DD

DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING

IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-i

CHAPTER

DD
DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING

he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment mainte-
nance and repair.

The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling company
recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may conflict with
regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.

While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his own
reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology and practices ad-
vance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is
required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter war-
rant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired
by the reader.

CONTRIBUTORS
Greg Devenish, Baker Hughes Inc.
Ron Dirksen, Halliburton
Blaine Dow, Schlumberger
Chris Maingot, Weatherford

REVIEWERS
Carl Butler, Cobalt International Energy
Barry Gabourie, Cobalt International Energy
Chris McCartney, Consultant
João Luis Vieira, Schlumberger
DD–ii DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.

Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
without the prior written permission of the publisher.

International Association of Drilling Contractors

10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760
Houston, Texas 77042
USA

ISBN: 978-0-9906220-4-8

Printed in the United States of America.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING Contents DD-iii

CHAPTER DD

DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING Contents
Evolution of directional drilling since 1900........... DD-1 Survey accuracy....................................................DD-12
1900-1920s.............................................................. DD-1 Trajectory design considerations....................DD-12
1930s.......................................................................... DD-2 Well-profile types.................................................DD-14
1940s-1960s............................................................DD-3 Deviation control.........................................................DD-16
1970s..........................................................................DD-5 Borehole patterns................................................DD-17
1980s..........................................................................DD-6 Borehole patterns, keyseats and doglegs....DD-17
1990s-Present.........................................................DD-6 Control of hole angle..........................................DD-17
Directional surveying............................................. DD-7 Bottomhole assemply components...................... DD-20
Magnetic and gyroscopic sensors: instruments and Vertical drilling systems........................................... DD-20
theory............................................................................... DD-7 Positive displacement motors (PDM).................. DD-20
Magnetic sensors................................................... DD-7 Steerable turbines...................................................... DD-22
The geomagnetic field..........................................DD-9 Rotary steerable systems (RSS)............................. DD-22
Gyroscopic sensors................................................DD-9 High build rate rotary steerable systems............ DD-23
Free gyros...............................................................DD-10 Open-hole whipstocks...............................................DD-24
Rate gyros (north-seeking gyros)...................DD-10 Sidetrack drivers...................................................DD-24
Inertial navigation systems................................DD-10 Sidetrack categories............................................DD-24
Directional surveying essentials.............................DD-10 Design considerations.........................................DD-24
Regulations.............................................................DD-10 Open-hole motor sidetrack
Operator..................................................................DD-10 with cement plug..................................................DD-25
Services...................................................................DD-10 Open-hole motor sidetrack
Anti-collision..........................................................DD-10 with no cement plug............................................DD-25
Rig personnel involved (operations only).....DD-11 Casing whipstocks/window cutting...............DD-25
Safety and handling.............................................DD-11 Measuring tools..........................................................DD-26
Defining the directional drilling objective............DD-11 Measurement while drilling/logging
Surface locations..................................................DD-11 while drilling.........................................................DD-26
Subsurface targets...............................................DD-11 Bits................................................................................. DD-28
Sizing of the target...............................................DD-11 Other components.................................................... DD-29
Anti-collision..........................................................DD-12

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-1

Evolution of directional drilling since 1900 viated wells so that multiple boreholes could be drilled from
Directional drilling is the science of controlling or correcting one location and at various angles. These techniques allow
a wellbore, along a predetermined trajectory, to one or more drilling to contact larger quantity of oil and gas reserves,
underground targets or locations at given horizontal dis- thereby minimizing associated drilling costs, as well as envi-
placements (HD) and true vertical depths (TVD) from the ronmental impact.
point of origin. The central advantage of drilling directionally
is that significantly more of the production formation is ex- 1900-1920s
posed to the well, compared to vertical wells (Figures DD-1 Directional drilling has come a long way since its origins.
and DD-2). Through most of the 1800s, wells ostensibly went in only
one direction—straight down. It was in the 1920s that the
These techniques have been integral parts of the oil and gas industry first became aware of wellbore deviation of appar-
industry since the 1920s. Operators must maintain well- ently vertical holes. Once these holes could be surveyed,
bore verticality, construct curves (inclination builds and/or operators discovered that, having had no prior method for
drops) and maintain tangents all in a specific direction. Ap- measuring inclination or direction, they had unknowingly
plications include drilling to difficult-to-access locations and drilled holes with up to 50° +/- of inclination. Deviation ten-
at river crossings as well as drilling relief wells, sidetrack- dencies caused by formation dips, faults, bedding planes,
ing, drilling multiple wells from one surface location or main etc., acting on the drill bit were causing the drift away from
wellbore (multilaterals) and drilling with wellbores having vertical. The bending characteristics of the drillstring, cou-
inclinations up to and exceeding 90°. High-inclination wells pled with the amount of weight applied to the bit, were also
(80°+) are considered horizontal and have significantly aug- factors affecting the desired outcome. Ultimately, surveys
mented production due to their increased reservoir expo- consisting of depth, inclination and direction would be used
sure as compared to their low-angle counterparts. Extend- to accurately calculate a well’s position.
ed-reach (ER) wells push the horizontal limits of directional
drilling even further. The acid bottle technique, developed in the late 1800s in
South African diamond mines to survey boreholes, became
Directional drilling has found a respected place in oilfields in the 1920s, the first method to be utilized solely for mea-
worldwide. Historically, engineers have used established suring inclination. A glass bottle filled with acid was lowered
methods based on years of prior experience to advance into the borehole where the acid would settle at an angle
the science toward modern techniques. Directional drilling in the bottle lying parallel to the angle of inclination. After
techniques were designed to improve the mechanics of de- some time, the acid etched the glass, which allowed calcu-

