D A M C O N S T R U C T I O N

Roller-Compacted-Concrete Dams:
Design and Construction Trends

A review of the design and construction of five recently com- began in 1985 and was completed in
1987. At 294 feet high and with a crest
pleted roller-compacted-concrete dams in the U.S. reveals that length of 2,673 feet, the dam required
many new design details and construction methods have been 1,471,000 cubic yards of RCC. As of
September 2008, the dam remains the
adapted to enhance the final product. largest volume RCC dam completed in
the U.S. Reclamation’s approach to
building Upper Stillwater Dam was quite
ing systems are being used on dams built different from the Corps’ approach to
By Fares Y. Abdo
today, including air-entrained conven- Willow Creek Dam. Reclamation elected
tional concrete with crack inducers and to use a richer RCC mixture (higher

R
oller-compacted concrete (RCC) water stops, precast concrete panels, and cementitious content) with a wetter con-
continues to gain recognition as a waterproofing membranes. sistency. The upstream vertical face and
competitive material for building Five medium-sized RCC gravity dams downstream stepped face of the central
new and rehabilitating existing dams. were built in the U.S. between 2004 and spillway section were slipformed using
Over the past two decades, many design 2008. A review of the main elements conventional concrete. The richer RCC
details and construction methods have design engineers have to consider in mix produced a higher tensile strength
been adapted to enhance the final prod- regard to RCC provides important infor- and thus reduced the cross-section of the
uct while maintaining the speed of con- mation on the latest design details, dam. In addition, the richer mix and the
struction that provides RCC its competi- mixes, and construction methods. upstream conventional concrete facing
tive edge. provided better seals and prevented
Using RCC for U.S. dams
More than 370 RCC gravity dams seepage at lift joints.
higher than 50 feet have been built world- In the late 1970s, promising research re- Upper Stillwater Dam did not include
wide using RCC, 43 of these in the U.S. sults led the U.S. Army Corps of Engi- contraction joints. Vertical thermal
Many more RCC gravity dams less than neers to change the design of Willow cracks developed at an average spacing
50 feet high have been built worldwide. Creek Dam in Oregon to RCC. Origi- of about 190 feet. The cracks were not
The first two large RCC gravity dams nally, the Corps planned to build a rock- structurally significant; however, one
in the U.S. — Willow Creek in Oregon fill embankment dam. About a month crack produced excessive water leakage
and Upper Stillwater in Utah — were later, the U.S. Department of the Inte- and required waterproofing repairs.2
built in the 1980s. These dams experi- rior’s Bureau of Reclamation adopted Much was learned from the RCC
enced seepage through lift joints and at this new technology for its Upper Still- dams built in the 1980s. Although these
shrinkage cracks. Since that time, design water Dam in Utah.1 dams were never in structural jeopardy,
engineers, owners, and contractors have Thus, RCC emerged as a viable new future designs placed more emphasis on
been looking for innovative methods to type of dam. The first to be completed seepage and crack control for most proj-
improve durability and aesthetics of was Willow Creek Dam, in 1982. At this ects. Designers of dams built during and
RCC and to limit seepage. Several fac- dam, 433,000 cubic yards of RCC were after the 1990s incorporated different
placed in less than five months, at an types of facing systems and control
average cost of $19 per cubic yard. The joints. They typically used richer RCC
Fares Abdo, P.E., is program manager dam had no transverse joints and used a mixtures, a smaller maximum aggregate
for water resources with the Portland lean (low cementitious content) dry RCC size, stricter construction requirements,
Cement Association. He provides techni- mixture with nominal maximum aggre- special lift joint treatments, upstream
cal support and develops literature on gate size of 2.5 inches. Precast concrete membranes, and special facing mixtures
roller-compacted concrete and soil- panels were used on the upstream face, to improve watertightness and bonding
cement for water resources applications. and the downstream face was unformed. at lift joints.
Although Willow Creek Dam was
 Peer Reviewed
Five recent medium-sized
deemed structurally sound, excessive
This article has been evaluated and edited in accordance
RCC dam projects
water seepage at lift joints occurred dur-
with reviews conducted by two or more professionals who
have relevant expertise. These peer reviewers judge manu- ing first filling of the reservoir. For the purpose of this article, medium-
scripts for technical accuracy, usefulness, and overall impor- A few years later, Upper Stillwater sized RCC gravity dams are those higher
tance within the hydroelectric industry.
Dam was built. Construction of the dam than 50 feet with a concrete volume not

