UNIT 3 ELECTRON DEVICES

Structure
3.1 Introduction
Objective
3.2 Vacuum Tubes
Thermiodc Emission
Vacuum Diode
Vacuum Triode
Vacuum Tetrode & Pentode
3.3 Semiconductor ~ a k r i a l s
Energy Band Diagram (Intrinsic Semiconductor)
Effect of Doping on Energy Band Diagram
Tratlsport of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors
3.4 p-n Junction Diodes
V-I Characteristics (p-n Junction with External Voltage)
Applications (Rectifier, Detector and Reference Voltage)
3.5 Transistors
Action and Characteristics
Field Effect Transistors (FET)
MOSFET (Enhancement & Depletion me)
3.6 Summruy
3.7 Tenninal Questions
3 .a Solutions and Answers

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The term electronics usually implies the controlled motion of electrons in vacuum or
solids. In the early part of 20th century this controlled motlon was achleved in
vacu? tubes. The electronic equipment used these vacuum tuba and are still being
used for high power.
However towards the middle of 20th century the controlled motion of electrons was
achieved i n solids. Thls has given rise to a rapid growth of mtnlature device and
integrated circuits. It has been possible to achieve the devices at low cost which has
made it possible to get computers in the size of television while with tubes it would
have been taken entire bullding of the size of parliament. These devices are made
from semiconductors. It is important to recall some.
In' this unit we are going to describe basic features of semiconducting materials and
devices, vacuum tubes. You may recall that semiconductors are those materials
whose conductivity lies between good insulators Vnergy gap < 2 eV) and good
metals (Cu, Al). The conductivity of pure semiconductors increases exponentially
with temperature. These matedals can be elements such as Silicon (Si) or
Germanium (Ge), compounds such as Gallium atscnide (GaAs) and oxides such as
Tin Oxide (Sn4) or Yittrium Barium copper oxide (YBaCuO). The most important
property of the semiconductor is that their conductivity can be greatly increased by
adding impurity or changing oxygen stoichiomeuy in oxides. Tin oxide (SnOi) with
oxygen deficiency can show metallic conductivity while remaining transparent. Such
conducting oxides are called "transparent conductors". The oxygen deficiency in
YBaCuO can make it "Superconductors*'. Such oxide superconductors have its
transition temperature much higher than metallic superconductors and are known as
"High T, Superconductors". You must have observed the importance of
Ndrcrk A n n l ~ n bd semiconductors (elemental, compound or oxides) whose conductivity can easily be
manoeuvred to suit the requirement. In this unit we will confine ourselves to
elemental semiconductors % their basic properties in order to understand the physics
of semiconductor devices. The most important are the electrical properties and thek
by doping. This can be understood from their energy band structure. A
derailed explanation of the energy bands is a part of solid state physics course,
however, the main features will be given h coming sections. Since most of the
semjconductor devices likes diodes, transistors, field effect transistor (FET) and
metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors(MOSFET) are made of either
Silicon or Germanium, it will be important to know some parameters of Siricon and
Germanium, which are listed below in Table 3.1
Table 3.1
-
Parameters Silicon (Si) Germanium (Gc)
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight

Density (Kg ma3)

Melting point ("C)
Atoms per unit volume (m-=) 5 x id8
Relative peanmittivity ( E,) 11.8
Atomic diameter (MI) 0.235
Energy band gap Eg (ev) 1.12

In coming sections you will read application of these semiconducting material in

fabricating p - n junction diodes and their use as rectifies, detector, voltag&
reference; junction transistor, their characteristics, biasing and configuration in which
it can be used as an amplifier; field effect transistor and MOSFET. We will start
this unlt with introduction to vacuum tubes for historical reasons. Although the use
of vacuum tubes is very limited now as it has been completely replaced by
semiconductor devices, yet they find some applications h ultra high frequency
amplifying devices and high power (MW) electronic applications. The details of
amplifier circuit, oscillator circuit and power supplies, will be dealt in BLOCK-2 of
,.
this course.
Objectives
After going through this unit you will be able to
a describe thermionic emission and concept of space charge limited operation
and functioning of vacuum diodq triode, tetrode and pentode,
a explain the fundamentals of semiconducting material and their energy band
diagram for intrinsic as well as extrinsic case,
a r t charge carriers in semiconductors,
explain basic mechanism for t ~ a & ~ oof I
\ I

a -
draw voltage-current characteristics of bulk semiconductor, p n junction diode
and zener diode,
8 describe functioning of bipolar.junction transistor @JT),.field effect tsansfstor
\

0and MOSPET. '

a differentiate between basic features of devices Like BJT, PET and MOSFET.
I
1,
\, I

3.2 VACUUM TUBES "

The thermfom vacuum diode, invented in 1903, was the first in chain' of klectronic
devices that dominated the field of electronics till the invention ot; the, transistor in
a 1948. The use of vacuum devices is now restricted to amplifying devices in ultra Electron De.vices
J
high frequency (MRz) and high power (MW) electronic applications.

3.2.1 Thermionic Emission

Electronic emission is the process by which the free electrons escape horn the
surface of metal. A metal is made up of atoms bound in crystal laltices, of electrons
bound to the atoms, and of free electrons that are not bound to any particular
locations in the metal. The free electrons are always in motion and travel more or
less freely throughout the body of the metal. A certain minimum amount of energy
must be given to the free electrons to enable it to escape from the metal. This
amount of energy required at absolute zero temperature is known as "Work
function" of the metal. It is expressed in electron-volts (eV). In tlicrmionic
emission, the electrons are emitted when a metal is supplied with heat energy.
Suitable metals with low work functions values are tungsten in high-voltage (KV)
tubes, thoriated tungsten in high power (KW)tubes and oxide coated metals in
low-power electron tubes.

3.2.2 Vacuum Diode

The simplest form of a thermionic vacuum tube is the diode, consisting of a cathode
heated by a filament and an anode enclosed in a evocuatcd glass or metal envelope
(The pressure inside the chamber is rougldy mrn of Hg or less). Tl~e

A
" ? (Anode)

tube
~d (Cathode)

(4
Bg. 33.: A vacuum diode (a) conatmction (b) symbol and (c) volt-ampere cherecterietlcs.
construction and the symbol of a vacuum diode is shown in Fig. 3.1 (a) and (b)
respectively. The volt-ampere characteristics of this device is shown in Fig. 3.1 (c).
When anode is maintaped at a positive potential with respect to cathode, then the
electrons emitted by tlie directly or indirectly heated cathode, are attracted by the
anode and thus allows flow of current through diode. The volt-ampere characteristic
clearly shows that this device conducts only In one direction i.e. when anode is
positive with respect to cathode. Anode current is zero for zero and negative values
of VAK, the voltage between anode and cathode. One of the major problems
associated with this device is "space-charge limited opergtian". This can be
 Arbdgnna oevlma explained as follows. In all the thermiooic vacuum tubes, the electron emirion 01
the cathode is at a much higher rate than that at which the electrons are &awn away
by the anode. The resulting cloud of electrons near cathodes, called the negative
space-charge, makes the anode current dependent on the anode potential and
independent of the rate of emission, which depends on the temperature of the
cathode. Ibis phenomena is called "space charge limited operation". Cleatly, in
*l
order to draw large anode cumnt, we will require high potential difference between
._ anode and cathode.