Entirely Magnetic
Vertical/blind Single Shot Multilateral
“Straight Holes” in Russia

Steel
Whipsticks Rotary
Bent Steerable
Hardwood Housing Systems
Wedges Mud Motor Motors

Gyroscopic Surface Measurement

technology Readout While Drilling Gyro
development Relief Well Gyro (MWD) MWD

1900 1910 1920

Acid bottle Totco Drift Horizontal

Jetting Adjustable
Surveying tool Drilling
method Gauge Stabs
Viable

Magnetic Gyro
Stabilized North
Steering tools Steering
Rotary BHAs Seeking Gyro
Tool Extended
Reach Record
* Set by Exxon Neftegas Ltd on the Sahkalin Shelf during 2013 41,667 ft*

Figure DD-1: Evolution of directional drilling.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

DD-2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

In 1926, Sun Oil enlisted Sperry Corporation to use gyro-

scopic-based technology to make survey instruments for
accurately measuring borehole inclination and direction.
The rotating gyroscopes provided accurate measurements
across three different axes and allowed drillers to accurately
determine a borehole’s azimuth and inclination.

The first magnetic single-shot and multi-shot instruments,

which measured both inclination and direction, were devel-
oped in 1929 by H. John Eastman. These instruments used
sensors employing magnetic compass needles and plumb
bobs. They also featured mechanical timers that triggered
a simple camera to record the survey on photographic film.
The science of controlled directional drilling did not come
about until the development of these magnetic single-shot
and multi-shot instruments.

There were three natural consequences of these accurate

surveying methods: intentionally deviating wells to precise
bottomhole locations; restricting vertical wells to at most a
few degrees in inclination; and limiting the resultant well-
bore drift. The first deliberately deviated wells were drilled
in the late 1920s. Hardwood wedges were used, pushing the
bit to one side of the hole and producing a deflection to di-
rect the wells from vertical toward an intended direction.

1930s
In 1930, a French inventor named René Moineau discovered
Figure DD-2: Key parameters in directional drilling.
the principle of the progressive cavity pump which led to
the development of downhole positive displacement motors
lation of the wellbore’s inclination at a given depth. In the (PDMs). PDMs would eventually become the most effective
1920s, Totco developed the mechanical drift recorder, which and commonly used deviation tools in the industry.
could only measure borehole inclination but was more accu-
rate than the acid bottle and other early techniques. Records from two wells drilled in Huntington Beach, Cali-
fornia, in 1930 are the first records from directionally con-
Unfortunately, neither of these methods shed light on the trolled boreholes drilled from an onshore location to oil/gas
direction of well drift. The drive for wellbore control tech- deposits under the ocean (offshore). The steel whipstock
niques and improved surveying methods was partly ac- was the main deflection tool used from the 1930s until the
celerated by the possibility that wells were drifting across 1950s. Early whipstocks were simply lowered into the bore-
lease lines. This led to court decrees that lease holders only hole, oriented with the whip face in the desired direction
owned deposits found within the downward vertical projec- and mechanically anchored at the bottom of the main well-
tion of their lease lines. Few at the time possessed technol- bore (Figure DD-3). When the wellbore drifted off course, a
ogy enabling control of well drift. Among those leaseholders whipstock was set and drilling operations would be divert-
who did, some could not resist the temptation to produce oil ed along the whip face. No attempts were made to retrieve
from an unaware neighbor. these whipstocks and they were typically abandoned in
the well. Beginning in 1932, directional wells were regularly
Another method, developed by George Maas, used an ac- drilled along the beachfront beneath the ocean. In 1933, the
id-etch test tube in parallel with a compass needle that Signal Hill field was developed in Long Beach, Calif.
would lock into cooling gelatin, to record both inclination
and direction. A vacuum flask was used to protect the gel- The orientation of directional tools, including whipstocks,
atin from external heat in the borehole. This development was accomplished by using a visual surface reference and
was first described around 1912, yet the heat-shield principle maintaining the tool facing while it was lowered into the
is still used in modern survey instruments. hole. Another method entailed running in a survey instru-
ment so that it landed in a special mule-shoe key designed to

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-3

align it with the tool facing (Figure DD-4). This was record-
Ready to Start Drilling Ahead Drilling Ahead
ed as a reference to the magnetic direction or high side of an In Closed Position Drilling on Whipstock in New Hole

inclined wellbore and the deviation tool could then be turned

to the desired facing/direction.