From Hydro Review, November 2008 - © HCI Publications, [Link]

Reproduced with permission
Table 1: Design Features of Five Medium-Sized RCC Dams

RCC Conventional
Dam, Date of Height Length Volume (in Concrete Volume Facing on Downstream Facing on Downstream
Completion (in feet) (in feet) cubic yards) (in cubic yards) Upstream Facing Nonoverflow Section Overflow Section

Elkwater Fork1 128 670 132,000 8,700 Precast concrete panels Formed RCC steps Conventional
2008 with polyvinylchloride concrete steps
(PVC) membrane bonded
to downstream face
Genesee No. 21 103 360 50,000 3,000 Conventional concrete Unformed RCC Unformed RCC
2007 with water stops covered with earth covered with earth
and vegetation and vegetation
Hickory Log 188 956 218,000 9,000 Precast concrete panels Grout-enriched RCC Conventional
Creek1,2 with PVC membrane steps concrete steps
2008 bonded to downstream
face
New Big Cherry 85 370 13,800 7,000 Conventional concrete Conventional Conventional
2005 with water stops concrete steps concrete steps
Pine Brook 86 560 36,000 3,000 Conventional concrete Unformed RCC Unformed RCC
2006 with water stops covered with earth covered with earth
and vegetation and vegetation

Notes
1
This dam has a grout curtain. 2This is the only one of the five dams with a drainage and inspection gallery.

exceeding 300,000 cubic yards. The five tion to increasing the spillway capacity, began impounding water in January
dams featured in this article were built the new dam is 7 feet higher than the old 2008. It is the tallest non-federally-regu-
between 2004 and 2008. The volume of dam, which increased the reservoir water lated concrete dam in the state. Once
RCC used ranged from 13,800 cubic storage from 359 to 633 million gallons. filled, the reservoir will supply much-
yards to 218,000 cubic yards, and their Pine Brook and Genesee No. 2 dams needed water especially after the region
heights vary from 70 to 188 feet (see in Colorado have similar designs, with a endured one of the most severe droughts
Table 1). The dams are in Colorado, conventional concrete upstream face and on record, in 2007. The developer used
Georgia, Virginia, and West Virginia. In an unformed downstream face covered crushed concrete aggregates hauled to
Georgia, deterioration from freeze-thaw with soil and vegetated. Both construc- the site from a nearby rock quarry.
cycles is of minimal concern. However, in tion sites were congested, with minimal Elkwater Fork Dam in Randolph
the other three states, numerous freeze- space for RCC plants, aggregate stock- County, [Link]., was built to supply water
thaw cycles take place annually. The main piles, and RCC handling equipment. to Elkins, [Link]., and surrounding com-
purpose of all five dams is to provide Pine Brook was the first design-build munities. The dam area is distinguished
water supply for nearby communities. dam in Colorado, whereas Genesee No. by its annual precipitation of about 60
New Big Cherry Dam in Wise County, 2 was built based on a negotiated con- inches, making it an ideal location for a
Va., replaced a 70-year-old cyclopean tract with the lowest bidder. Most of the water supply reservoir. RCC placement
concrete dam that suffered from struc- RCC aggregates for the two dams were was completed in 2007, and the entire
tural deficiencies and had a spillway mined and processed on site. project is expected to be completed in
capacity less than that needed to meet the Hickory Log Creek Dam in Canton, late 2008. Again, the developer used
state dam safety requirements. In addi- Ga., about 30 miles north of Atlanta, crushed concrete aggregates hauled to
the site from a nearby rock quarry.
Dam design features
Table 1 summarizes the design features
of the five dams. Some designs are sim-
pler than others, which affected material
cost and speed of construction, and con-
sequently the project cost. The follow-
ing sections offer specifics of the indi-
vidual designs with respect to: galleries
and foundation drains, grout curtains,
facing systems, RCC mixtures, lift joint
treatment, and contraction joints.
Galleries and foundation drains
Only the tallest of the five dams, Hick-
ory Log Creek, has a drainage and
The downstream face of Pine Brook Dam in Colorado was made of unformed concrete that inspection gallery. The gallery is 18 feet
was covered with soil and vegetation. The dam has a conventional concrete upstream face. downstream of the dam baseline and