3.2.3 Vacuum Triode

Filament
Cathode (K)
Grid (G)
Anode (A)
Evacuuted tube
Ground

(4
Wg. 3.21 A vacuum trlode (a) mnstrudlon (b) symbol along wlth dc bluing rehame
-
(c) VAX IA and (d) -
Vex IA chamcterlatla

A vacuum triode has a third electrode, called "grid" due to its mesh like structure,
introduced i n the negative space-charge region nearer to the cathode as shown in
Fig. 3.2 (a). The grid t6erefore has more effect than the anode in conlrolling the
current flow between the anode shd the cathode and hence it is called the "control
grid' '.
f
 The voltage drop between control grid (G) and cathode (K), VGK is usually a few
volts negative with respect to the cathode. The symbol of vacuum triode is shown in
Fig. 3.2 (b). As control grid is nearer to the cathode, a much smaller voltage applied
to the control grid can result i n the same change of anode current as will be
produced by a much larger voltage applied to the anode of the tube. This action of
control grid also' f o r m s a e basis of amplifying action of the triode.
In order to determine volt-ampere characteristics of a triode, we have to consider
three variables namely VAK,IA and VGK. The most commonly used plots are the
anode characteristics (IA - VAK)with VGK kept constant, and the transfer
characteristics (IA - VGK)with VAK kept constant as shown in Fig. 3.2 (c) and (d)
respectively. The cut off grid voltage is that value of VGK at which I' becomes zero
for a given value of VAK.

The small signal parameters of triode can be determined by riding out dc operating
point with the help of external voltage sources and resistors. In the neat linear
portion of the cliaracteristics, their slope around a dc biasing point Q can be
identified as follows :

Anode or plate resistance, rp = - I

Transconductance,

Amplification factor, p= zK
1 = Const.

Clearly, P =rpX g m (3.1)

Small &nnl Models :

,
I
For small voltage and current variations around the Q-point, these small signal
, parameters can be considered to be constant and then a small change In IA can be
expressed as :

Fig 3.31 Smnll slgnal models, (a) voltage source @) current source
IA=f (VAK,VGK)

where i,, vgkandvakrepresent the varying components of currents, and voltages in

the circuit. This equation can be replaced by circuit known as small signal model
for triode, shown in Fig. 3.3 (a), and (b).
 Network Ana'yds Dev'cea pjgure 3.3 (b) can be understood by rewriting tb sbovc equation as :

I 3.2.4 Vacuum Tetrode and Pentode

Vacuum Tetrodc
The major problem associated with triode is its inter electrode capacitances. 'Ihey
are capacitance between grid and anode, grid and cathode, and anode and cathode.
These capacitances become very effective at high frequencies resulting in instability
in the action of Triode at such high frequencies. To overcome this limitation, a new
electrode is introduced, giving u s a four electrode tube called tetrode. The fourth
electrode is called a "Screen grid". Structurally it is similar to control grid and is

Ground
(a)

-------

Suppressor Grid

Flp 3.4: (a) A letrode with proper biasing (b) A Pentode.

placed between anode and control grid. It is operated at a fixed positive potential.
The two main functions of the screen grid are (i) to increase the plate current by
overcoming thc space charge (ii) to reduce the capacitance between the control grid
and the anode at high frequcnc.ics. A tetrode valve is shown in Pig. 3.4 (a).
Vacuum Pentode

The problem associated with tetrodc is that when screen grid is at a higher potential
than the anode, the primary electrons from thc cnthode acccleratcd by the screen
grjd hit the mode resulting in the emission of secondary electrons frolq the anode,
which are attracted by the screen grid forming a screen current, which reduces the
plate current. To avoid the decrease in plate current, a new electrode is inserted ,
between the screen grid and the anode. It makes five electxodc structure called ,
Pentode. The new electrode is called the "Suppressor grid". It is kept at cathode
potential. The purpose of suppressor grid is to return back the secondary electrons
emitted by the anode thcreby removing thc dip in the plate currcnt curve of tetrode.
A Pcntode valve is shown in Fig. 3.4 (b). I
 SAQ 1 Give examples of some elemental, compound and oxide semiconductors?
i
I
SAQ 2.
How does the conductivity of oxide semiconductors change?
Define "Work function. Explain thermionic emission.
SAQ 3. What do you understand by space charge limited operation? Explain this
with reference to vacuum diode. How the adverse effect of space charge
region controlled in a triode?
SAQ 4. Give volt-ampere characteristics of a vacuum triode and give thc small
signal parameters.

SAQ 5. What do-you undetstanhby small signal model of a triode. Give small
signal model for a trio& with a voltage source and a current source.

SAQ 6. Write notes on -(i) ~etrodiixii)Pentode.

3.3. SEMICOND~CTOWMATERIALS
I

lie tom semiconductor denotes a solid-stab material having a resistivity lying

I
between that of a good insulator and of a metal i.e. lying in tllc range of lo4 to
' I

lo4 am. Silicon, Germanium and Gallium Arsenide are the three most widely &ed
I semiconductors. Because of the prcdomimnce of silicon devices, we will confine our'
I
I discussion to them. Semiconductor can be of two types : Intrinsic or Extrinsic. Aa
intrinsic semiconductor is one which is pure and consists entirely of the same types
I
of atoms in a perFect covalent tetrahedral crystnlline structure. In order to obtain
extrinsic or doped semiconductor minute, controlled quantities of trivalent (bnrium,
gallium or indium) or pentavnlent (phosphorous, arsenic or antimony) doping atoms
I are intentionally added to an intrinsic tertravalent mieonductor. Since impurity
I atom doping is very small, the basic crystal smcturc 1s unaltered. Most physkal and
I chemical properties are essentially same and only the electrical properties change
1
I markedly.
1

3.3.1 Energy Band Diagram (Intrinsic Semiconductor)

I
I
1 A solid body consist of a host of atoms which strongly interact owing to small inter
/ atomic distances. Instead of combination of discreate eaergy levels inherent in an
1
I Individual atom, characteristic of a solid body is an aggregate of-energy barids.
Every band orighates from a certain level which splits, as it were,-'& atoms come
closer together. As a result, a crystal with an inter atomic spacing do features a
definite arrangement of energy bands; the b d dingram where (allowed) energy
I bands alternate with energy gaps, also called "forbidden bands" or "band gaps", is
shown in Rg. 3.5(a)

j.
!
4
3
- ---
- -
2 1

I
(Energy
Icvels) -
- - ---
I_

1
I - -
-
-- ---
I ,(Inter atomic
i _- I I I
I do -- d, spacings)

I (a) (b)
i mg-3.5: Formstlon of energy ban& (a) 1 rr otomlc levek r 2 -, aggregate oP energy
1 /
bandr # 3 -r almost mntlnuou~ energy band dlegclm of Intdnslc
I
I rernlcanductom st T-OK
!
 Network Analynlr end Devicem

Frec Broken

Hol. I1
Flg. 3.4: Coveknt b d mod4 for i n t r h k d m a d u d o r with thermally generated electmmhols pair.

The uppet energy band is a conduction band and the band below it is a valence
band as shown in Fig. 3.5@). At absolute zero, the valence band is always filled
completely with electrons, wheteas the conduction band is almost empty.