Whipstock
In 1934, a blowout occurred in a field owned by Humble Oil
Pin
Locked for Setting Sheared

Company of Conroe, Texas. A gas kick from a high-pressure

zone ignited, and the entire rig was engulfed in flames. After
many months and attempts to bring the fire under control,
other nearby rigs had to be closed down and the entire field
was threatened. H. John Eastman, with his experience using
whipstocks and surveying instruments, used a mobile drill-
ing truck to drill a directional relief well close enough to the Muleshoe
stinger
blowout well, killing the blowout on the first attempt. The
oil industry subsequently accepted directional drilling as a
reliable technique (Figure DD-5).
Figure DD-3: Wellbore deviation with whipstocks.
1940s-1960s
It’s likely that basic stabilized rotary bottomhole assembly
(BHA) designs with drill collars for weight and stiffness, to-
gether with stabilizers precisely positioned for inclination
control while drilling, originated in the 1940s. Historically,
it had been possible to control the angle of directional wells
during rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly and
use of suitable drilling parameters. The three basic princi- Key
ples included holding inclination (locked/packed), building
inclination (fulcrum) and dropping inclination (pendulum).
Drill collars, when used without stabilization, tended to
Muleshoe
buckle and cause unwanted deviation and poor hole quality. stinger
Multiple stabilizers were positioned to increase the stiffness
or to promote the natural bending of the drill collars, thereby
pointing the drill bit or applying a side force to encourage the
Figure DD-4: One method to orient directional tools was
wellbore in a specific trajectory.
running in a survey instrument to land in a special mule-
shoe key designed to align it with the tool facing.
Control of hole direction had traditionally been poor with
basic rotary assemblies. Roller-cone bits usually walked to
the right (clockwise), and directional control was previous-
ly limited to using well-stabilized assemblies to reduce this
tendency. The normal prior practice with non-steerable as-
semblies was to lead the well an estimated amount to the
Key
left of the plan, thereby compensating for anticipated turns.

Magnetic instruments naturally needed to be seated in

a nonmagnetic environment if they were to run inside the
drillstring to accurately measure direction. In the 1940s,
nonmagnetic drill collars (NMDC) were placed in the lowest
possible position of the drillstring with a crow’s foot baffle
plate inserted below it. This allowed the drilling fluid to pass
through the drillstring and, at the same time, provide a con-
venient seat for the survey instrument.
Figure DD-5: Directional drilling is well accepted as a
reliable technique to drill relief wells to kill blowouts.
Gyroscopic surveying, developed as early as 1929, was First recorded application was in 1934.
continuously improved from the 1940s to the 1960s. Gy-
ros were also used to measure inclination, azimuth and the

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

DD-4 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

deviation tool orientation. While magnetic instruments are ti-collision scenarios exist in surface holes. Other notable
dependent on the Earth’s natural lines of magnetic force, gy- points about jetting include:
ros use a gyroscopic compass to maintain a fixed-reference •• It is relatively inexpensive compared to conventional
direction and to measure relative changes in direction at se- deflection tools;
lected depths with the aid of a timer. This surveying technol- •• It allows surveys to be taken closer to the bit than any
ogy enabled even more directional drilling applications, as it other deflection method;
could be used in magnetic environments, e.g., for accurately •• Jetting dogleg response can be inconsistent and difficult
sidetracking from inside the casing in a vertical hole where to predict;
magnetic toolfaces would otherwise be impossible to orient •• Effectiveness is reduced as bit diameter and BHA
or when drilling suffers from magnetic interference from tubular diameter increase;
nearby wells. •• Hole-opening runs are often required, as jetting is often
performed in 8 ½ in. and 12 ¼ in. holes.
The jetting technique was developed in the mid-1950s.
Rarely used in the 21st century, it is still a valid and inexpen- The first downhole drilling motors or mud motors were de-
sive deviation method for soft formations. A special jet bit signed and manufactured by Dyna-Drill in 1958. The mo-
may be used, but it is also common practice to use a stan- tor was based on the 1930 Moineau design for progressive
dard soft formation tri-cone bit with one very large nozzle cavity pumps. The mud motor’s molded elastomeric insert,
and two smaller ones. The idea is to point the big jet in the which is bonded to the inside of a cylindrical steel case,
desired direction. With the majority of flow passing through comprises the stator of the pump or motor unit. A helical
the large-bore nozzle (big jet), the hole preferentially wash- rotor with one or more lobes rotates eccentrically within the
es in the direction of the large nozzle and forms a pocket. stator (which contains one more lobe than the rotor). When
Drilling can continue with the assembly following the direc- differential pressure (i.e., mud flow through this power sec-
tion of the pocket (Figure DD-6). tion) is applied across the assembly, the rotary power ex-
tracted from the rotor/stator assembly functions as a motor
While jetting is not common today, it can be useful tight an- driving the drill bit. Many power section configurations have
been developed, from those that generate high bit speeds

Figure DD-6: Jetting was developed in the mid-1950s. Rarely used today, it is still a valid and
inexpensive deviation method in soft formations. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-5

Figure DD-7: Downhole drilling motors were introduced by Dyna-Drill in 1958. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

but are limited to relatively low torque, to those allowing for

slower-bit speeds but at a much higher-torque output (Fig-
ure DD-7).