2 HYDRO REVIEW / NOVEMBER 2008

Table 2: RCC Mix Proportions for Five Medium-Sized RCC Dams were successfully used during the 1990s.
As Table 1 shows, different types of
Portland Specified facing systems were used on the up-
Cement Fly Ash Aggregates Free Water Vebe Time Compressive
Dam (in Ib/y3)1 (in Ib/y3)1 (in Ib/y3)1 (in Ib/y3)1 (in seconds) Strength (in psi)2 stream and/or downstream faces of these
five dams. Conventional concrete with
Elkwater Fork 100 150 3,720 — 15 to 25 1,500 at one crack inducers and water stops at con-
Mix 1 year traction joints were placed at the verti-
Elkwater Fork 125 185 3,660 — 15 to 25 2,500 at one cal upstream faces at New Big Cherry,
Mix 2 year Pine Brook, and Genesee No. 2 dams.
Genesee No. 2 180 104 3,552 — — 1,500 at 90 days The slope of the downstream faces of
Hickory Log 135 165 3,600 225 20 to 30 2,000 at 180 these dams ranged from 0.88 horizon-
Creek days tal:1 vertical to 0.75 horizontal:1 vertical.
New Big Cherry 129 129 3,684 220 — 1,500 at 90 days The design of New Big Cherry Dam
included an uncontrolled ogee spillway
Pine Brook 160 100 3,702 234 — 1,500 at one
year
to function as a combined service and
Notes
emergency spillway. The downstream
1
Pounds per cubic yard. 2Pounds per square inch. face consisted of air-entrained conven-
tional concrete for improved freeze-
thaw resistance in a harsh environ-
extends up the majority of the right and after RCC placement was complete. The ment. The spillway chute incorporated
left abutments. The seepage collection holes varied from 20 to 80 feet deep.6 steps that provided energy dissipation.
system beneath a portion of the dam con- Foundation seepage control at Pine The designs and construction of Pine
sists of sand and gravel trench drain dis- Brook and New Big Cherry dams was Brook and Genesee No. 2 dams were
charging into the gallery. Flows from the limited to proper treatment at the dam/ simplified by limiting facing systems to
gallery discharge into the stilling basin. foundation interface. Excavations for the upstream face and by eliminating the
At Elkwater Fork Dam, drilled foun- the dams extended to foundation need for a concrete stilling basin to
dation drain holes are angled from the bedrock. The rock surface was cleaned reduce cost. The dams were built without
downstream toe of the dam to relieve and treated with dental/leveling concrete forming the downstream face of the
uplift pressure in the foundation. and/or grout before RCC placement. RCC. Backfilling with earth to cover the
For the three smaller dams, designers Additionally, Pine Brook Dam included unformed RCC was required after initial
elected to eliminate drainage galleries a 10-foot-wide key 5 to 10 feet deep reservoir filling was complete. Each of
and foundation drains. into weathered bedrock that serves as a these similar structures includes a con-
New Big Cherry Dam was designed seepage cutoff. At Genesee No. 2 Dam, crete drop inlet and outlet works de-
to minimize long-term operation and the design included a grout curtain that signed to pass normal flows. Larger