The dlicoh or geranium atoms are tetravalent as they have four valence electrons in
their outermost orbit A simplified model of tetravalent atoms consists of a core with
a +4e charge surrounded by the four valence electrons. The arrangement is shown in
Figure 3.6 i n a simplified two dimensional form. Each of the four valence electrons
of a particular atom is shared i.e. associated with each of the four nearest atoms
forming strong covalent bonds. When a covalent bond is broken as shown in Fig.
3.6, the freed electron leaves behind a vacancy in the covalent bond. There is an
excess of positive charge in the broken bond associated with this position of the
missing electron. This vacant position or gap is called a "hole". Since breaking a
covalent bond results in both a free electron ahd a hole, consequently, the hole
concentration (p) and electron concentration (n) must be equal and

where ni represents the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers. Thus the thermal
agitation generates new electron-hole pairs. The electrons have a limited lifetime in
the conduction bond and periodically fall back to the valence band in a
"'recombination" process with energy of excitation appearing as heat energy. The
lifetimes T, and T,, of electrons and holes are very important parameters as they I
indicate the time required for the excess electrons and hole concentration to return
I
to their equilibrium values. The intiinsic concentration ni is very sensitive to
temperature and is given by

whete A. and Eg are material constants, K-Boltzxnam Constant and T Js temperame

i n K. The Term KI appears very often in semiconductor physics and is generally
4
denoted by symbol VT (thermal voltage)

I clearly, both electrons aid holedi contribute to the conduction process in a

I
semiconductor. However, the hole mobility pp ips always less (a 3 times lower) than
I

A 74 ' the electron mobilllty pn due to the complexity involved in the motion of a hole. . ,
,
 The expression for conductivity (0) can be given by Electron'. Devices

aZq(nPn+~Pp) (3.6)
In invirisic semiconductors n = p n[

3.3.2 Effect of Doping on Energy Band Diagram

As already explained in earlier sub-section, a doped semiconductor (may also be
called extrinsic semiconductor) is one in which minute, controlled quantities of
trivalent (for p-type semiconductor) or pentavalent (for n-type semiconductor) doping
atoms are intentionally added to an intrinsic semiconductor (Si or Ge).
n-type semiconductor
Assume that a small amount of pentavalent element Is added to the pure silicon, The
resulting energy-band model and the two-dimensional bond structures are shown in
Fig. 3.7 (a) and @) respectively. The pentavalent doping atom Is represented by an
-ion having +Se charge surrounded by five valence electrons. Four of the five valence
electronsafthe impurity atom enter into convalent bonds with neighbourhg
tetravalent silicon atoms. The fifth electron is now loosely bound to the parent atom
by an elecaostatlc force alone. In the presence of a small thermal energy (0.01 eV
%r&eand.Q,OS eV for Si) this extra electron becomes a free electron available for
conduction even at low temperatures. The impurity atom is known as donor atom as
it has donated one electron to the crystal. The donor atom occupies an energy level
very near to the conduction band as shown in Fig. 3.7 (a). In the charge model,
shown in Pig. 3.7 (c), only the immobile positively ionised impurity atoms along
with the free charge camers (electrons) which they have donated are shown. In Fig.
3.7 (c) the silicon atoms as well a s the relatively small number of thermally
generated electron-hole pairs are omitted for the sake of simplicity.

Errcrgy
A Frcc
Frcc
- -- -- -131mtl
-- --Condnction -- -
+ + + + -+ + ++ Donor Energy
Icvcl ([mpurily ion) /

+ + + +
VaIence band
b
13islancl: c

(a>
Ilonor
(b)

(9-0-0
0-0:0
,

(c)

EYP, 3.7: Two dlmennlon model for n-type semlconductore (a) enem-band (b) bond mudel
(c) charge model.
4
p-type semiconductor ,

Assume that a small amount of trivalent element is added to the pure silicon. The
Network Dev'ccs resulting energy-band model and the two dimensional bond structure are &own in
Fig. 3.8 (a) and (b) respectively. The trivalent doping is represented by aua ion
having +3e charge surrounded by thee valence electrons. These t h e e valence
electrons enter into covalent bonds with the neighbouring three tctravalent silicon
atoms. A vacancy or hole exists in h e fourth bond as shown k Fig. 3.8 fi).Then
isa-possibilitylha a valencecJectson from a ~eighbouringatom h o p into &e
vacancy. That is why doping atoms are c a m 3
electron. The negative accepbr ion occupy tbe e tbe valeace b a d .S
shown in Fig. 3.8 (a). The hole now can be assumed to be loaely bound to be
parent impurity 'a-tomby electrostatic force alone which can be overcome d y by
aermal excitation edergy of 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for silicon. Thus, even
low temperatures the impurity atom is ionised mnd the ntsulting hole is free to take
-_partin conduction. In the charge model shown in Fig. 3.8 (c), only the immobile
negatively ironised impurity atoms along with the hole are shown.
Encrg y
A

Concluc~ionU amcl
- --- - -- -
Acceplor Encrgy
Level

+ + + ++Hole
Viiicnce band Holc
tP
1)istance ~liroi~gl~
crystal

(c) charge model

Law of mass action
In the n-type (p-type) semiconcluctors, the number of holes (electrons) decrease
below that, which would be available in the intrinsic semiconductor. This is because
the rate of recombination Increases due to the presence of a large number of free
electrons (holes). Further, the law of mass-action states that under thermal
equilibrium for any semiconductor, we have

Thus the doping of intrinsic semiconductor enhances the number of majority carriers
viz. electrons (holes) in n-type (p-type) semiconductor while suppressing the number
of minority carries viz. holes (electrons) 'hthe n-type (p-type) semiconductor. For
conductivity of the doped semiconductors, the dominant majority carriers alone need
to be considered.
ConductMty
(i) n-type sedconductors : u, - qn,, p, (3.8)

- (ii) p-type semiconductors : up = qpp pp (3.9)

L 3.3.3 Transport of Charge Carriers in Semiconductors . I

.

I . general, the charge carrier transport rcsults from three proc&ses, mmely
(i) Temperature gradient

(a) Drift due to the electric potential gmdlent

(iii) Diffusion due to the concenlmtion gradient b " . .
Since most of the semiconductor devices are made to operatc at constant ., . ,1 .
temperature, therefore the charge transport due to temperature gradient Is not
 relevant for discussion here. We will just concenkntc on the other two tlaechamisms Electron Devlces
for charge transport in semiconductors namely Drift rand Diffusion.

FIB 3.91 DriR of charge carriers in setnlconductor enmple.

t charge carriers under low fields

~ = i fof

Suppose a voltage V is applied across a block of semiconductor of area A and

thickness d as shown in Rg. 3.9. The electrons drift with velocity vdEand hole with
vdl,in opposite directions. Since the hole carry a positive charge atad electron
negative charge, the current from both lhe cnrricrs is in the same direction.
Therefore current I can be expressed as :

J - current density - -A =q(nvd.+pvd)=sE

Where E is the electric field and a, the electrical conductivity.

where pde and pdh are the drift mobilities of electron and hole. You may recall that
mobility is defined as velocity per unit electric field.
High Field Conduction
The high field conduction can be divided into two reglons' :

[i) Saturation of drift velocity i.e. the current becomes independent of voltage (in
turn electric field)

(ii) Breakdown, when current shows sudden incre&c with voltage.

Saturation 0%drift velocity
We know that in metals, the drift velocity (vd) is always very much smnller lhan

[
the thermal velocity of electrons v,,,= 45 : ~t mom temperature ie, a
300 K, vth .I1 x 10' ems-' for free electrons. But in intrhiic s ~ & c o - ~ d ~ r s , - w h k h ~
have high resistance and so i t is possible to-apply high e l e ~ ~flcld
i e so that the drift
velocity approaches the thermal velocity. When his dtuation reaches, h e mobility ,

becomes field dependent a s additional scattering mechanisms come into play. me

decrense in mobility with high electric field causes saturation of drift velocity. We
can see for silicon, ye = 1500 cm2/vs, vd = 1 x 10' cm/s for electric field
E - 1 x lo4 Vcm-f Typically, the current beconhes independent of voltage once the
electric field exceeds 10 KV/cm. The concept of saturntion of drift velocity st high
electric field is very important in understanding I-V characteristtcs of semiconductor
devices .
Breakdown rat very high electric flelds
'The drift velocity (vd) being average velocity, individual electrons can have
Network Analysls and Devices velocities higher than average v& Hence, when the electric field in any
semiconductor is increased above a certain value, some of the carriers gain Gough
energy so that they can excite electron-hole pairs by impact ionisation. These
additional electron and holes generated by impact ionisation cause a sudden increm
i n the current, and the current shows a very rapid increase with voltage above the
critical voltage for breakdown. A schematic representation of current demity as a
function of electric field is shown in Fig. 3.10. At low fields, we have ohmic
region (OA), which changes into saturation region AB when d 6 h velocity is
saturated. The carrier concentration in OA and AB region is constant and the
v ~ i a t i o nin current density is only due to variation in drift velocity with electric
field. However, in region BC which is breakdown region, the sudden increase h
current is due to the increase in number of carriers.