Magnetic
Mud motors were first used for directional control of bore-
holes in the 1960s. A bent sub (a short component for con- single shot
necting two longer collars) was positioned directly on top
of the mud motor (Figure DD-8). This directional drilling
assembly would normally be used whenever the wellbore Bent sub
reached a depth that required deviating, normally to initi-
ate/drill a curve or correct the wellbore. With the drillstring
not rotating (rotary drive locked), drilling was accomplished
by the motor-driven drill bit. This bit still rotated as long as
there was mud flow and the ability to make new hole by slid-
ing the drillstring. This would in effect kick off the wellbore in Downhole
the direction of the bent-sub toolface. The BHA was usually mud motor
pulled back out of the hole to prevent twisting off (breaking)
the motor due to high stresses caused when trying to rotate
the bent-sub configuration. Basic rotary assemblies would
be run to continue controlling the well path until another
motor run was necessary.
Drill bit
Mud motors were sometimes used in vertical applications
where high bit speeds were desirable. They had the added Figure DD-8: By the 1970s, mud motors dominated
benefit of minimizing erosion and wear on the drillstring directional drilling. As above, they were used
and casing strings since the drillstring would not need to be with a bent-sub for directional kick off.
turned as fast due to the reduction of the surface revolutions
per minute (RPM). The majority of mud motors were used to measure drift, direction and toolface during semi-contin-
in directional (deviated) wells. In these wells, one run with uous drilling and with downhole directional data available in
the bent-sub configuration could accomplish the same goal real time on surface. An instrument assembly containing a
as multiple runs with other methods of steering the bit, but magnetic survey package was sent downhole connected by
with greater accuracy, thus reducing time and cost. a wireline. It was seated in a mule-shoe orienting sub (also
called Universal Bottomhole Orienting sub or UBHO) that
The rebel tool was introduced in the 1960s. It was one of was connected to the top of a mud motor, thereby aligning it
the first directional drilling tools to control the direction of with the motor’s toolface. A coder converted data measure-
lateral wellbore trajectory while rotating and could be set up ments to electrical pulses and transmitted the measure-
on surface for a left or right tendency. Inconsistent reliability ments to the surface through a shielded electric conduit to
of these tools led to their declined use in the industry. digital or video displays. Measurements were thus available
immediately in real time at the surface for use in directional-
1970s ly controlling the wellbore. Even though these early steering
Magnetic-steering tools were first used in 1969 but became tools provided the directional driller with valuable data in
more common in the 1970s. The steering tool was also used real time, the tools would have to be pulled out of the drill-

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

DD-6 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

The arrival and combination of bent-housing motors and

measurement while drilling (MWD) surveying in the early
1980s was a significant, although costly, step toward over-
coming the drawbacks of previous deviation systems (Fig-
ure DD-9). MWD allows downhole measurements from
sensors at or near the bit to be sent to the surface contin-
uously by mud-pulse telemetry, electromagnetic (EM) fre-
quency communications or wired drillpipe. This allows for
faster, more accurate and safer drilling. The survey tool’s
accelerometers and magnetometers measure the inclina-
tion and azimuth of the wellbore and then transmit the in-
formation from a specific location to the surface in real time.
The extra cost incurred from using the steerable system is
counteracted by the savings in survey and trip time. MWD
surveys allow the directional driller more control over survey
intervals. It has become common to survey with every single
stand of drillpipe (i.e., 90 ft) in the kickoff and curve phases
without the additional time required by single-shot surveys.

Figure DD-9: Introduction of an adjustable bent housing In 1985, the first continuous north-seeking gyro was intro-
within the motor body allowed rotation (right), as well as duced. 1987 saw the addition of the first gyro-steering tool.
“sliding” drilling (left). Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
In the late 1980s, adjustable-gauge stabilizers (AGS) were
string every time another joint or connection of drillpipe was introduced to the industry. They were designed to change
added and then rerun. the characteristics of a rotary assembly by adjusting their
effective blade diameter while drilling ahead. By strategical-
Steering tools were eventually used with side-entry subs ly placing the AGS near or 15 to 30 ft above the bit, the gauge
that made drilled sections with mud motor assemblies con- adjustment controls the inclination build or drop tendency
tinuous because the wireline entered the drillstring below and mitigates costly, time-consuming trips. The stabilizers
the surface. This early real-time method of surveying made are also used with steerable systems.
it possible to drill in deeper and more difficult scenarios by
enabling precise directional control of the downhole tools. The first purposeful horizontal well was drilled in Toxemia,
Texas in 1929. Numerous horizontal wells attempted during
In the late 1970s, surface readout gyros (SRG) came onto the 1950s and 1960s in the Soviet Union and China yield-
the directional landscape. They needed to be oriented to a ed only limited success. As weak oil prices during the late
known location on surface prior to surveying or orientation. 1970s and early 1980s pushed the industry toward cost-ef-
These gyros are extremely durable and are most common- fective techniques, interest in horizontal drilling picked up.
ly used in applications where movement is present such as By the late 1980s, horizontal drilling finally became econom-
drilling offshore or from floating rigs. ically viable.

