COMBINED SCIENCE

FORM 1 BIOLOGY NOTES

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 BIOLOGY TOPICS

LABORATORY SAFETY AND APPARATUS

CELLS AND LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

NUTRITION

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS

TRANSPORT SYSTEM

REPRODUCTION

HEALTH AND DISEASE

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 1.1 LABORATORY SAFETY AND APPARATUS

HAZARDS THAT COULD OCCUR DURING PRACTICAL WORK

SOME OF THE HAZARDS IN A LABORATORY

EXPLAIN LABORATORY RULES

- The equipment and chemical substances used in the laboratory are safe if used properly;
- To ensure that the laboratory is safe to work in, it is very important to obey the
following rules:
LABORATORY RULES

 Follow all instructions carefully;

 Consider the safety of other learners during practical work;
 Do not work in the laboratory without your teacher;
 Only do practical work that has been assigned to you by your teacher;
 Do not use any chemical until the teacher has explained its use and the precautions to be
taken;
 Do not touch materials or equipment on the demonstration table without instructions from
your teacher;
 Know where you can find the fire extinguisher and first-aid materials, and know how to
use them;
 Always be careful when pouring chemicals from their containers;
 Report any spill to your teacher;
 If chemicals come into contact with your eyes or skin. You should wash the area
immediately with running water;
 Never look into the mouth of a test tube whilst heating liquids in it, and never point the
mouth of the tube in the direction of other learners;
 Gas burners must be tightly closed after use;
 Ensure that the laboratory is well ventilated when working in it;
 Wear lab laboratory coat and safety glasses whenever necessary;
 When using volatile and flammable liquids, such as alcohol, no flame should be used;
 Large storage bottles with dangerous chemicals should be handled only by the teacher;
 Never pour chemicals back into bottles, or exchange stoppers of bottles, because the
mixture of chemicals could result in dangerous reactions;
 Never force glass tubing, thermometers or any breakable materials in or out of rubber
stoppers and tubing;
 Use glycerine instead of water as a lubricant;
 Laboratory animals, living or dead, should only be handled with instructions from your
teacher;
 Solid and other laboratory waste, and broken glass should be placed in designated
containers;
 Laboratory work area and equipment should be cleaned and dried before the end of the
class;
 Do not eat or drink anything in the laboratory without instructions from your teacher
(even if it is your own drink or food);
 Report any broken glassware to your teacher;
 Use sharp instruments with great care;
 Wash your hands with soap after handling unknown plants or substances;
 When doing field work, make sure that you are safe from animals such as snakes,
scorpions and wasps;
 Report any accident or injury to your teacher.

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IDENTIFY LABORATORY APPARATUS

- Scientists use special tools or apparatus in their work;

- They also use special materials called chemicals;
- Apparatus refer to the set of equipment we use in the lab for experiments
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1.2. CELLS AND LEVELS OF ORGANISATION

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF A PLANT AND AN ANIMAL CELL

The Structure of A Plant Cell

- All plant cells have the following organelles:

 Cell Wall;
 Cell Membrane;
 Cytoplasm;
 Nucleus;
 Permanent Vacuole

Plant cell

Cell Wall: made of a tough substance called cellulose/ is rigid to give the cell its shape
and also protects the inner contents of the cell;

Cell Membrane: is a thin living membrane which controls what goes into, or comes out
of, the cell/ is a semi-permeable, because it only allows certain substances to pass in and
out of the cell;

Cytoplasm: is a jelly-like substance in which the organelles float/ most cell activities
occur here/ cytoplasm moves around to distribute food and oxygen around the cell;

Nucleus: is a large, round organelles that controls all the activities of the cell, such as
growth, making proteins and cell division/ main function is to carry the hereditary
information of the cell/ also contain information that controls the chemical reactions in
the cell;

Vacuole: are storage area that contain a liquid called sap/ main function is to transport
and store water, salts,wastes and food particle
The Structure of An Animal Cell

Animal cell

Animal Cells share similarities with plant cells, but they are also differences between animal and
plant cells.

Cell membrane; a thin, living cell membrane, which is flexible, so the cell can become any
shape/ controls what enters or leaves the cell/ semi-permiable because it only allows certain
substances to pass in and out of the cell;

Cytoplasm: is a jelly-like substance that allows the movement of food and oxygen around the
cell/ most cell activities occur here;

Nucleus: controls all the cell activities such as growth, cell division, making proteins,
respiration, etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

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1.3 NUTRITION

DEFINE BALANCED DIET

Diet: is the amount and type of food intake that an individual eats and drinks.