Saturation +q 13reakdown
region

Ohmic I
region I Carriers I Increase
remain -----*r in carriers
I conslant I
L

Hg. 3.10: Variation of current density M a function of eleetrk fleld.

Diffusion of carriers due to concentration gradient
diffusion mechanism, the transport of carriers is due to concentration gradient
Whcn the concentration of charges at one place in a semiconductor is more than in
other places, then the carriers from higher concentration region move to lower
concentration region. This phenomena is not limited to the motion of electrons and
holes but is a general phenomenon and wc will see that i t k used for doping
impurities in semiconductor.
A

Fig. 3.111 Vadatlon of electron density an a function of distance.

Let the variation of carrier concentration n(x) as a function of distance x, be given

by Fig, 3.11. We take 6x as the mem free path (average distance covered by
electrons before collision) and T as the time between successive collision. The
thermal velocity ( v , ~ )can be written as :

The average rate of flow of charge carriers per m i t area crossing the plane at x
from left to right, F, , can be expressed as :
 Electron Devices

16e factor hnlf is coming because hnlf o f the carriers will be moving to the right,
and be average number of charge carriem is half of the density of cmicrs at x and
x-Sn.
an
Taylor expansion of n (x - b x) = n (x) a~ 8 x + ---
--
Neglecting higher order terms and substituthg in above expression, we obtain

Similarly, the charge carriers passing per unit area per unit time from right to left at
the interface x as shown in Fig. 3.11, F,' can be expressed as :

The net flow of charge carriers left to right per unit area per unit time can be
obtained by taking difference of F, and 6;,' and can be given by :

The factor (112) in above equation arises from the simplifying nssumptions. If we
- -
assume that average density between x and x B x is n (x b x) and between x and
x + 6 x as n (x + 6 x), then the final expression will not havc this factor of (1/2). Now,
we define "diffusivity" or "diffusion cots~tstlt"D (cm2 S-') of charge carriers as

- 1
D - 6 x v,h = 6 x vth (approx.)
2
Hence, the number of charge carriers moving from left to right per d t area per unit
time can be expressed as :

-
The current density J q F,
where q is charge of the carrier, negative for electrons and positive for holes. For
simple one dimensional case, the diffusion current due to the elccttons and holes can
be represeated as

The relation between the diffusion constant D and the mobility is called the
Einstein's relation, and can be derived by assuming that the charge carriers behave
like a free gas molecules. The Einstein's reIation is given by

General case
" the general case when both concentration gradient and electric field E are present,
the current carried by each type of carrier i s given by
!
Network Analyela end Devlres J, - ~,id15ft)+ J, (diffusion)

Jh = 1,(drift) + J,, (diffusion)

I
The total current density J - J, + Jh (3.18)

SAQ 7. Explain the formation of energy bmds in intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors. What difference do you observe?
BAQ 8. What do you unders'tand by Law of mass action?
SAQ 9, Explnin the vnrin4on of intrinsic carrier concentration with temperature.
I
SAQ 10: Explain the process of transport of charge cmiers in semiconductors.
SAQ 11. Explain the variation of current density with electric field when it is low,
high and very high,

3.4 p-n JUNCTION DIODES

You have already learned in previous section that the current flow in an extrinsic
semiconductor is due to two mechanisms, namely drift and diffusion. The drift
motion of carriers is caused by a potential gradient while diffusion takes place due
to the carrier concentration gradient. The drift current is proportional to the electric
field strength and the cnrrier concentration, while the diffusion current is
proportional to only concentration gradient. Diffusion is important transport
mechanism for minority c a ~ ~ i easr s their concentration gradient is steep. Majority
cmiers mainly contribute to the drift current as their concentration is more. By its
very nature, diffusion is a slower urnsport mechanism as compared with drift.
Diffusion 1s controlled by the number of electrons/holes crossing the bander, while
in drift the number of electrons is fixed at a temperature and the current increases
with increasing field till saturation.
If we take an n-type semiconductor sample and diffuse p-type impurities into it, a
p - n junction is formed as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a). Only majority carriers and

ng 3.12: Formnllon.ofp-n Junction (a) carrier distribution (b) formntlon of chnrgc dcpletlon Inyere
 impurity ions are indicated otr the n-and p-sidea Of course, on both n and p-side, -
minority carriers also exists. When the junction L formed, because of the
concentration gradient, holes from the p-side diffuse into the n-side and recombine
with free electrons. Similarly, electrons from n-side diffuse to the p-side and
recombine with holes. Such an exchange of mobile carriers occurs mainly i n a
narrow region around the junction. This region is called the "depletion layer" or
"space-charge layer", as i t becdmes depleted of the free charge carriers, leaving
behind the un neutralized immobile ions called space charge [due to positive ions on
the n-side and negative ions in the p-side]. Such a space charge causes an electric
fleld in the depletion region and a potential difference called the junction barrier
potential develops across the p-n junction, making the p-side negative with respect
to the n-side. This barrier potential cannot be measured with the help of a voltmeter.
This potential barrier is of such a polarity that it opposcs the diffusion of electrons
from n to p region and holes from p to n region. However, the bonier helps the
movement of minority carriers i.e., holes from the n-side can cross over to the
p-side and electrons from p-side can cross over to the n-side. The magnitude of this
minority carrier drift current is dependent only on the available number of minority
carriers and is almost independent of the value of barrier potential. So, as the barrier
potential builds up, the diffusion current goes on decreasing until the thermal
equilibrium condition is reached i.e., when h e drift current equals the diffusion
current and the net current across the junction is zero. The barrier potential .reaches
the steady state value and does not increase any further as shown in Fig. 3.13 (a)
and @)Xk-may be pointed out that the barrier potential for moderately doped Si p - n
junction is of the order of 1 V and the barrier width of the order of lpm, with the
result that the electric field is of the order of 10~Vcrn-I and the cartier passing
through the junction barrier by drift current are already i n the saturation stnte and so

-
the drift current in p-n junction diode is independent of voltage before we reach the
break down.

-----+
Holc drift
Hole dillusion

n
V, = Barrier I'oten~ial
P

(Drift = Diffusion)
Electron drift
+------ Electron dilfusion

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.13 (a) potential proLlle acmaa the p-H Junction (b) barrler potential.
As pointed out earlier, and external voltage from a battery at the jhction can never
exceed the barrier voltage because the barriers width cannot be made zero. In
forward bias, the barrier width decreases as well as the barrier potential-so-thc&jft
current is sttll under high field.

3.4.1 Vd Characteristics (p-nJunction with External Voltage)

Pig. 3.14 (a) shows a p-n junction with an external battery connected to it such that
the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-side and the negative
terminal to the n-side. Such a connection helps to reduce the barrier height as the
external battery opposes the internal barrier potential. Hence, the diffusion cu&ent
increases while minority carrier drift current is unaffected. A p-n junction connected
in the above manner is said to be forward-biased as i t conducts large amount of
current i n the forward direction which 1s taken as the dir&'donpf diffusioh current
flow. The junction presents a low impedance to the forward curre'nt flow.