1980s Of the three categories of horizontal wells—short-, medium-

The mud motor evolved into an even more versatile direc- and long-radius—medium radius is the most widely used.
tional drilling option when the bent-sub configuration was Medium-radius wells can be drilled relatively quickly, have
replaced by an adjustable bent housing in the motor body less curvature and do not require use of specialized equip-
itself. The shorter bit-to-bend distance reduced the lever ment.
arm (bit offset), which in turn reduced the stress at the bend
and led to single BHA runs, i.e., being able to drill contin- 1990s-Present
uously in rotary mode with the option to stop rotation and In the late 1990s, rotary steerable systems (RSSs) were in-
slide the drillstring in the direction required, thereby making troduced. When drilling in the sliding mode, steerable mo-
corrections or maintaining build/turn rates without trips for tors produced a level of wellbore tortuosity that not only
any configuration changes. There are still limits regarding negatively impacted critical follow-up operations, e.g., for-
the severity of the bend, above which rotation is not recom- mation evaluation and running casing, but also hampered
mended. further sliding in ER wells. Unlike steerable motor assem-
blies, rotary steerable technology allows for remote-con-

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-7

trolled directional drilling with continuous rotation from the A directional survey, either magnetic or gyroscopic, is taken
surface without the need for sliding. using one or more of a selection of available tools. The sur-
vey instrument measures the hole inclination (inc) and the
There are two main categories of RSSs: push-the-bit and hole azimuth or direction (azi). The inclination denotes the
point-the-bit methods. The push-the-bit method uses ex- angle of the hole, with 0° meaning that the hole is vertical
ternal pads that push against the formation, directing the and 90° meaning the hole is horizontal. The azimuth is the
bit in the opposite direction. Point-the-bit systems normally direction from north: 0° is due north and 180° is due south
bend or deflect the main shaft and, by using a pivot device, as on a compass. The MD at which the survey is taken is
effectively point the bit in the desired direction. recorded at surface, and a well deviation or survey record is
then generated (see Table DD-1).
Drilling with an RSS provides many advantages over previ-
ous systems: The MD is referenced to the well’s zero reference point,
•• More efficient weight transfer to the bit; which could be the wellhead, rotary table, mean sea level
•• Much improved hole quality leading to deeper/longer (MSL) or other reference the operator or the local authori-
achievable wellbores with reduced wellbore drag; ties designate for their operations. Likewise, the north/east
•• Improved formation evaluation and ease of running zero point reference can be the wellhead, well center, plat-
casing strings; form center or other reference point chosen by the operator
•• Improved hole cleaning during drilling operations due to or local authorities. The north reference can be true north
continuous rotation; (TN), grid north (GN) or magnetic north (MN). It is import-
•• Reduced risk of getting the drilling assembly stuck as ant to use the correct reference coordinates as the results of
there is continuous rotation; the survey record are used for other operations as explained
•• Increased rates of penetration (ROP) compared to later in this chapter.
motor sliding;
•• More accurate placement of wellbores; With the MD, inc and azi input variables, the position of the
•• Overall cost savings due to fewer BHA-related trips and wellbore is calculated in terms of TVD, as well as north/
faster ROPs. south (N/S) and east/west (E/W) departures from the
reference point of the well. Several calculation methods
RSS technology has made access to difficult-to-reach reser- can be used to approximate the well profile between survey
voirs possible with precise directional control in previously stations, with the most commonly used being the minimum
inaccessible or uncontrollable formations. Horizontal ap- curvature method.
plications like extended-reach drilling (ERD) have naturally
benefitted greatly from RSS technology with wells drilled In Table DD-1, the well starts off roughly in a northwest
regularly with horizontal departures of 5,000 to 20,000 ft. direction (azi ~300°) and the distance from the reference
point increases in that direction. It should be noted that
The first gyro MWD was introduced in 2000. In 2013 in the south and west in this example are expressed as negative
Sahkalin Shelf, Exxon Neftegas Limited drilled the deepest numbers. Toward the bottom of the interval, the well turns
wellbore ever recorded: 41,667 ft (12,700 m) with a horizon- in a westerly direction (azi ~260°) as the well is built to an
tal reach 38,514 ft of (11,739 m). inclination of ~70°. The departure continues to increase in
the westerly direction and starts to slightly decrease in the
Current costs related to hydrocarbon production are driving northerly direction. The tool column notes that the top part
the development of newer directional drilling technologies. of the well (down to 1,105 ft) was surveyed using a gyro-sur-
Today, directional drilling has become a normal part of the vey tool and the rest with an MWD survey tool.
drilling landscape, whereas once it was understood by very
few. Probably the most significant advantage of this evolu- Magnetic and gyroscopic sensors:
tion is that oil-producing companies worldwide can now de-
velop subsurface deposits that previously could never have instruments and theory
been reached economically using other methods.
Magnetic sensors
Directional surveying Magnetic survey instruments use electronics to measure
Directional surveys are taken to determine the position of the Earth’s gravity and magnetic field, most commonly along
the borehole being drilled and to determine the orientation, three orthogonal axes. For magnetic sensors to be accurate,
or toolface, of directional drilling tools, e.g., mud motors, ro- they must be used within an environment far from materials
tary steerable tools and whipstocks. that disturb the Earth’s magnetic field, e.g., steel casing and
drill collars. These sensors can only be used in open hole