Balanced Diet: is the one that provides nutrients in the correct amount and proportions to keep
the body healthy.

LIST COMPONENTS OF BALANCED DIET

- A balanced diet includes the following components (nutrients):

 Carbohydrates;
 Proteins;
 Lipids (fats and oils)
 Vitamins;
 Mineral Salts;
 Fibre (roughage);
 Water.

NAME FUNCTION OF NUTRIENTS

- Carbohydrates: are sugars (glucose) and starch.

Examples of Foods Rich in Carbohydrates are: sugary and starch foods, such as potatoes,
rice, mealie meal, bread, pasta, cereals, and some fruits and vegetables.

Food rich in Carbohydrates

Function: provides the body with energy.

- Proteins: are made up of amino acids.
Examples of Foods Rich in Proteins are: meat, fish, eggs, soya, beans, dairy products,
mopane worms and nuts.

Foods rich in Proteins

Function: for building body components, repair broken down tissues and growth.

- Fats and Oils: contain a higher energy source than Carbohydrates.

Examples of Foods Rich in Fats and Oils are: avocados, nuts, cheese, butter and
margarine.

Foods rich in Fats and Oils

Function: reserve source of energy, contain fat-soluble vitamins, keeps the body warm
(insulated) and protect internal organs such as kidneys, heart, etc.

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- Vitamins: are of different types, that is; Vitamin A, Vitamin B, Vitamin C, Vitamin D,
Vitamin E and vitamin K.
o Fat-soluble Vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E and K that are stored in the liver
o Water-soluble Vitamins include Vitamin C and Vitamin B.
Examples of Foods Rich in Vitamins A, E and K are: green, leafy vegetables, milk and
dairy products, and plant oils / Source of Vitamin D are: fish-liver oils, liver, milk, butter,
fish and liver oils
Examples of Foods Rich in Vitamin B are: green, leafy vegetables / Sources of Vitamin C
are citrus fruits, green peppers, tomatoes, broccoli, dark leafy vegetables, soya beans and
paw paws.
Function: Vitamins control and regulate cellular functions and are important for healthy
skin, bones, teeth and gums, and help fight infection.

- Mineral Salts: include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium and potassium.

Examples of Foods Rich in Mineral Salts are: fresh fruits and vegetables, diary products,
meat and eggs
Function: Sodium and Calcium are used to help nerves and muscle to function properly /
Calcium also helps blood to clot and strengthens bones and teeth / Iron forms part of the
haemoglobim molecule that carries oxygen in the red blood cells.

- Fibre: is the indigestible part of plant food found in cereals, such as oats and bran. Does
not contain any nutrients.
Examples of Foods Rich in Fibre (Roughage) are: bread, potatoes, fruits, cereals,
vegetables and peas.

Foods rich in Fibre (Roughage)

Function: fibre absorbs water, provides bulk to faeces and also absorbs poisonous
substances, which are passed out of the body with the faeces.

- Water: is very important because it forms a large part of the blood and tissue of the body.
It is essential that you drink at least 8 glasses of water every day to replace water that is
lost through sweat and urine.
 Function: water soften food so that it can move along your alimental canal easily/
transports nutrients and flushes toxins and wastes from the body/ also plays an important
role in regulating body temperature that is water is released as sweat to cool body down

1.4 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

STATE THE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF AIR

Composition of Air:
 Oxygen = 21 %
 Carbon dioxide = 0.03 %
 Nitrogen = 78 %
 Water Vapour = Varies (Humidity).

IDENTIFY RESPIRATORY GASSES

- Respiratory gasses are: Oxygen and Carbon dioxide

 During respiration Oxygen is taken in (inhaled when breathing in) and
Carbon dioxide is taken out (exhaled when you breath out).

Respiration: is the process of burning food in the body cells to produce carbon dioxide, water
and release energy.

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DESCRIBE THE TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE GAS

Carbon dioxide: is a gas produced when fuels burn.

- It is also produced during respiration in plants and animals;
- During respiration, glucose is broken down into carbon dioxide, water and energy.