On the other hand, if the battery polarity is reversed as shown in Fig. 3.14 @), the
Network Arb& mad b*r b d e r height is h a d . Hence majority Eurlem cannot diffuse. miaod~
cprrier drift H unaffected. The p-n junction is said to be reversed b i w .nd the

-
dnority-canier drift current is called reverse saturation current. A rev- b i a

--+ Hole diffusion

fiFl-,
Hole drift Hole drift

1 9y:ccton1 -
4--- Electron difhsion
drift
I Electron drift I

- Total diflusion
4--- Total drift
(a)
+-- Total drift

(c)
. N@ 3.144 (a) Corward-blrued pr Jundlon
@) r a v ~ b h e cpl n junctbn
(c) v b o l lor p-r Junetlon diode,

junction does not conduct much current in the reverse direction which is taken as
the ditection of minority carrier drift current .
In order to obtain current-voltage(V-I) characteristics of p-n junctiSn did& we
cooslder the followings,

(i) Forward biaa : As we.hve already learned, the forward k c t i o n current is

mainly dw to diffusion cumnt of majority carriers and is given by

IF a exp I!!
KT-
9v
, exp -
IF = 1
KT
where I . is reveke saturation current

(ii) Reverse bias : Under reverse biased condition, it is the drift of minority

I ,/&-/ iffu us ion (forward)

Dri f (reverse)

fig. 3;15t I-Y chomctedstics of a p-n Junctlon dode.

82
 Electron Devlccs
carriers, which determine It. It is in opposite direction rand has a constant value
- .
Is

Combining the two, the I-V characteristic equation is given by

[ Z
I=Is e x p - 1 1

The charac.teristic is given in Fig. 3.15.

3.4.2 Applications (Rectifier, Detector and Reference Voltage)

In the application of devices, the major interest is in exploiting V-I characteristic for
different a~plicati0IISwithout leeally worrying as to why such a characteristic has
come, which has always been concern of physicist and hras resulted into discovery of
various new devices, while engineers have been able b exploit for day to day
application of the devices. The specifications of the device is always supplied by the
manufacturers. For example.

(a) IN 40001 is a p-n junction diode with V, = 1.0 V and Im, - 1 mA.

(b) BC-108 is a n-p-n silicon transistor. The specifications are :

I,,,= 100mA; hFEm100- 900 at I,,,,? 2mA,Pto,/MW=360,
VCBo -/V '20, VEBOmax/V 5, F T M Z 250
(i) Rectiners :
To start with we make an approximation, that the diode used in this circuit is ideal
one i.e., it only conducts in forwatd direction and no conduction in reverse
direction. Also, thc forward impedance offered by the diodc is taken as zero.
A rectifier circuit is one, which converts ac wave form to a unidirectionill and
pulsating one as shown in Fig. 3.16.

(a) (b)
I
Flg. 3.161 Converslon of ac to unldlrectlonnl pulsating wave rorm.
A half wave rectifier circuit with resistive load is shown in Fig. 3.17. The voltage
source is Vs = V,,,sin w t

Let R, be the source resistance. When a supply of suitable voltnge (as diode can
withstand only few volts across it) is not available, a step down transformer can be
used and V, will be the secondary voltage of the trnsformer.

f-jl$8
N N
+H - R,
.I-
"d -
f
Rs Vd

g+ +
V~ '
L R~ VL RL S v L
-
-
- - C'h

t
Elg 3.17: Half wave reetlner drcult. '
 Network Anmlgnle and Devices In the poSitive half cycle (0 < at < x ) of V, , it forward b i k the given diode and
produces a current in the positive direction. Clearly,
V, V, sinwt
id=-=R s + R ~ R,+RI; for 8 5 o t 5 z

vm
= I, sin wt where I
, =
(R,+ Rd
In the negative half cycle ( 5 3 at 3 Zz), the diode gets reverse biased and no current
flows in the circuit as diode will offer very high impedance i.e., i t will behave as
open circuit (infinite impedance). Hence
i d = O for x 5 o t S 2 a

Also,

= O for ~ 5 ~ t S 2 n ;
Pig. 3.18 shows the lond voltage wave form which is periodic containing rectified
alternate half cycles.

Fig, 3.181 Wove dorm of output volloge.

Since it is a periodic, finite and continuous wave form, it can be represented by a

Fouder series given by
r 1
OD
2 cos 2kwt
zk = I ( 2 k + 1)(2k- 1)
L J

It is clearly observed from above expression that the lond voltage Vz consists of a
dc component ( - 2)and sinusoidal components at the fundamental frqucnoy
corresponding to the mnlns frequency and even harmonics of a. Thus, the output
contains frequencies wbich are not present in the Input voltage. This i s a
consequence of the non linearity of the diode, I

In order to have an assessment of the ac content of the output of a half wave

rectifier circuit, the parameter that is used is known as "Ripple factor" and is I

defined as :

Ripple factor (y) =

rms value of ac component of lond voltagg
dc component of loadvoltage
If a signal consists of more than one frequency component the mas value of Pr. total I

signal is related to the rms values of different frequency components by the

following relation :

where VI, , VZrls... etc. are the nns values of each respective frequency I

component. In hnlf wave rectifier, ac component consists of fundnmcnta1,freqracncy

C
I 84 and even harmonics.

I
I
 Electron DevIccs

Im [as VLdc =
v m as seen from Fourier Expansion of load voltage]
-
also, ILdc = -7
1C X '

Form factor (F) : I t is defined as the rntio of rms value of load voltage to the dc
component.
VL~,,,,- I,,,,
Porn factor (F) = -- -
,v I,,

Clearly, y m p p l c factor) = J4-l

PIV : It's full form is peak inverse voltage. During negative haIf cycle, whcn VL " 0
and diode acts as open circuit, the negative inverse voltage appears across the diode
and the madmum inverse voltage is calIed "Peak Inverse Voltage" (PIV) =: V,.
This is one of the hgorljlnt paramelers for rectifiers.
Pull wavc rectifier : In the half wave rectifier, the output contains considerable ac
content as compared with the dc content. This is because the rectified output
contains only alternate half shusoids. If we can rectify both the positive and
negative half cycles of h e input sine wave, then we can double the dc conteat and
reduce the ac ripple. In order to realhe this objective, wc have to use two half wave

Rg.3.19: Full wnve rectl5cr ccircult, -...

Network Anabnia and D @ v k e ~ rec~flersconaccted a common load, one rcctffying the positive half cycle and the
oher negative half cycle. Such a full-wave rectifier c h c d t has to use two diodes
which are fed by a center-tapped tramformer as shown in Fig. 3.19.
In the positive half cycle Dl conducts as it is forward bjased and
(8 5 at 5 z),diode
D~ does not conduct as i t is reverse biased. But during negative half cycle
( x s ot s 2 x ) D Lis open circuit as it is reverse biased and D2conducts, as it is
forward biased. Both cycles, provide VL i.e. voltage across load RL with same
polarity. The out put wave form is shown in Fig. 3.20.