maintenance concerns. One of the was installed after completion of the flows up to inflow design flood can pass
design objectives was to eliminate the RCC placement. On the other hand, over an emergency spillway in the mid-
drainage gallery, dam drains, and foun- designers of Pine Brook Dam believed dle section of the parapet wall. The mid-
dation drains.3 To provide adequate sta- that a grout curtain could be installed dle of the parapet wall is lower than the
bility of the structure without these typi- after the dam was built if the seepage abutment sections to properly route the
cal elements, a heel section was added rate was larger than anticipated and pre- flood flow over the dam and down the
to the dam. sented a safety hazard or operational vegetated earthen cover. Design engi-
Pine Brook and Genesee No. 2 dams concern. However, as of September neers believed that a stilling basin was
also were designed to resist full hydro- 2008, reports indicate that a grout cur- not needed based on anticipated flow
static uplift and thus the dams do not tain will not be needed. characteristics and good-quality rock at
require foundation drains. Seepage the dam toe. To reduce initial cost, the
through the dam foundations will drain Facing systems owners accepted this design approach,
to the downstream side.4 As mentioned previously, some early knowing that if the emergency spillways
RCC dams experienced significant seep- operate, repair work likely will be needed
Grout curtains age through lift joints and/or vertical to restore portions of the earthen covers.
High in each abutment at Hickory Log cracks. As a result, many facing systems The upstream face at both Hickory
Creek Dam, partially weathered rock consisting of conventional concrete, pre- Log Creek and Elkwater Fork dams is
with numerous seams of fine-grained cast concrete, geomembranes, and com- formed with 6-foot-high by 16-foot-
materials was encountered. At these binations thereof have been used and long precast concrete panels with a
locations, 20-foot-deep concrete cutoff refined during the past two decades. Fac- geomembrane fully bonded to the
walls were installed. A double-row ing systems now are being used to downstream face of the panels. Each
grout curtain was installed for the reduce seepage and to improve durabil- panel is anchored to the dam with six
remainder of the foundation. The grout ity and appearance. Detailed descrip- galvanized steel rods.
holes were spaced at 20 feet apart and tions of the facing systems used world- The downstream face of the chimney
were 25 to 80 feet deep.5 wide can be found in a Portland Cement section at Hickory Log Creek Dam is
At Elkwater Fork Dam, the grouting Association publication.7 A review of built with decorative precast concrete
program consisted of a single-line curtain facing systems used on U.S. dams built panels without a membrane. The sloped
at the upstream heel of the dam. Grout after 2001 reveals that designers con- downstream face is formed with 3-foot-
holes were drilled from a concrete plinth tinue specifying facing systems that high steps. The project team elected to