TEST FOR OXYGEN GAS

Oxygen: is an important gas in the air;
- We breathe in oxygen to use it for respiration
1.5 TRANSPORT SYSTEM

DESCRIBE WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS

- In plants, molecules of water, nutrients, gasses and waste substances move in and out of
cells all the time;
- Substances are moved in and out of the cells by diffusion and osmosis.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion: is a spontaneous movement of particles of any substance from a region where the
particles are highly concentrated to a region where there is low concentration of the particles.

- E.g. perfume can spread from one corner of a closed room with any electric fan to push
the smell to another corner due to diffusion.

Process of Diffusion

OSMOSIS
Osmosis: is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of
lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.

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 - Water moves through a semi-permeable membrane until the water particles are spread out
evenly;
- Osmosis therefore stops when the water particles are in equilibrium.
- E.g. water moves by osmosis from the soil, where there is a high concentration of water
into roots, where there is lower concentration of water.
Process of Osmosis

Water Movements in Plants

- Water enters the roots by osmosis;
- The water moves across the root into the xylem tissue, located in the centre of the root;
- Xylem carries water throughout plants

Movement of water into the root by osmosis

Roots absorb water by the process of osmosis

IDENTIFY COMPONENTS OF BLOOD STATING THE FUNCTIONS

- Components of blood are:

o Red blood cells;
o White blood cells;
o Platelets;
o Plasma.
- Functions of the components of blood
 Red blood cells: carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells of the body;
 White blood cells: defensive system of the body against diseases, they kill bacteria,
virus, fungi, etc. / they form the immunity system of the body.
 Platelets: helps in the clotting of blood when injured. Stops bleeding by clotting and
avoids too much loss of blood which might lead to death
 Plasma: is the liquid part of the blood which carries blood cells, food and waste products
around the body.

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1.6 REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND HUMANS

DESCRIBE STRUCTURE OF A SIMPLE FLOWER

- A typical flower has its parts arranged in four rings or whorls;

- These whorls are attached to a wide base at the end of the flower stalk;
- This wide base is called the receptacle;
- The outer whorl is made up of sepals;
- The sepals protect the flower bud;
- The petals are usually colourful and attract pollinators;
- The two inside whorls contain the male and female structures of the flower, which
produce the sex cells (gemetes).

Male Structure
- The male structure is called the stamen, which is formed by the anther and filament;
- The anther is the male structure that produces pollen grains, containing male sex cells;
- The anther is held up by the filament.

Female Structure
- The female structure is called the carpel or pistil, and it consists of three parts, the
stigma, the style and the ovary;
- The stigma receives pollen, while the ovary produces structure called ovules;
- Each ovule holds one female sex cell.

A Simple Flower
Simple Exercise

Label the following flowers:

a) b)

DESCRIBE POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

Pollination
- Flowers can only form seeds and fruits when they have been pollinated;
o Pollination: is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther (male part of the
flower) to the receptive stigma (female part of the flower) of the same species.
- The purpose of pollination is to allow fertilization to occur.
- Pollination can happen in two ways;
- When pollen is being transferred to the stigma of the same flower, it is called self-
pollination;
- When the pollen is carried to the stigma of another flower, it is called cross-pollination
o Pollinator: such as an insect, bird or animal, carries the pollen from the anther to
the stigma of another flower of the same species.

The Process of Pollination

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Fertilization

o Fertilization: is the fusion/ joining / union of male and female.

- During pollination, many pollen grains land on the stigma of a flower of the same specie;
- A mature pollen grain contains two male gametes;
- The pollen grain bursts open and grows a pollen tube;
- The pollen tube grows into the ovule, where one male sex cell fuses with the female egg
cell;
- The fertilized egg (ovule) will then develop into a seed;
- The ovary develops into a fruit.
Stages of Fertilization

STATE SIGNS OF PUBERTY

- Puberty is the stage at which sexual organs mature for reproduction;
- In both male and female, puberty is triggered when the body produces certain chemicals
called hormones;
- There is one type of hormone for girls and another for boys;
- In males, puberty usually starts between the age of 9 and 14 years, while in female it can
begin anytime from 8 to 13 years;

Signs of Puberty in Males:

 Growth of facial, body and pubic hair;
 Increased muscle mass and height;
 Voice changes and becomes deeper;
 Lengthening and widening of the penis

Signs of Puberty in Females:

 Enlarge breast;
 Growth of pubic hair;
 Wider hips;
 Beginning of menstruation;
Changes that Occur at Puberty in Males and females

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

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1.7 HEALTH AND DISEASES

DESCRIBE A HEALTHY PERSON

o Health: is a state of mental, social and physical well-being;

 Mental well-being:
- To be mental well, you must realize your own abilities and be able to cope with normal
stress of life;
- You must be able to think and work in a productive way when doing school work or
other tasks;
- You can interact with other people and enjoy life;
- When you are not coping at home or school, it causes mental stress, which means that
you are mentally unhealthy.