Fig. 3.20: Wnve form or out put voltnge In lull wnve rcctlner.
The load voltnge can be cxpmded in Fourier series given by

[--- m

VL-Vm 2 4
z E
k'l
cos 2 kot
(Zk t 1)(2k - 1)
I
2 v,"
Clearly, the load voltnge contains dc component of - x
, which is double of half
wave rectifier and a set of sinusoidal components which are even multiple of
fundamental frequency, a,
2 1,
VLdcP-
2Vm
Here,
x .+ I~dc-y

vm
also, VLrmsa- [since both cycles are iuvolved]
a-

Ripple factor (y) = 4~~ 0a482

Foam factor (F ) - -
1~rrrl.v. x
= -= 1.11
l'clc 2fi

BIV = 2 v,,,

Bridge Rectifier : In applications allowing floating output terminal i.e., no output

terminal is grounded, a bridge rectifier can be used with advantage. The ripple
factor and average diode currant are the samc as in the full-wave rectifier circuit.
 We also do not require center-tapped uansfomer as in the full wave rectifier circuit.
The circuit for bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.21.
In the positive half cycle (8 5 at S IC), diodes Dl and Dz arc conducting as they are
forward biased land D3. D4 are cut off. But in negative half cycle ( x 5 or S 2n).
diodes D4 andDg conduct as they are forward biased but D , , D2 are cut off as they
are reverse biased. In both the cycles current flows in the same direction through
,
I
.
load redstance RL Thus, the lond will have a full wave rectified voltnge. One
major advantage of bridge rectifier circuit is that the PIV rating required of the
diodes is half of the requirement for full-wave rectifier circuit.
So far, we have discussed rectifier circuit using ideal diode (Porwnrd resistance
-
reverse resistance m). But in praclical situations, wc do not get such diodes. So
- 0,

with practical diodes, we can replace a forward binsed diode by Rj and a rcverse
I biased diode by R,. You can also account for cut-in voltage (VT) of the diode, by
placing a battery of vnlue VT in series wit11 forward biased diode so that i t opposes
the source.
(ii) Detector :
The peak detector circuit provides a dc output compnl.nble to the peak value of the
input voltage and therefore can be used ns a dc power supply. The peak dectector

-
circuit is shown in Pig. 3.22. The operation of pcnk detector is uradetstood by letting
the input voltage Vi, V, sin ot and assuming that load rcsis~nnceis Then, during
the first quarter-cycle, the diode conducts, and the capacitor will follow input and
-.
when or = n / 2 , the capacitor will hnvc charged to peak value Vo. When V;,,
decreases, the capacitor voltage cannot dccrcase bccausc with RL -, ~ h ccapacitor -
discharges through the diode in the rcvclsc direction. Since diode does not conduct
in reverse direction, so the capacitor cnnuol discharge. The loud voltage therefore
remains at the peak value V,. But if load rcsistnnce is finite, then cngncitor
discharges with time constant RLC, which is also shown in Fig. 3.22.

(Ilircclion of
capacitor discharge

\
\ /' '\
\ / '\
\
Dl L

\. /

, .&'
1' (Finite RL)

Fl5 3.22s The half wuve pcnk detector.

(iii) Reference Voltage : (Zener diode)

As we have already learned i n previous section Lhnt when diode is in reverse biased
condition, then only a small reverse saturation current flows, It happens because the
depletion layes width becomes wider land behaves like a dielectric. But if the p and
n regions art heavily doped, the depletion layer of the p-n junction becomes very
narrow and, the electric field strength in the depletion layer hcreases sufficiently to
break covalent bonds and generate electron-hole pairs even in the reverse biased
 Yetwork Anaiyds and Devices

,I/,
' I Fag. 3.23: Symbol end V-4Characteristic of Zener dode.

condition. Consequently, the reverse current rises abruptly. Such a phenomena is

called "Zener break down" and the diode is called Zener diode. The symbol for the
diode, its V-I characteristic is shown in Pig. 3.23.
As it is clear from the characteristics, in and around V,, the current rises abruptly,
suggesting that we can draw large current from zener diode at almost fixed voltage.
This is property of a good voltage supply. Hence, a zener diode can be used as
"reference voltage". A typical circuit is shown in Fig. 3.24.

Fig 3.241 Zener used as reference voltaga

SAQ 12 Explain transport of charge carriers in semiconductors.

SAQ 13. What do you understand by saturation of drift velocity?

SAQ 14. Explain the formation of barrier potential.

SAQ 15. Explain the V-I characteristics of the p-n junction diode.

SAQ 16. Define the terms : Ripple factor, Form facbr and PZV.
SAQ 17. Explain the functioning of half wave rectifier and calculate value of ripple
factor.
SAQ 18. Explain sdvnlltage of full wave rectifier over half wave rectificr. Calculate
value of ripple factor.
SAQ 19, Compnre full wave rectifier and bridge rectifier.

SAQ 20. Explain functioning of peak detector.

SAQ 21. Show how zener diode can be used as voltage reference.

3.5 TRANSISTORS

On the basis of the two terminal p-n properties described In section 3.4, an
explanation of the physical operation of a three-terminal bipolar junction ttansistor .
(BJT)is developed in this section.
>
88 -.
-,

-L
!

Electron Devlcea
3.9.1 Action and Characteristics
A transistor is a single crystalline semiconducting material with three differently
doped regions like the n-p-n or p-n-p structure. The three regions are called emitter,
base and collector. Emitter is heavily doped and its role is to inject camers into the
base region. 'Ihe base is lightly doped and is made very thin to reduce
recombination losses in this region. The collector's doping level lies h betweeq that
of emitter and base. The schematic representation of npn and pnp transistors together
with their circuit symbols are shown h Fig. 3.25 (a) and (b).

Direction of
conventional
cmcnt

Base

Direction of
convcntionnl
currcnl

Fig. 3.25. (a) npn tranalstor & Its drcull symbol (b) pnp trnnslstor and lls clrcult symbol

'Ihe transistor (npn or pnp) can be regarded as bpck to back connected diode. In
order to understand transistor action, we forward bins the emitter-bnsc junction and
reverse bias the base-collector junction as shown in Fig. 3.26. (a) and (b).
E B C

"cc
Fig 3.26. (a) npn tmnslelor with proper blaslng (b) pnp irnnslslor.

Let us consider forward biased emitter-base junction of npn transistor. The electrons
from the emitter diffuse into lhe base and holes from base diffuse into the emitter.
The base-collector junction is reverse biased. As the emitter bnse junctiGn is forward
biased, the electrons in the emitter and holes in the base move towards the junction.
'At this junction, some of the electrons recombine with holes and are lost. However,
because of the extreme thinness of the base layer (typically less than lom3cm) and
because of the attraction of the relatively high positive collector voltage, almost all
the electrons diffuse through the base to the collector and produce an electron
'current in the collector. This current is called collector curront 0,) which is of the
order of few milliamperes. To make the collection of electron efficient, the
base-collector junction has a greater area than the emitter-base junction. Let us now
consider the base current. This current is due to the smnll fraction of electrons
'
which recombine hi the thin base region. Since the bnse layer is very thin, the Gase
current (IB)is very smnll fraction of the collector's current (about 1%).In other
words, about 99% of the electrons pass through Lhe bnse without recombining with
holes. Clearly, the basic current equation for any transistor is given by

.
Since Ig < < IC so IE = IC In a typical transistors, IE and Ic are a few milliamperes
and IB is a few micro amperes. he value of base current depends on base thickness, 89
\
Network Ana'yds bias voltages, doping levels of emitw, base, collector and the geometry of the
tramistor. Tlae collector current Zc of a BJTis related to the forward bastcmitter
voltage VBEby the relation:

Where I,, is a scale factor directly proportional to the cross sectional area of the
emitkr-base junction. If a~ is the factor of electrons reaching collector, and Ico is
the reverse saturation current in base-collector diode, then the collector current (Ic)
can be written as :

- aJ7 (IB Zc) * 1 ~ 0

+

Here a~ is the dc current gain factor relating Zc& I, [a = 0.981

Here, PF is the dc current gain fnctor relating I, & I,

The value of $ ranges from 15 to 200. A small variation in a~ therefore causes

large change in PF . Thls results in BJTs of the same type number to have large
variations in pF. From above equation, we may obtain aF in terms of pF as :

8-1 characteristics sf BJT

A WT is n three terminal device. Any one of these k d a l can be used as the
reference or common terminal for both the varying input vi and output v, signal.
This gives rise to three possible configurations in which transistor can be used :
(i) common emitter configuration
(ii) common base configuration
(iii) common collector configuration

Fig. 3.27: A common emllter npn WIT clrcuft.