HYDRO REVIEW / NOVEMBER 2008 3

 Dam, the spillway need for cooling the aggregates while
steps are conven- placing RCC during warmer weather.
tional concrete. Table 2 lists the mix proportions se-
However, outside lected. All mixes used contained Type I/II
the spillway train- portland cement except at Genesee No. 2
ing walls, the steps Dam, where Type II was used. Class F
are formed RCC. fly ash was also used for all five projects.
One RCC mix was used for each
RCC mixtures dam, except for Elkwater Fork. Due to
Producing high- sliding concerns during extreme loading
quality and uniform conditions, a cutoff key at the heel of
RCC requires good Elkwater Fork Dam was needed to
and durable aggre- achieve adequate safety factors. Mix 1
gates and good was used above the foundation cutoff
quality control. For key, and Mix 2 was used in the key.
most projects, RCC Total cementitious materials in the
The facing system on the vertical upstream face of New Big Cherry aggregates are simi- mixes were 250 to 310 pounds per cubic
Dam in Virginia consists of conventional concrete with plywood crack lar to conventional yard, and the fly ash content was 37 to
inducers and water stops located at contraction joints.
concrete aggregates 60 percent of total cementitious materi-
meeting ASTM In- als. Generally, the cementitious contents
use conventional concrete placed con- ternational C33 requirements. However, of these mixes are higher than what was
currently with the RCC within the spill- marginal aggregates that did not meet used in 1980s RCC dams but compara-
way chute and grout-enriched RCC else- all standard ASTM requirements have ble to the mixes used in the 1990s. As
where. Grout-enriched RCC gave the been used successfully where the RCC compared to those used more than ten
exposed downstream steps of the dam an is completely protected with an air- years ago, current mixes tend to be more
improved appearance compared with entrained conventional concrete facing workable, and some contain higher fly
typical exposed RCC. A grout mix was system.8 ash contents. For larger projects, most
prepared using a colloidal mixing plant Most of the aggregates for Pine current mix designs specify a Vebe time
at the proportions of one part portland Brook and Genesee No. 2 dams were of 15 to 30 seconds as was the case for
cement to one part water (by weight). mined on-site, whereas aggregates for Hickory Log Creek and Elkwater Fork
After grading the RCC but before com- the other three projects were transported dams. Vebe time is a test performed in
paction, the grout was manually poured from rock quarries meeting ASTM C33 accordance with ASTM C1170 to evalu-
over the top of the freshly placed RCC quality requirements. The combined ate the workability of the RCC mixture.
adjacent to the downstream wood forms. aggregate gradation for Pine Brook con- Generally, design compressive
Workers then internally vibrated the tained 2 percent or fewer particles strengths for RCC gravity dams specified
grout into the fresh RCC. The RCC in smaller than 2 inches. For the other during this decade are 1,500 to 2,000
this area was compacted using flat bot- dams, a smaller maximum size was used pounds per square inch (psi) at ages 90
tom plate tampers, resulting in smooth, for the aggregates. days to one year. It should be noted that
aesthetically pleasing exposed steps. Aggregate stockpiles at Elkwater Fork the design/build team for Pine Brook
The downstream face at Elkwater Dam were built during cold weather. This Dam concluded that a design based on
Fork Dam is formed with 2-foot-high stockpile management and placement of lower design strength and conservative
steps. Similar to Hickory Log Creek RCC during the night shift avoided the cross-section would provide flexibility in
aggregate selection and proportions.
The owner’s concerns and permit re-
strictions made on-site aggregate min-
ing and crushing very attractive. About
55 percent of the aggregates were mined
on site. Shortly after the successful
completion of Pine Brook Dam, on-site
mining was also selected to produce
RCC aggregates at Genesee No. 2 Dam.
RCC for the projects was mixed in
twin, horizontal shaft, continuous pug
mill mixers or in compulsory mixers.
Mixer capacities were 200 to 500 cubic
yards per hour. All-conveyor delivery
systems were used at New Big Cherry,
Hickory Log Creek, and Elkwater Fork
dams. A combination of dump trucks
and conveyor belts was used at Pine
The upstream face of Hickory Log Creek Dam in Georgia is formed with 6-foot-high by 16-foot-
Brook and Genesee No. 2 dams. As has
long precast concrete panels with a geomembrane fully bonded to the downstream face of the been the case for most RCC dam con-
panels. Each panel is anchored to the dam with six galvanized steel rods. structions, once on the lift surface, doz-

