SECTION 1:

Grammatical Units: Words, Phrases,

Sentences and Clauses
Introduction

In this lecture, we will explore the fundamental building blocks of language:

words, phrases, sentences and clauses. Understanding these grammatical
units is essential for effective communication and writing. We will delve into
their definitions, examples, and illustrations to solidify our understanding.

WORD

A word is the smallest unit of language that carries meaning.

It is a basic building block of communication and plays a vital role in

constructing sentences and conveying information. Words can represent
objects, actions, emotions, ideas, and more.

In written and spoken language, words are combined to create phrases,

sentences, paragraphs, and longer texts.

For example:

Cat represents a four-legged animal with fur and whiskers.

Run signifies the action of moving swiftly on foot.

Happy describes a feeling of joy or contentment.

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Let’s look at the different TYPES OF WORDS
1. Simple words
2. Complex words
3. Compound words

1. Simple Words: Simple words are basic units of language that cannot
be broken down into smaller meaningful units. They are the building
blocks of sentences.

Examples- Dog, House, Run, Happy

Illustrations: let’s see how these simple words can be used in sentences:

The dog is barking

She lives in that house
He likes to run in the park
I feel happy today

2. Complex Wor ds: Complex words are formed by adding affixes

(prefixes, suffixes, infixes) to simple words, altering their meaning or
function.

Affixes are morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in a language, that are
added to a base word (root) to create a new word or modify the meaning or function of
the base word. There are three main types of affixes: prefixes, suffixes, and infixes.

A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language that carries meaning or

contributes to the meaning of a word. Morphemes can be words themselves (free
morphemes) or parts of words (bound morphemes) that cannot stand alone
independently.

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A root word is a basic, meaningful unit of a word that cannot be broken down into
smaller components without losing its core meaning.

Prefixes: A prefix is an affix that is added to the beginning of a base word

to change its meaning or create a new word. Prefixes can alter the tense,
negation, or intensity of the base word.

Example of Prefix:

Unhappy: The prefix "un-" is added to "happy," changing its

meaning to "not happy.”

Suffixes: A suffix is an affix that is added to the end of a base word to

modify its meaning or create a new word. Suffixes can indicate verb tense,
noun pluralization, adverb formation, and more.

Example of Suffixes:

Teacher: The suffix "-er" is added to "teach" to indicate a

person who performs the action (teacher).

Infixes: An infix is an affix that is inserted within a base word, rather than at
the beginning or end. While infixes are not common in English, they are
used in some languages to indicate grammatical changes.

Example of infixes in another language:

Malayalam: The base word "padi" means "read." When an infix

"-um-" is added, it becomes "padiyum”.

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NOTE:
Affixes play a crucial role in word formation, allowing languages to create
new words and express various nuances of meaning. Understanding the
meaning and usage of affixes is essential for expanding vocabulary and
improving language skills.
Examples:
Dislike (Dis + like), Unhappy (Un + happy), Player (Play + er)

3. Compound Words: Compound words are formed by combining two

or more simple words to create a new word with a distinct meaning.
Example:
Blackboard (black + board)
Toothpaste (tooth + paste)
Basketball (basket + ball)

PHRASES

A phrase is a group of words that functions as a single unit

within a sentence, but it does not have a subject and a predicate required
to express a complete thought. Phrases can be composed of various words
and perform different grammatical roles in a sentence, such as functioning
as nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions.

Types of Phrases:
There are several types of phrases based on their grammatical functions.
Here are the main types:

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 1. Noun Phrase (NP): A noun phrase consists of a noun (or pronoun)
along with any modifiers (e.g., adjectives, determiners).

Example: The big red house looks beautiful.

Example: The green car is parked outside.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "The big red house" is a noun

phrase, and it functions as the subject of the sentence.

REMEMBER- A Noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. It serves as the subject of a
sentence or the object of a verb or preposition. Example: Dog, London, Book, Love.

2. Verb Phrase (VP): A verb phrase consists of a verb (or verb phrase)
and any modifiers (e.g., adverbs).

Example: She has been singing for hours.

Example: She is going to the market.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "is going to the market" is a verb

phrase, and it functions as the predicate or action in the
sentence.

REMEMBER- A Verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being. It is the core element in
a sentence that shows what the subject does or what happens to the subject. Example: Run, Sing, Play.

3. Adjective Phrase (AdjP): An adjective phrase consists of an adjective

and any modifiers (e.g., adverbs).

Example: The book is very interesting.

Example: The house is extremely beautiful.

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  Illustration: In this sentence, "very interesting" is an adjective
phrase, and it modifies the noun "book.”

REMEMBER- An Adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun. It provides more information about
the noun's size, color, shape, or other qualities. Example: Beautiful, Big, Blue, Tall.

4. Adverb Phrase (AdvP): An adverb phrase consists of an adverb and

any modifiers (e.g., adverbs).