The common emitter configuration circuit is shown in Fig. 3.27. Here emitter has
been used as the common terminal (rcfcronca). It is the most often used
configuration (because of large current gain) and is regarded as the basic
configuration,
The lnput or VBs- I' characteristic of an npn B3T for a fured value of VcB (> 0.7) is
shown in Fig. 3.28 (a). It i s essentially the same as I-V characteristic of a forward
-
biased p-n junction diode. The output VCE IC characteristic curves, one for each
value of base current IB are shown in Fig. 3.28 (b). This device has wide
applications in amplifying & Oscillatory circuits which are discussed in great detail
in Units 4, 5 and 6.

--
(4 (b)
Ng 3.281 (a) V#=- Is lnput CE cbnrncterbUc for npn irn~lniPtor(b) Vcz- Ic output CE charneLerintlc
for npn trnddor.

3.5.1 Field Effect Transistor (FET)

'Ihe operation of a junction field effect transislor can bc demonstrated using Fig.
3.29 (a to e). Let us consider a sample of n-type semiconductor. The n-channel
presents a resistance RDs as shown in Pig. 3.29 (a & b).

Ohmic contacl

- aI
- I+
vos
(a) (b)

Avalanche
region

*VD

mp. 3.29t (9) n-obannel (b) equivalent clrcallt (c) ~tructure~CjunCUanneld elreet tmwletor
(d) draln chamderlstlo oC JFET (e) symbol or n~chanelJFET.
Network Analysis Devices me o m c contacts on each side of the channel are used for making external
connection. The n-material is doped heavily near the regions adjacent to the ohmic
contacts for "Source" and "drain". Tbe symbol n+ in Fig. 3.29 (a) indicates
more heavily doped regions. If an external voltage is applied, the' majority carriers
enter the channel through the terminal called source(S). The carriers flow through ,
the channel and lea?e it through the tenninal called drain @). The @ah current (zD)
is equal to the majority carrier current flowing though the channel. The equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 3.29 (b), obeys ohtn's law. If VDs is increased, IDincreases
proportionately.

Let us.now diffuse p-type impurity so that heavily doped p+ regions are farmed on
each side of the n-channel as shown in Fig. 3.29 (c). The ohmic contacts known as
Gate 1 a& Gate 2 are added to each p+ rcgion. The two gates are normally
electrically connected together internally and only one gate terminal is made
available externally. The voltage applied between gate and source (VGS)controls the
width of the channel; consequently the conductance of the channel and hence the
.
drain current also vary with VGs Let both the gates be directly connected to the
source so that VGs = 0. The voltage drop in the channel due to the flow of ID of
such polarity that it makes the p-n junction reverse biased. Hence, a depletion region
is formed. The deplection region width increases with the magnitude of reverse bias.
The reverse bias between p-tyge gate and n-type c h a ~ e is
l zero near the source end
and maximum near the drain end. So the depletion region is much wider and
extends more into the channel near the drain end. Thus-we get wedge shaped
channel. The flow of electrons from source to drain is now restricted to the narrow
channel between the non conducting depletion regions. The width of the channel
determines the resistance between the drain and the source.

Let us consider I-V characteristic of the JFET shown in Fig. 3.29 (d). With VGS = 0,
if VDs is gradually increased, ID at first increases as ohm's law and begins to level
off gradually. When VDs equaIs Vp known as "Pinch-off voltage", ID saturates and
does not increase any further wilh incrense in VDs. At pinch off, both the depletion
regions close up causing a constriction of the channel which results in high channel
resistance. Any further incrense in VDs is absorbed as the voltage drop in the
constricted region of the channel. As with all p-n junctions, avalanche's breakdown
occurs at VDs= VA and the current ID increases rapidly. The symbol of n-channel
WET is shown in Fig. 3.29 (e). We can also have p-channel JFET.
The JFET has an edge over both vacuum tubes and BJT in that it combines the
advantages of the high input impedance of vacuum tubes and the other advantages
of a semiconductor device.

3.5.2 MOSFET (Enhancement & Depletion Type)

The MOSPET (Metnl Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) can be explained
using Fig. 3.30 (a). A p-type substrate serves as the basic structure into which
n-type regions are diffused. An oxide layer which acts as an insulator is grown over
the entire substrate and the n-region. After etching suitable openings through the
oxide, metal contacts for source and drain connections are made to the n-regions NO
current can flow from the source to the drain because the n-type source, p-type
substrate and n-type drain behave as two diodes connected bnck to bnck and hence
no current can flow irrespective of any polarities. The gate contact is formed on the
surface of the oxide laycr so that gate is electrically insulated from both the
substrate and la-r~b'
rlons.
e

Suppose we apply a positive potcntinl between gate and the source as shown in ,

Fig. 3.30 (b). Sitlce oxide laycr is an it~sulatorsandwitched between conductive

regions, an equivalent capacitance is formed as shown in Fig. 3.30 (c). Whenever a
 Electron D e v l w

(a)
Parallel
Plate capacitor

(c) Channel
deplc tion

Built-in cl~anncl
(dl

Fig. 3.30: (a) Structure of enhancement mode MOSFET (b) blaslng of n-channel MOSPET
(c) cnpndtor action (d) structure & blaeing of depletion mode MOSFET (e) drain
eharactedstlc of enhancement type MOSFET (fj drain characterldim of depletion
mode MBSFET.

positive charge is applied to one plate of a capacitor, a negative charge is induced

'
on the opposite plate due to the action of thc electric field in th; dielectric, which
gets polarised. So, positive charge on the gate induces a negative charge in the
p-substrate. The charge is contributed by the electrons, which are minority Carrie=
in the substrate and are attracted towards the area below the gate. As the number of
electrons reaching this area increases, the relative density of the majority carriers
decreases until there are more free electrons than holes.
Thus in relatively small region of the substrate, directly below the gate an n-type
inversion layer is induced, which extends from source to drain and allowing
conduction path between source and drain. If the positive gate potential Is removed,
the induced channel will disappear and there will be no conduction again. Thus the
gate voltage controls the conductivity of this device. This device is known as
"Enhancement type MOSFET" as the channel conductivity is enhanced by the gate
potential. The input impedance working into Lhe gate is very high since oxide layer
- 99
P

-
Network Analysis and Deviceg behaves as an insulator. If VGS is kept constant and VDs is increased the drain
current increases, linearly for small valuses of VDs,. AS vDs is increased further, the
drop across the channel increases and hence voltage across the gate oxide at the
drain end of the channel decreases. Therefore, the induced charges at this end of the
channel decreases and finally the c h a ~ eis
l pinched off i.e. there is high resistance
region formed at the drain end due to paucity of induced carriers. The drain cufient
hence tends to saturate and remnin constant,
'
rt is also possible to produce "depletion-type MOSFET".In this device there is a
bdlt iaa n-type channel. As the gate voltage increases, the channel is depleted of the
carriers thus increasing the resistance as shown in Fig. 3.30 (d). If negative VGS is
applied, the negative charge on the gate induces an opposite and equal positive
charge on the other side of the oxide layer. The recombination of the induced holes
with electron in the built-in n-channel reduces the conductivity of the channel. As
VGS is made negative, ID decreases considerably as shown i n Fig. 3.30 (f ), If a
positive VGS is applied, negative charges are induced in the nchannel. This enhances
the channel conductivity and ID increases. Thus, this device can be operated both in
'enhancement" and 'depletion" mode.