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DD-8 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Table DD-1: Sample directional survey. This wells starts off heading northwest (azi ~ 300°), and the distance
from the reference point increases in that direction.
MD INC AZL TYD N/S E/W
Tool
(ft) (*) (*) (ft) (ft) (ft)
679.0 2.89 299.16 678.9 3.6 2.7 SR-Gyro-55(1)
725.0 4.49 297.38 724.8 5.0 0.1 SR-Gyro-55(1)
775.0 5.09 297.86 774.6 7.0 -3.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
821.0 6.25 296.89 820.4 9.1 -7.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
870.0 6.52 296.43 869.1 11.5 -12.5 SR-Gyro-55(1)
916.0 6.47 297.18 914.8 13.8 -17.1 SR-Gyro-55(1)
964.0 6.72 300.83 962.5 16.5 -21.9 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1010.0 7.59 303.62 1008.1 19.6 -26.8 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1059.0 8.84 304.73 1056.6 23.5 -32.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1105.0 10.33 306.26 1102.0 28.0 -38.8 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1154.9 10.97 306.14 1151.0 33.4 -46.2 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1249.7 12.79 310.01 1243.8 45.5 -61.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1345.4 14.25 306.47 1336.8 59.3 -79.1 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1441.5 16.46 305.59 1429.5 74.3 -99.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1535.5 17.50 301.31 1519.4 89.3 122.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1630.4 18.59 302.17 1609.7 104.8 -147.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1696.7 18.80 298.73 1672.4 115.5 -166.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1757.0 18.77 298.18 1729.5 124.8 -183.1 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1852.5 20.92 295.54 1819.3 139.4 -212.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1947.6 25.06 292.03 1906.8 154.3 -246.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2042.1 27.21 292.05 1991.7 169.9 -284.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2137.0 30.84 291.63 2074.7 187.0 -327.3 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2232.3 31.42 292.38 2156.3 205.5 -373.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2327.4 35.63 292.98 2235.5 225.8 -421.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2422.5 38.40 290.54 2311.4 246.9 -474.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2517.3 42.48 288.71 2383.6 267.5 -532.5 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2613.4 46.37 284.64 2452.2 286.8 -596.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2708.4 48.97 279.31 2516.2 301.2 -665.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2803.3 51.29 273.38 2577.0 309.2 -737.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2899.4 54.08 268.08 2635.4 310.1 -814.3 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2994.4 56.77 265.45 2689.3 305.7 -892.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3090.2 59.62 263.56 2739.7 297.9 -973.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3185.3 63.02 262.45 2785.4 287.7 -1056.2 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3279.1 65.81 261.16 2825.9 275.6 -1139.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3374.8 70.37 260.38 2861.6 261.4 -1227.5 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)

away from nearby casing and positioned within one or more Hole direction or azimuth is measured by using both gravity
sections of nonmagnetic material. The electronic-magnetic accelerometers and magnetometers which measure com-
survey systems in use today are solid-state self-contained ponents of the Earth’s magnetic field orthogonally, i.e., in
directional surveying instruments. the same three axes as the accelerometers. From this mea-
surement, the vector components can be used to determine
Inclination is measured by gravity accelerometers. From this hole direction.
measurement, the vector components of each of the three
axes are most often used to calculate hole inclination. These sensors can be employed in different modes such as
single-shot, multi-shot and MWD. The electronic-magnetic

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-9

single-shot records a single-survey

record while drilling the well and is
usually run on a wireline for quick
retrieval. The data are stored down-
hole in the memory and retrieved
at the surface to calculate the hole
direction, inclination and toolface.
The electronic-magnetic multi-shot
uses the same components as the
electronic single-shot. The sole dif-
ference is that electronic multi-shots
record multiple survey records.