Example: He runs quite slowly.

Example: He worked very diligently.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "quite slowly" is an adverb phrase,

and it modifies the verb "runs”.

REMEMBER- An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It provides
information about the manner, frequency, time, place, or degree of an action or description. Example:
Quickly, very, often, here.

5. Prepositional Phrase (PP): A prepositional phrase consists of a

preposition, its object, and any modifiers.

Example: The cat is on the table.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "on the table" is a prepositional

phrase, and it shows the location of the cat.

REMEMBER- A Preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other
words in a sentence. It indicates location, time, direction, or possession. Example: in, on, at, under.

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 6. Participial Phrase: A participial phrase consists of a participle (verb
form ending in -ing or -ed) along with its modifiers and objects.

Example: Walking quickly, she reached the station.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "Walking quickly" is a participial

phrase that modifies the subject "she.”

REMEMBER- A Participle is a verb form that functions as an adjective, often ending in -ing or -ed. It
describes or modifies a noun.

7. Gerund Phrase: A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb form

ending in -ing) along with its modifiers and objects.

Example: Swimming in the pool is her favorite activity.

 Illustration: In this sentence, "Swimming in the pool" is a

gerund phrase, and it functions as the subject of the sentence.

REMEMBER- A Gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a noun in a sentence. It can act as a
subject, object, or complement.

By understanding and recognizing the different types of phrases, we can

enhance our language skills and construct more varied and expressive
sentences. Phrases play a crucial role in adding depth and detail to our
communication.

Moving on, let’s look at how to identify a Phrase

Phrases can be identified by paying attention to their grammatical structure
and their role within a sentence. Here are some key features to recognize
phrases:

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 Lack of Subject-Verb Combination: A phrase does not contain a
subject-verb combination, which means it cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence.

 Function within a Sentence: A phrase typically serves a specific

grammatical function within a sentence, such as functioning as a
noun, adjective, adverb, or prepositional phrase.

 Modifiers: Phrases often include modifiers like adjectives or adverbs

that provide additional information about the main element of the
phrase.

Let's go through some examples to illustrate the process:

Example 1: The black cat with green eyes is sitting on the

windowsill.

The phrase "black cat" is a noun phrase that functions as the

subject of the sentence.
The phrase "with green eyes" is an adjective phrase that
modifies the noun "cat.”
The phrase "on the windowsill" is a prepositional phrase that
provides information about the cat's location.

Example 2: She enjoys reading novels and listening to music.

The phrase "reading novels" is a gerund phrase that functions

as the object of the verb "enjoys.”
The phrase "listening to music" is a gerund phrase that
functions as the second object of the verb "enjoys.”

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Example 3: After finishing her meal, she went for a walk.

The phrase "After finishing her meal" is a participial phrase

that provides additional information about the timing of the
action in the main clause.
The phrase "she went for a walk" is the main clause of the
sentence.
Example 4: The concert was very entertaining and energetic.

The phrase "very entertaining" is an adjective phrase that

describes the noun "concert.”
The phrase "energetic" is another adjective phrase that also
describes the noun "concert.”

Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of

one or more words and expresses a complete thought. It typically

includes a subject (what the sentence is about) and a predicate (what
the subject is doing or what is happening to the subject). Sentences
convey information, ideas, emotions, or commands.

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 There are four main types of sentences: declarative, interrogative,
imperative, and exclamatory. Each type serves a different purpose in
communication.
1. Declarative sentences
2. Interrogative sentences
3. Imperative sentences
4. Imperative sentences

 Declarative Sentences: Declarative sentences make statements or

provide information. They end with a period.

Examples:

She is reading a book.

The sky is blue.
They went to the park yesterday.

 Interrogative Sentences: Interrogative sentences ask questions. They

typically begin with a question word (who, what, when, where, why,
how) or a verb that is inverted with the subject. They end with a
question mark.

Examples:

Are you coming to the party?

Where did you go yesterday?
What is your favourite colour?

 Imperative Sentences: Imperative sentences give commands,

instructions, or requests. They can be direct or polite and often omit

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 the subject (you) because it is understood. They end with a period or
an exclamation mark.

Examples:

Please pass the salt.

Close the door behind you.
Be quiet during the presentation!

 Exclamatory Sentences: Exclamatory sentences express strong

emotions or surprise. They often begin with "how" or "what" and end
with an exclamation mark.

Example:

What a beautiful sunset!

How amazing that performance was!
Wow, that’s incredible!

It's important to note that sentences can also be categorized

based on their structure:

1. Simple sentence
2. Compound sentence
3. Complex sentence
4. Compound-complex sentence

Simple Sentences: A simple sentence consists of a single

independent clause, which has a subject and a predicate.

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Example: I enjoy hiking in the mountains.

Compound Sentences: A compound sentence consists of two or

more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and,
but, or, so, for, yet, nor) or a semicolon.