4 HYDRO REVIEW / NOVEMBER 2008

ers spread the RCC and vibratory rollers recently built dams. Conventional con- — Building the dam without forming
compacted the material in 12-inch lifts. crete and grout-enriched concrete are the RCC on the downstream face and
becoming more common for down- covering the unformed RCC with soil
Lift joint treatment stream facing systems. provided protection against freeze-thaw
Seepage control for these dams was pro- Engineers continue specifying RCC action;
vided by the upstream facing systems mixtures similar to those used in the — Designing the dam to resist full
discussed earlier, as well as by adequate 1990s, which have better workability hydrostatic uplift pressure eliminated
lift bonding and minimizing cold joints and contain relatively higher cementi- the need for foundation drains and a
between RCC lifts. At Pine Brook Dam, tious contents compared to mixes used drainage gallery; and
cold joints less than 14 hours required no for RCC dams in the 1980s. High paste — Eliminating the construction of a
special treatment. Cleaning and washing and very workable mixes containing fly stilling basin saved money and time. ■
the surface was required for joints 14 to ash in the range of 40 to 60 percent of
36 hours old. Older joints required bed- total cementitious materials are com- Mr. Abdo may be reached at Portland
ding mortar to bond consecutive lifts. monly specified. Additionally, higher Cement Association, P.O. Box 26381,
Bedding mortar mix consisted of 2,800 paste mixes with smaller aggregate Birmingham, AL 35260; (1) 205-979-
pounds per cubic yard sand, 500 pounds (nominal maximum size of 1 or 1.5 9435; E-mail: fabdo@[Link].
per cubic yard cement, and 300 pounds inches) are selected to reduce segrega-
Notes
per cubic yard water. tion and achieve high density. Mixes 1
Hansen, K.D., “Roller-Compacted Concrete:
Treatment of lift joints at Hickory Log with high fly ash content have been used
A Civil Engineering Innovation,” Con-
Creek Dam was required, depending on on a few projects worldwide to build crete International, Volume 15, No. 3,
the ambient temperature and the age of what is referred to as “all-RCC dams.”9 March 1996.
the compacted RCC lift. Horizontal sur- The concept is to design a 100 percent 2
Smoak, W.G., “Crack Repairs to Upper
faces exposed for more than 500 degree- RCC dam, and no other concrete mixes Stillwater Dam,” Concrete International,
hours were considered cold joints and or auxiliary items are included to meet Volume 13, No. 2, February 1994, pages
required spreading a 3/8-inch-thick bed- strength or seepage requirements. This 24-32.
ding mortar layer just before placement concept, which would significantly in- 3
Cowan, G.L., K.A. Ferguson, and Fares Y.
of the new RCC lift. Cold joints older crease the speed of construction, has yet Abdo, “New RCC Dam Replaces 70-Year
than 36 hours required pressure washing to gain acceptance in the U.S. Old Concrete Dam,” Portland Cement
before spreading the bedding mortar. Stockpiling aggregates during cold Association Publication PL464, Skokie,
weather and placement of RCC at night Ill., 2006.
Contraction joints can eliminate the need for costly meth-
4
Shannon, D.A., J.C. Allen, and R.D. Hass,
All five dams contained contraction ods that otherwise would be required to “Design/Build Approach Big Success for
Pine Brook RCC Dam,” Portland Cement
joints. Generally, contractors used steel maintain the required mix temperature
Association Publication PL466, Skokie,
plates wrapped with polyethylene sheet at time of placement. The stockpiling Ill., 2007.
to set up the joints. The steel plate is management approach used at Elkwater 5
Parsons, James M., Randall P. Bass, Charles
used to hold the polyethylene sheet at Fork Dam should be considered for M. Kahler, and Rodolfo T. Ruiz-Gaekel,
the desired location temporarily while RCC gravity dam construction. “Hickory Log Creek: Building a Roller-
the RCC is being spread. Immediately Perhaps the most notable develop- Compacted-Concrete Dam,” Hydro Re-
after spreading and before starting com- ment in recent RCC gravity dams in the view, Volume 27, No. 1, March 2008,
paction of the RCC, the steel plate is U.S. is the design approach imple- pages 36-45.
removed, leaving behind the polyethyl- mented at Pine Brook and Genesee No. 6
Holderbaum, R.E., R.L. Judy, and P.G.
ene sheet to serve as a bond breaker at 2 dams. The following design features Schweiger, “Elkwater Fork Dam,” Port-
the location of the contraction joint. resulted in significant effects on the land Cement Association Publication
Pine Brook Dam speed of construction PL468, Skokie, Ill., 2008.
Conclusions 7
Facing Systems for Roller Compacted Con-
and total cost:
crete Dams & Spillways, Portland Cement
Economy and speed of construction — Increasing the dam size to reduce
Association, Skokie, Ill., 2001.
continue to be the main reasons design- the required RCC strength provided an 8
Gaekel, L., and Ernest K. Schrader, “RCC
ers select RCC for new gravity dam opportunity to use on-site aggregates of Mixes and Properties Using Poor Quality
construction. marginal quality. Aggregates that fail to Material - Concepcion Dam,” Roller-
Conventional concrete with contrac- meet certain ASTM requirements still Compacted Concrete III, American Soci-
tion joints and water stops and precast may be used if appropriate tests are per- ety of Civil Engineers, New York, 1992.
concrete panels with bonded water- formed and the results show that the 9
Ortega, F., “Alternative Designs,” Interna-
proofing membranes appear to be the aggregates can produce RCC meeting tional Water Power & Dam Construction,
upstream facing systems of choice for the project requirements; Volume 59, No. 7, July 2007, pages 14-18.

HYDRO REVIEW / NOVEMBER 2008 5