During drilling operations, the MWD

instrument acquires downhole in-
formation to allow drillers to make
timely decisions. The magnetic sur-
vey information is obtained with the
same sensors, but, unlike previously
mentioned systems that only stored
the information, the MWD encodes
the survey data in mud pulses that
are decoded at the surface.
Figure DD-10: Magnetic sensors rely upon detecting the Earth’s magnetic field
The geomagnetic field to determine hole direction. The Earth can be imagined as having a large bar
Magnetic sensors rely upon detect- magnet at its center, lying barely off the north/south spin axis. The normal lines
of the magnetic field will emanate from the Earth’s core in a pattern.
ing the Earth’s magnetic field to de-
termine hole direction. The Earth
can be imagined as having a large bar magnet at its center, Models are generally updated annually because even the
lying barely off the north/south spin axis (see Figure DD- field of the Earth’s core and mantle varies with time. It
10). The normal lines of the magnetic field will emanate from should be noted that these models do not include effects
the Earth’s core in a pattern. At the MN and south poles, from crustal anomalies and materials near the surface of
the lines of force (flux lines) will lie vertically, or at 90°, to the Earth which can be quite significant. They also do not
the Earth’s surface. At the magnetic equator, the lines of separate effects from various electrojets in the Earth’s at-
force will be horizontal, or at 0°, to the Earth’s surface. At mosphere, the effects of solar storms or the diurnal variation
any point on the Earth, a magnetic field has strength and in the Earth’s magnetic field. At high latitudes, these effects
direction (vector). The strength is called magnitude and is can be quite significant as well. One mitigation method is
measured in units of tesla. Usual measurements are ap- to make magnetic-observatory-quality measurements di-
proximately 60 microtesla at the magnetic north pole and rectly at the wellsite; however, this is rarely possible. A use-
30 microtesla at the magnetic equator. The direction is al- ful alternative is to interpolate the field at a given location
ways called magnetic north; however, the magnitude will be and time, as measured by at least three nearby magnetic
parallel to the surface of the Earth at the equator and point observatories, the triangle of which preferably includes the
steeply into the Earth closer to the north pole. The angle that wellsite being surveyed. This is referred to as interpolated
the vector makes with the Earth’s surface is called the mag- in-field referencing.
netic dip.
Gyroscopic sensors
The prevailing models used to estimate the local magnetic Gyroscopic surveying instruments are used when the accu-
field are provided by the British Geological Survey (BGS) or racy of a magnetic survey system could be corrupted by ex-
the US Geological Survey (USGS). These models carry out traneous influences such as cased holes, production tubing,
a high-order spherical harmonic expansion of the Earth’s geographic location or nearby wells. A rotor gyroscope is
magnetic field and provide a very accurate global calculation composed of a spinning wheel mounted on a shaft. It is pow-
of the magnetic field rising from the Earth’s core and mantle. ered by an electric motor and is capable of reaching speeds
exceeding 40,000 rpm. The spinning wheel (rotor) can be

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DD-10 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

oriented, or pointed, in a known direction. The direction in may be required for anywhere from every 100 ft (30 m) of
which the gyro spins is maintained by its own inertia and can wellbore drilled to every 500 ft (152 m) drilled. The position
therefore be used as a reference for measuring azimuth. An of the wells is important for future reference should a well
outer and inner gimbal arrangement allows the gyroscope to intervention or well intersection for well control, workover
maintain its predetermined direction regardless of how the or abandonment purposes be required. A survey is also re-
instrument is positioned in the wellbore. quired to ensure future wells can be drilled safely away from
existing wellbores, especially those producing hydrocarbons
Gyroscopic systems (gyros) can be classified into three cat- and/or under pressure.
egories: free gyros, rate gyros and inertial navigation sys-
tems. Operator
The operator will generally need to acquire survey data to
Free gyros satisfy regulatory requirements and to ensure that the well
There are three types of free gyros: tilt scale, level rotor and is drilled to the desired subsurface location. Accurate posi-
stable platform. The tilt scale and level rotor are film sys- tional data is needed to confirm that the well is in the right
tems. The stable platform uses the electronic system which location. Subsurface maps for drilling and production pur-
has a shorter run time and faster data processing while mon- poses rely on accurate well-placement information.
itoring continuously. Most free gyros are the stable-platform
type. They use a two-gimbal gyro system like the level-rotor Services
gyro, but with the gimbals remaining perpendicular to each Almost all services need survey data to plan and execute the
other even when the instrument is tilted during use. The in- work. Directional drilling, MWD and logging while drilling
ner gimbal remains perpendicular to the tool axis (platform) (LWD) contractors are generally responsible for acquiring
instead of perpendicular to the horizon. the data and performing the needed quality assurance/qual-
ity control (QA/QC) on the data prior to handing it to the
Rate gyros (north-seeking gyros) operator and all other parties on the wellsite. A dedicated
Rate gyros use the horizontal component of the Earth’s rota- survey company may be needed to perform survey services,
tional rate to determine north. The Earth rotates 360° in 24 especially when using gyro-based surveys. The surveyors
hours, or 15° in one hour. The horizontal component of the work on their own or in conjunction with the directional drill-
Earth’s rate decreases with the cosine of latitude; however, ing and/or MWD/LWD contractors. On simple wells where
a TN reference will always be resolved at a latitude of less no collision risks exist, the survey services can be performed
than 80° north or south. The rate gyro, therefore, does not by the rig contractor.
have to rely on a known reference direction for orientation.
Inclination is measured by a triaxial gravity-accelerometer Anti-collision
package. Rate gyros have a very precise drift rate that is Between the operator and the directional drilling company,
small compared to the Earth’s spin rate. The Earth’s spin rate the survey data are used to ensure the well is being drilled
is lower at higher latitudes and affects the gyro’s ability to in such a way that it penetrates the earth safely away from
seek north, i.e., the fastest spin rate is at the Equator and the other wells. This process is called anti-collision or collision
lowest are near the North and South Poles. This effect also avoidance.
increases the time required to seek north accurately and de-
creases the accuracy of the north reference. Both in the planning phase and during the actual drilling,
care must be taken to ensure the well path is at a safe dis-
Inertial navigation systems tance from other wells. This is particularly true for those
Inertial navigation systems, the most accurate surveying wells that are under pressure and/or producing hydrocar-
method, use groups of gyros to orient the system to north. bons. Accidental collision with such wells can lead to serious
The systems measure movement in the x, y and z axes of the incidents. If a well cannot be drilled at a safe distance from
wellbore with gyros and gravity accelerometers. Because of under-pressure or producing wells, these wells should be
the sensor design, this instrument can survey in all latitudes closed in and depressurized prior to continuing the drilling
without sacrificing accuracy. of the hole section through and past the danger zone.