SAQ 22. Explain how a BPT can be considered as two p-n junctions connected
back to back.
SAQ 23. In common base configuration, the current gain is less than unity, and yet
the BJT is called an ampliying device. Justify.
SAQ 24. Why is more than a~ ?

SAQ 25. Explain the formation of a wedge shaped channel in JFET ?

SAQ 26. Dblstinguish between enbancement and depletion type MOSFET 'S 7 ,

SAQ 27. Expldn how amplification is achieved in JFET and MOSFET.

3 6 SUMMARY

a The intrinsic semiconductors, germanium and silicon, can be doped to become

either p-type or n-type extrinsic semiconductors.
0 The majority carriers, holes in p-type and electrons in n-type material, move .
under the influence of an *electricfield to constitute a current in scmiconductom.
0 Noteworthy and useful properties arise when p-type and n-type materials make
a gn junction. (A single pn junction is a diode).
e Holes and electrons diffuse to establish a depletion region. The charges in the
regions adjacent to the depletion region generate a potential difference across
the junctions.
8 Two basically different kinds of transistors are made with semiconducting
materials.
The bipolar-junction trnnsistor is formed by two pn junctions back to back,
enclosing a very thin common element (the base). The current from the emitter
to the base governs the much larger emittercollector current, which leaks
b o u g h the base.
s The field-effect transistor has a channel from source to drain, jn which
majority carriers move.
a In the junction field-effec! !ril ,sl::t.,?r (JFET), the e l e c ~ k
c l d from the gate
modifies the depletion region in the pn junction between the gate and channel
b control &e current through the !:hamel.
 In metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), the gate is Electron Devieen
insulated from the channel cartying the majority cmieas.
The depletion MOSFETs govern lhe current by depleting the channel of
majority carriers.
e In enhancement MOSFETs the electric field from the insulated gate induce
bajority carriers into, the region between the source and the drain to provide
the current.

INAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain the importance of space charge limited operation in thermionic vacuum

tube devices.
2. Why is the introduction of tbird electrode (grid) in vacuum triode considered a
land. mark in electronicii? Explain.
3. Write Note on : Tetrode, Pentode.
4. What is depletion region? W c h mechanism, drilt or diffusion, is responsible
for the major portion of the forward current in a diode?

5. Give significance of each portion in V-I characteristic of p-n junction diode.

6. Draw V-Z characteristic of a Zener diode.

7. Draw circuit diagrams of half wave, full wave nnd bridge rectifiers. Explain
the operation of each and corngnre their performance.

8. How is drain current controlled in an Enhancement MOSPET, a depletion

MOSFET and a JFE'FI

3.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

1, Example of elemental semiconductors : Silicon, Germadurn.

Example of compound semiconductors : OnAs, CdTe, GaSb.
Example of oxide semiconductors: Tjnoxide, Yitlrjun Barium Copper oxide.
The conductivity of oxide semiconductors can be changed by changing the
oxygen stoichiometry in oxides.

2' l*Jurli function : The amount of energy required at absolute zero temperature
which must be given to the free electrons to enable it to escape the metd is
defizted as work function.
Themionic Emission : A metal is made up of atoms bound in the crystal
Inttices, of electrons bound to the atoms, and of free eIectrons that are not
bound to any particular locations in the metnl. In thermionic emissioh; the
electrons are emitted when a metal is supplied with thermal energy.

3. Space charge limited operation: In all themionic vacuum tubes, the electron
emission from the cathode is at much higher rate than that at which the
electrons are drawn away by the anode, resulting in a cloud of electronrr near
cathode, called negative space charge, makes the anode current dependent on
the anode potential and independent of the rate of emission.
In a triode, the adverse effect of space charge limited operation is taken care
of by the presence of "grid", a mesh-like structure. '
I

95
 Network *nalyds and 4. See Fig.3.2 of the text stad definition of rp, g, and p.

5. See small signal model in the kxt.

6. See section 3.2.4 of the text.
7. See section 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 of the text.

8. See section 3.3.2 (Law of mass action).

where A, and E' are material ~omtmts,K-boltzman's constant.

10. See section'3.3.3 of the text

11. See Fig.3.9 and use section 3.3.3 to answer this question.
12. See section 3.3.3 of the text.
13. Due to application of high electric field, the drift velocity approaches the
thermal velocity (- 18' cm/s). When this situation arises, the mobility
becomes field dependent as additional scattering mechanisms come into play.
The decrease in mobility with high electric field causes saturation of drift
velocity.
14. When a p-n junction is formed, because of the concentration gradient, holes
from p-side difruse into the n-side and recombine with free electrons.
Similarly, electrons from n-side diffuse to the p-side and recombine with holes.
Such an exchauge of mobile carriers occurs mainly in a narrow region around
the junction. This region is called "depletion layer" as it becomes depleted of
the free charge carriers, leaving behind unneutralised immobile ions called
space charge (due to positive ions on the n-side and negative ions in the
p-side). Such a space charge causes a potential differcnce called "barrier
potential".
15. See section 3.4.1 of the text.

16. Ripple factor - rms valuse of ac component of load voltage

dc component of load voltage
tms value of load voltage
Form Factor =
dc component of load voltage
PIV : During negative half cycle, diode acts as open circuit, and hence the I
. negative inverse voltage appears across the diode and the maximum inverse
voltage is called "Peak Inverse Voltage".
17. see section 3.4.2 (half wave rectifier) of the text.
, . 18. See section 3.4.2 (full wave rec er) of the text. It answers both the parts of
,, the question. ,

19. Full wave rectifier ; Ripple factor 0.482, From factor 1.11 and PIV - 2 V, I

- -
Bridge rectifies : (1) can be used for floating output terminal i-e., no output
tkrminal grounded (2) Ripple factor 0.482, From factor 1.11, PIV V, I

I
20. See text page 91. '

I
21. See text page 91. I

22. A transistor can be regarded as back to back connected diode as shown in

Fig. 3.31
96

I
L
9
 Electron Devices 1

1 Fig. 3311
23. Although in common base configuration, the current gain is less than unity.
The voltage gain is very high and hence power gain is high. This is the
reason, why BJT is called amplifying device ewin ia CB configuration.
24. 'Zhe relationship between flF and as axe &en bs ;.

as because <
c i ~1 -> 1
1- a ~
.,

25. See section 3.5.1 of the text.

26. In Enhancement type MOSFET, the channel conductivity is enhanced by the
gate potential. Wheras in depletion type MOSFET, as the g a b potential js
increased, the built-in n-charnel is depleted of the carriers and thereby its
conductivity decreases.
27. See section 3.5.1 and 3.5.2 of the text.

1. See answer of SAQ 3 and also section 3.3.2 of the kxt.

2. In a vacuum diode, the major problem one encountered was due to presence of
space charge limited operation. This problem was taken .care of by introducing
a mesh like structure in the negative spnce-charge region nearer to the cathode.
This was called "control grid". & control grid is much near ta the cathode, a
much smaller voltage applied to the control grid can result in the same change
of anode current as will be produced by a much larger voltage applied to lhe
plate of the tube. Thb forms the basis of ampliwing action of triode and hence
i t is considered a landmark in the electronics.

I
1 '
3:.
I..
See section 3.2.4 of the text.
See answer of SAQ 14.

- Majority carriers, which are responsible for large forward current in a p-n
jpnctio; diode, mainly contribute to the drift current.

5, Seie section 3.4.1 of the text.

/

6;. &e section 3.4.2 (iii) of the text.

I
7;. See section 3.4.2 (i) of the text.
1 . See section 3.5.2 of the text.