition. One third of a glass partition cracked
completely without warning, resulting in the
Cradels@Whampo – 8 July immediate shattering of glass pieces.
2016 On May 2015, a glass panel near the reserved
Glass shelter shattered from high-rise littering
seat shattered spontaneously in a SMRT train.

Window at The Trizon condo unit shatters

Man injured by broken glass door at newly-opened National Gallery Singapore (Dec 2015) (July 2016)
Shattering of 3 glass panels at the bus stop in front of
Block 612, Yishun Street 61 (Dec 2012)
 https://www.homeanddecor.com.sg/articles/82340-find-out-why-window-condo-spontaneously-shattered https://www.corenet.gov.sg/einfo/Uploads/Circulars/CBCA110110.pdf

Tempered Glass (4/4)

Tensile bending strength Impact Test
Glass used as a Part or Whole of Building Facade, Roof, European Standard EN 1288-3:2000 BS 6206: 1981 ‘Specification for impact
Canopy or Other Overhead Glazing – BCA 2011 memo Glass has a very high compressive strength and performance requirements for flat safety glass
Where glass is used as a part or whole of a building facade, roof, consequently always fails under tensile stress. and safety plastics for use in buildings’.
Since glass in buildings is very rarely used in
canopy or other overhead glazing (such as sunshade, fins or rain
direct tension, the most important property is BS 6206 requires that the glass does not break
shield) locating at a height of >2.4m, it may be float glass, heat the tensile bending strength. or breaks safely (as defined in BS 6206) when
strengthened glass, tempered glass, laminated glass or any other The EN standard calls for a four-point bend subjected to a pendulum impact from a lead-
test with spans of 1000mm and 200mm and a shot filled bag weighing 45 kg. This impact
types of glass. Regardless of the type used, the glass must comply
sample width of 360mm. method is designed to represent accidental
with Singapore Standard SS341 – Specification for Safety Glazing impact from a human body.
Materials for Use in Buildings.

Specifically, if monolithic tempered glass, heat-soaked tempered

glass or any other type of glass that is prone to spontaneous
breakage is used here, the design of the building shall provide for
suitable protection such as installation of screens or shields, or
presence of canopies or ledges, to protect people from injuries in the
event of breakage of such glass element.

Alternative – laminated glass !

Video - Glass impact test -
https://glasshape.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Nickel-Sulphide-Inclusions.pdf
 Laminated Glass (1/2)
Laminated glass is a type of safety glass that holds together when shattered. In the
event of breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of PVB (polyvinyl
butyral), between its two or more layers of glass. The interlayer keeps the layers of
glass bonded even when broken, and its high strength prevents the glass from breaking
up into large sharp pieces. This produces a characteristic "spider web" cracking pattern Automobile windshield displaying "spider web" cracking typical
when the impact is not enough to completely pierce the glass. of laminated safety glass.

The Zhangjiajie Grand Canyon Glass Bridge - 2016

3 x 4 m laminated glass panels - 50 mm (1.97 in) thick, the panels are made of three layers of 16
mm (0.63 in) low iron glass, with two layers of SentryGlas® interlayer sandwiched between them.
Video – Laminated glass technology
Video – Zhangjiajie Grand Canyon glass bridge Video – sledgehammer
https://brennancorp.com/blog/tempered-glass-vs-laminated-glass-comparison-and-review/
Laminated Glass (2/2)
Where glass is used as a part or whole of a safety barrier, which is required to comply
with Clause H on Safety from Falling in the Fifth Schedule of the Building Control
Regulations (on Objectives and Performance Requirements for the Design and
Construction of Buildings), it should be laminated glass. The laminated glass must
comply with Singapore Standard SS341:2001 – Specification for Safety Glazing
Materials for Use in Buildings.
https://www.corenet.gov.sg/einfo/Uploads/Circulars/CBCA110110.pdf
Tempered glass failure – break into small granules Laminated glass failure – fail as “sheet” as
• Laminated glass is normally used when there is a possibility of human impact or glass is held in place by laminate
where the glass could fall if shattered.
• Shopfront glazing and windshields are typically laminated glasses.
• The PVB interlayer also gives the glass a much higher sound insulation rating, due
to the damping effect, and also blocks 99% of transmitted UV light.