Example: She wanted to go to the movies, but he preferred staying

home.

Complex Sentences: A complex sentence consists of an independent

clause and at least one dependent (subordinate) clause, which cannot
stand alone as a complete sentence.

Example: Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.

Compound-Complex Sentences: A compound-complex sentence

contains multiple independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.

Example: I enjoy reading books, but I don't have much time because
my schedule is very busy.

Understanding the different types of sentences helps in effective

communication and writing, as it allows you to convey your thoughts,
ask questions, give commands, or express emotions appropriately.

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 CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words that contains both a

subject and a predicate (verb) and can function as a sentence or as

part of a larger sentence. Clauses are the building blocks of sentences
and can express complete thoughts on their own. They can be
combined to form more complex sentences.

TYPES OF CLAUSES

There are two main types of clauses:

1. Independent clauses
2. Dependent clauses

 Independent Clause: An independent clause is a clause that can

stand alone as a complete sentence because it expresses a complete
thought.

Examples:

She sings beautifully.

He enjoys playing the piano.
They went to the beach last weekend.

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 Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause): A dependent clause
cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it doesn't express
a complete thought. It relies on an independent clause to give it
meaning. Dependent clauses often begin with subordinating
conjunctions like "because," "although," "while," "if," "when," etc.

Examples:

Because she was tired, she decided to take a nap.

He couldn't play soccer because he injured his ankle.
Although it was raining, they still went for a walk.

Dependent clauses can be categorized further based on their

function within a sentence:

 Adjective Clause (Relative Clause): An adjective clause

modifies a noun in the main clause. It usually begins with
relative pronouns such as "who," "whom," "whose," "which," or
"that.”

Example:
The book that she borrowed from the library is really
interesting.

 Adverbial Clause: An adverbial clause functions as an adverb in

the sentence, providing information about the time, place,
manner, reason, or condition of the action in the main clause.

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 Example:
He studied diligently so that he could pass the exam.

 Noun Clause: A noun clause functions as a noun in the

sentence and can act as the subject, object, or complement.

Example:
What she said surprised everyone.

 Conditional Clause: A conditional clause expresses a condition

and is often introduced by words like "if," "unless," "provided
that," etc.

Example:
If it rains tomorrow, we will stay indoors.

 Purpose Clause: A purpose clause explains the reason or

purpose behind the action in the main clause. It often starts
with "so that" or "in order that.”

Example:
He bought a new car so that he could commute to work
more comfortably.

Understanding different types of clauses is crucial for constructing clear and

meaningful sentences, as well as for creating more complex sentence
structures.

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IDENTIFYING CLAUSES

Identifying clauses in a sentence involves recognizing groups of words that

contain both a subject and a predicate and can function as a complete
thought on their own or as part of a larger sentence. Here's how you can
identify clauses, along with examples and illustrations:

I. Look for a group of words that contains a subject and a verb

(predicate).

II. Determine if the group of words can stand alone as a complete

sentence or if it relies on another part of the sentence to make sense.

Let's go through some examples to illustrate the process:

Example 1: She sings beautifully.

The group of words "She sings beautifully" contains a subject

("She") and a verb ("sings"), and it expresses a complete
thought. Therefore, it is an independent clause.

Example 2: Although she was tired, she decided to take a nap.

The group of words "Although she was tired" contains a subject

("she") and a verb ("was"), but it does not express a complete
thought on its own. It relies on the second part of the sentence
to provide the complete idea. Therefore, it is a dependent
(subordinate) clause.

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 Example 3: He couldn't play soccer because he injured his ankle.

The group of words "because he injured his ankle" contains a

subject ("he") and a verb ("injured"), but it cannot stand alone
as a complete sentence. It explains the reason for the action in
the main clause. Therefore, it is a dependent (subordinate)
adverbial clause.

Example 4: The book that she borrowed from the library is really
Interesting.

The group of words "that she borrowed from the library"

modifies the noun "book" and contains a subject ("she") and a
verb ("borrowed"). It provides additional information about the
book. Therefore, it is a dependent (subordinate) adjective
clause.

Example 5: If it rains tomorrow, we will stay indoors.

The group of words "If it rains tomorrow" contains a subject

("it") and a verb ("rains"), but it cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. It introduces a condition for the action in
the main clause. Therefore, it is a dependent (subordinate)
conditional clause.

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 Example 6: He bought a new car so that he could commute to work
more comfortably.

The group of words "so that he could commute to work more

comfortably" functions as an adverbial phrase, providing the
purpose for the action in the main clause. It contains a subject
("he") and a verb ("could commute"). Therefore, it is a
dependent (subordinate) purpose clause.

Identifying clauses helps you understand how sentences are constructed

and how different parts work together to convey meaning. It also allows
you to create more varied and sophisticated sentence structures in your
writing.

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