 Social well-being:
- Social well-being means having friends and seeing them on a regular basis;
- Personal contact with friends has a positive effect on your mental health and social life;
- It is important to have friends that you enjoy spending time with and with whom you
share a close relationship;
- Those connections create a positive effect on your health and happiness;
- To have close personal friends with whom you can laugh, cry and share, increase your
happiness and therefore your social well-being.

 Physical well-being
- Physical well-being is when all your normal body functions are well coordinated;
- Health may be poor or good;
- Good health means being free from diseases and have a balanced diet;
- Poor health is when you allow certain opportunistic diseases to disturb normal body
functions, e.g. lack of Vitamin A will affect your vision/ lack of Vitamin C causes
bleeding gums and, in severe cases, scurvy;
- It is essential at your age to have at least eight hours sleep a night;
- Sleep helps rest your body and reduce stress levels.
To enjoy good health:
- a person needs proper shelter, a balanced diet, enough exercise, friends, adequate sleep
and rest.
STATE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING PERSONAL HYGIENE
- Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that prevent the spread of diseases;
You must make sure that you practice the following personal hygiene habits:
 Bath or wash all over your body with a wet cloth using soap everyday/ soap will remove
the dirty and stale sweat/ bacteria will grow in stale sweat, which causes you to smell;
 Wash your hair with soap or shampoo at least once a week/ clean your teeth twice every
day to avoid tooth decay/ always wash your hands with soap and water after using the
toilet;
  Wash dirty clothes with laundry soap and hang them in the sun to dry/ the sun’s rays will
kill some pathogens (disease-causing germs) and parasites;
 When you iron your clothes, you kill and prevent the growth of lice or fleas, and many
other vectors of pathogens;
 Make sure that your home is cleaned at least once a week.
Ways to Practice Personal Hygiene

LIST WAYS OF DISPOSING LITTER, WASTE, STATING THEIR

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTGES

Ways of Disposing Litter and Waste:

 Burying
 Recycling
 Burning

Burying
- Disposing of solid waste in managed landfill sites and rubbish dumps is the cheapest
form of solid waste disposal;
- In landfill and rubbish dumps, waste is first deposited and spread in thick layers;
- It is then compacted by bulldozers;
- The compacted layers are covered with soil;
- The soil prevent bad odours that emanate from decomposing waste from polluting the air;
- Burying waste also prevent insects and rodents from breeding in the waste;
- If not managed well and poorly controlled: harmful substances create a serious health risk
to human and animals/ can attract disease-carrying animals, such as rats and insects/
toxic chemical drain into underground water;

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Recycling
- Waste that is dumped could usually have been recycled in some way;
- Plastic, glass, metals, paper and cardboard can be recycled and re-moulded into the same
or other manufactured goods;
- These materials are collected and transported to recycling plants;
- By recycling, there is less demand for new raw-materials, so we can protect Earth’s
natural resources;
- Recycling is cheaper than finding suitable land to manage solid waste disposal or
controlling illegal rubbish dumps;
- The other advantage of recycling solid waste are that it creates job opportunities for
people who collect and recycle waste, and less waste is sent off the landfill sites and
incinerators, which releases less air pollution.

Burning
- Some cities produce massive dumps where waste is burnt;
- Incinerators burn household, industrial and organic waste in urban areas;
- Some hospitals dispose of medical waste in their own incinerators;
- Incinerators release waste gases, such as carbon dioxide, water, and oxides of sulphur and
nitrogen, as well as ash dust;
- Incinerators are expensive to run and to control emissions into the air;
- People living close to incinerators are vulnerable to lung illness because they breath in
toxic gases and particles that are suspended in the air;
- There are also advantages to using incinerators for waste management;
- By burning waste, the amount of land that would have been used for a landfill site is
reduced;
- As incinerators are located close to the place where the waste is generated, it saves
money on transporting waste;
- When waste is burnt, it prevents the chemicals and toxins leaching into the groundwater,
as it does in landfill sites;
- All disease pathogens in the waste are destroyed by high temperatures

