What is an earthquake?

 Earthquake is a term used to describe both sudden slip on

a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated
seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or
magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the
earth.

When seismologists think of an earthquake, the image of a

seismogram is what comes to their minds.
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 Continental Drift theory
It is an evolutionary theory regarding the earth.
 It was proposed by german geologist Alfred Wegner in 1915,
that parts of the Earth's crust slowly drift atop a liquid core.
 Wegener hypothesized that there was a gigantic supercontinent
200 million years ago, which he named Pangaea, meaning "All-
earth".
 Pangaea started to break up into two smaller supercontinents,
called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, during the Jurassic period.
By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents were
separating into land masses that look like our modern-day
continents.

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 Continental drift theory

Alfred Wegener PERMIAN

225 million yrs ago
TRIASSIC
200 million yrs ago

Evidence used in support

of continental drift Jurassic Cretaceous
hypothesis: 135 million yrs ago 65 million yrs ago

 Fit of continents
 Fossil evidence
 Rock type and mountain
belts
 Paleoclimatic evidence
PRESENT DAY
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 Continental drift theory
Evidence of Continental drift theory:

Tight fit of the continents, Fossil critters and plants Correlation of

especially using continental mountains with
shelves. nearly identical rocks
and structures.

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 Continental drift theory
The main remark to Wegener Hypothysis was the lack
of a mechanism for moving continents.

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 Seafloor spreading
 Seafloor spreading the movement of two oceanic plates away
from eather, which results in the formation of new oceanic crust
along a mid-ocean ridge.
 Harry Hess in 1962 proposed that new ocean floor is formed at
the rift of mid-ocean ridges.

 Seafloor spreading occurs along relatively narrow zones, called

rift zones, located at the crests of ocean ridges.

 As plates are pulled apart, magma moves into fractures and

makes new oceanic lithosphere.

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 Plate tectonics
The theory of plate tectonics (meaning
"plate structure") was developed in the
1960's by Tuzo Wilson and Jason Morgen.
 According to this theory, the earth
surface consists of several rigid plates,
that move relative to each other.
 These plates include earth crust and
upper mantle, called lithosphere are
continuously floating over
Astheonosphere , which is in partial
molten form.
 This theory explains the movement of
the Earth's plates and also explains the
cause of earthquakes, volcanoes, oceanic
trenches, mountain range formation, and
other geologic phenomenon.
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 Plate tectonics

Detailed map showing the tectonic plates with their movement vectors.
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 Plate tectonics
Major plates
 African Plate
 Eurasian Plate
 Australian Plate
 Antarctic Plate
 Pacific Plate
 North American Plate
 South American Plate

Interplate Intraplate

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 Reason for the relative motion of plates?
Convection current hypothesis.
 Tectonic plates move relative to each
other because of the intense heat of
earth core.
 The heat in the earth core cause the
molten rocks in the mantle to move in
a pattern called convection cell (warm
material rises, cools, and sink down).

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 Plat boundaries
Three main types of Plate boundaries:

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 Plate boundaries
1) Divergent boundary
Plates move away from each other.
Creates mid-ocean ridge, rift valley,
Tensional stresses
normal fault.
2) Convergent boundary
Creates an Island arch and a trench
Forms a volcanic mountain range and a
trench
Forms a folded mountain range
Compression stresses
Thrust fault
3) Transform boundary
Shear stresses
Transform faults
Strike slip faults
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 Elastic Rebound Theory
(Reid, 1911)

Fault

 A fault locked (by friction) while stress slowly accumulates, gradually twisting the rock,
 Then it suddenly ruptures in an earthquake, releasing the stored-up stress.
 Energy is released in the form of heat and seismic waves.
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How often do earthquake occur?

E ( erg) = 1011.80+1.5M

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 Induced effects
 Ground Shaking
 Structural Hazards
 Liquefaction
 Landslides
 Retaining Structure Failures
 Lifeline Hazards
 Tsunami’s

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 Induced effects
• Landslides and Tsunamis
In addition to direct effects, earthquakes
produce also secondary effects, like
landslides and tsunamis, that can cause
even more damage than the earthquake
ground motion.

Effects of a tsunami at Aonae, japan

Landslide cause by the 1995

La Conchita (California) earthquake

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 Induced effects
Landslide
Turnnagin Heights,
Alaska,1964

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 Induced effects
• Tsunami‘s

2011 Japan Tsunami

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 Induced effects
• Liquefaction

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 Induced effects
• Liquefaction
Niigata, Japan 1964

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 Induced effects
• Fire
Loma Prieta, CA 1989

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