On 7 August 2014, a reported

glass panel accident involved
a glass door panel falling
over a young boy in
Westgate Shopping mall. The Safety Glass! The
four year old boy was best way to beat
swivelling the glass door,
the burglars.
subjecting it to pressure and
force which extended past
the hinge. The glass door
eventually gave way and was
dislodged from its hinge
before blanketing over the
boy.
Westgate Management swiftly
replaced the glass upon the
occurrence of the accident.
The newly installed glass door Robber in China
now has a metal frame around
it to prevent any possible A glass safety barrier with continuous rail fix at the top
dislodge from the hinges https://www.corenet.gov.sg/media/2187004/bca-understanding-the-approved-document-
should such accidents happen sections-c-to-p-v10.pdf
again in the future.
Smart Glass

LRT window in the opaque (misted) mode

LRT window in the transparent mode

Video –
Smart glass
Common problems
Metal

Video -
Anodizing vs Powder
coating
Common problems

Metal

Science
Centre
Annexe
Common problems

Metal

Science
Centre
Annexe
 http://www.nachi.org/forum/f19/knob-and-tube-question-52864/index2.html
Material damaged by fire
Steel

Clues from melted wire

Melted glass in a fire Periodic Table: Melting Point

In WTC Building 5, this large column and beam

buckled on floor 8 of 9. The fire was fueled by
office materials only.

http://sites.google.com/site/wtc7lies/canofficefirescauselargesteelcolumnstobu
Glass > 1500oC http://www.chemicalelements.com/show/meltingpoint.html
 Steel
Passive Materials

Sprayed
fireproofing

Fire Vermiculite Sprays for

Fire Vermiculite Sprays for Structural Steel and Ductwork
Structural Steel and Ductwork

"Tamped" Spray Fireproofing on board a ship. The

Fireproofing of cable trays using calcium silicate board system. Other fireproofing consists of a mixture of rockwool fibres with
methods for exterior protection of electrical circuits include boards made cement and common concrete admixtures. "Tamping"
of sodium silicate bonded and pressed vermiculite and flexible wraps means that after the spraying, the fresh fibrous spray was
made of ceramic fibre and rockwool. flattened down.
Passive Materials

Intumescent - A substance which

swells as a result of heat exposure,
thus increasing in volume, and
decreasing in density.

Pipes covered with a thin-film intumescent

spray fireproofing. As the flame from the
blow-torch hits it, the intumescent expands,
forming a layer of insulation, which slows
down heat transfer to the pipe below.
Hydrates within the coating give up their
Video -
water content, maintaining a temperature Intumescence
near the boiling point of 100 °C.

Video -
Intumescence
In this picture, the flame has been removed
paint
after the thin-film intumescent spray
fireproofing product has been completely
expanded. Some intumescents can undergo
shrinkage shortly after full expansion has
taken place.
Timber Plastic lumber
Natural Wood

Plastic
lumber (PL) is
100%
Henderson Waves Bridge plastic form
Solid (top) and hollow (bottom) wood/plastic composite decking board of lumber (timb
er) made of
virgin
or recycled pla
stic (RPL).

Composite lumber
a mixture of wood fiber, plastic, and some type of binding agent.
 Jan 2012, Gopeng
Timber

Thian Hong Keng Temple Singapore, 2010

Timber

Wet rot timber decaying

naturally in the presence of
high levels of moisture.

Wood decay caused by the brown rot fungus Serpula lacrymans (true
dry rot), Wikipedia
Dry rot refers to the
decay of timber in
buildings and other
wooden structures
caused by certain
fungi.

Damaged wall with fungal growth, Wikipedia

 Plastic
FRP (fibre reinforced polyester) or GRP (glass
reinforced polyester) is a composite material with resin
and glass fibre treatments. It is characterised by its high
strength, lightweight, and low modulus of elasticy. GRP
exhibits good corrosion and weather resistance making it
suitable for external use.

High thermo-acoustic performances can be an alternative to traditional cladding

systems and can be used as walls and floors.

http://www.designboom.com/weblog/cat/9/view/13409/moshe-safdie-artscience-museum-singapore.html
 Plastic

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers

(Soma kinetic façade) Video
EXPO 2012 thematic pavilion ‘one ocean’
Ftown Building Japan

• FRP materials can support combustion whereas metals

are non-combustible

• FRP materials have low strength when subjected to

elevated temperatures.

The use of FRP, allowed for a structural system well-suited for utilizing Video – FRP fire
plug-in joints and prefabrication, rather than welding and on-site
construction.
http://www.archdaily.com/28827/ft
own-building-atelier-hitoshi-abe/