DESCRIBE METHODS OF TRANSMISSION OF DISEASES

- Infectious diseases can be transmitted from one infected person to another;

- Staying clean helps to avoid infections;
- An infection occurs when pathogens get into your body and make you sick;
- A pathogen is a disease-causing germ, such as a virus, bacterium or protest;
- Another name for an infectious disease is a communicable disease;
- Communicable diseases are spread in various ways as shown below:
Common Pathogens and infectious Diseases
Methods of Transmission of Diseases:

 Food and Drinking Water

- Some micro-organisms, such as Vibro cholera and Entamoeba histolytica, get into our
drinking water and infect many people;
- These micro-organisms cause diseases known as cholera (Vibro cholera) and amoebic
dysentery (Entamoeba histolytica).
- These are water-borne diseases;
- They are common in areas with inadequate sanitation and water purification facilities;
- An infected person can pass thousands of bacteria in their faeces;
- This get into the drinking water;
- You can also get cholera by eating food that has been in contact with contaminated water,
flies or dirty hands;
- A person who has cholera will suffer from diarrhea and vomiting/ this leads to
dehydration;
- If body fluids and electrolytes are not replaced, the person wil fall into a coma and
eventually die;
- To prevent spread of cholera, good food hygiene is essential that is use only proper toilet
facilities, wash your hands with soap and water after use, etc.

 Person to Person Contact

- Person-to-person contact happens when an infected person touches or exchange bodily
fluids with another person;
- Infectious diseases, such as Ebola are caused by deadly viruses

Ebola virus seen under a microscope

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- Ebola is transmitted when a person touches broken skin of an infected person or comes
into contact with the bodily fluids, such as blood, saliva, sweat, vomit, semen and breast
milk of someone infected with the virus;
- Even when someone touches a person who has died from Ebola, they can be infected;
- To prevent Ebola from spreading, make sure you wash your hands with soap and water or
an alcohol-based hand sanitizer;
- You should cover your nose and mouth when coughing, and sneeze using a handkerchief,
tissue or your sleeve;
- Avoid contact with blood and bodily fluids.

 Vector-borne Diseases

- Some diseases are transmitted by invertebrates, such as insects (mosquitoes and fleas),
arachnids (ticks) and crustaceans

Malaria
- Malaria: is caused by a parasite called the plasmodium living in the salivary glands of a
female Anopheles mosquito;
- The Anopheles mosquito is a vector, which means it is the carrier of a parasite;
- The life-cycle of the malaria parasite occurs partly in the female mosquito. And partly in
humans;
- When the mosquito bites people to suck blood, it transfers the parasite into the
bloodstream of the person, causing malaria;
- The malaria parasite infects the red blood cells, liver and brain of the infected person;
- The symptoms of malaria are; high fevers, shivers and sweats, headaches and vomiting.
- In some cases, the person can fall into a coma and may eventually die;
- They are ways to avoid getting malaria;
- Take preventative medication when visiting a malaria area;
- Sleep under mosquito nets, spray insect-repellent chemicals onto your skin and wear
long-sleeve clothes during the early evening when mosquitoes are active;
- Spray oil on the surface of standing water, such as drains, to kill the lava that are
breeding;
- Do not leave stagnant water in buckets, old tyres or litter that water can accumulate in as
water is a breeding ground for mosquitoes.

Bilharzia
- Bilharzia: is caused by a parasitic flatworm called schistosoma.;
- The parasite’s life cycle occurs in a freshwater snail and a human;

- The human is the main host for the parasite;

- Bilharzias affects ether the urinary system or the intestines and liver;
- The parasite penetrates your skin and enters the blood vessels, where they lay eggs that
cause tissue damage;
- Schistosoma lives in streams, dams and rivers;
- People are infected by bilharzias when bathing or drinking water where the snails
carrying the worms live;
- It is more common in rural communities where the standards of hygiene are low;
- To prevent infection, do not swim in infected water, such as slow-moving streams and
dams;
- Do not urinate or defecate near water used for drinking, washing or bathing and always
boil all water before use;
- It is important to create awareness to prevent bilharzias infections.

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END-OF-BIOLOGY SECTION REVISION TEST
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