All survey instruments have a small element of error in their

Directional surveying essentials measurement. To account for these errors, along with the
wellbore position (TVD, N/E, etc.), an ellipse of uncertainty
Regulations around the position is calculated. The magnitude of the er-
Generally, regulatory agencies require drillers to take sur- ror and size of the ellipse depend on the survey instrument
veys to map the position of the wells being drilled. A survey used—small for accurate instruments (e.g., north-seeking

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-11

gyros), a little larger for most other surveys (e.g., MWD mag- Surface locations
netic surveys) and largest for poorly controlled surveys (e.g., Many constraints determine a surface location. On land,
single-shot magnetic surveys). A well can be safely drilled there may be physical constraints such as lease location and
if and when the ellipses between two wells do not touch or size; road access; waterways such as lakes, rivers, ponds or
overlap and are a minimum distance from each other. If the swamps; topography such as hills, valleys and mountains;
ellipses touch or overlap, resurveying one or both wellbores and developments such as buildings, roads and parks. Oth-
using better survey instruments may remedy the situation. er conditions, such as proximity to publicly- sensitive loca-
tions or sites of historic or social significance, may also be
Rig personnel involved (operations only) determining factors. Offshore, the surface location will be
Members of the drilling contractor’s crew may be needed to constrained by the physical location of the drilling unit. If it
help perform the survey. is a mobile drilling unit (e.g., a drillship, jackup or semisub-
mersible drilling unit), the rig may be located directly above
MWD/LWD survey instruments are run in hole with the the desired drilling targets. Occasionally, however, this may
drilling BHA. The driller and the personnel on the rig floor not be possible due to obstructions on the sea floor or sea
are required to help make up and install the various pieces current patterns. Additionally, the driller may be attempting
of the BHA. In most cases, the MWD/LWD crew and the to penetrate multiple subsurface targets that are not directly
directional driller must measure the offset between the above one another. In this case, the mobile drilling unit can-
MWD/LWD survey instruments and other drilling tools not be located directly above all the desired well objectives.
(e.g., rotary steerable tool, whipstock, mud motor, MWD or Fixed drilling units offshore on platforms of any type will
surface equipment) prior to running in hole. require both directional drilling to navigate away from the
existing wells on the platform and penetration of subsurface
Gyro instruments are usually run on wireline into the drill- targets in achievable proximity to the platform.
string. Besides the needed rig floor personnel, the gyro-sur-
vey engineer and the wireline operator are also needed for Subsurface targets
this operation. The reservoir to be exploited is typically much larger than the
surface area of the platform. Additionally, reservoirs gen-
Single-shot surveys are run on slick line or dropped in the erally require multiple wells to efficiently recover as much
drillstring to be retrieved later. The survey engineer, rig floor hydrocarbon from the field as possible. Depending on the
personnel and/or a slick line operator are needed for this characteristics of the reservoir, a blend of production and
operation. injection wells may be required to facilitate optimal recov-
ery. As a result, strategic placement of the wells is required
Safety and handling to achieve best production. For example, in simplest form,
As with all rig floor procedures, care must be taken when placing injection wells around the periphery of the field with
dealing with heavy equipment moving up, down and side- producer wells in the middle will allow the injection pressure
ways. to push the reservoir fluids from the boundaries of the field
toward the production wells in the center, thus enhancing
Particular care must be taken when running tools on slick and optimizing field production. In reality, reservoirs are
lines. Stay away from moving parts, sheaves and the wireline often dipping in various directions, as subsurface pres-
drum if at all possible. Keep hands and other extremities, as sures may have broken up the stratigraphy into various fault
well as hair and clothing, away from moving parts and the blocks, complicating well placement requirements and add-
line when you must be in the vicinity. Use the appropriate ing to the complexity of the directional drilling requirements.
personal protective equipment (PPE). Drilling targets are therefore typically derived by the sub-
surface experts within the operating company – petrophysi-
cists, geophysicists, geologists and reservoir engineers.
Defining the directional drilling objective
The basic premise of directional drilling is to drill a well from Sizing of the target
a fixed-surface location to desired subsurface locations or The sizing of the target is not arbitrary. Depending on the ob-
targets. Directional drilling objectives are governed by sur- jectives of the well and the anticipated reservoir pressures,
face locations and subsurface targets; however, consider- placing the well in the correct spot becomes critical to pro-
ations are required beyond merely connecting the dots from duction success. In very new fields, large fault blocks may
point to point. Surface locations offshore from fixed plat- have trapped very high reservoir pressure. On entry into any
forms offer the best explanation. part of the fault block, it is quite possible the well will be an
immediate success as the pressure is suitably high to push
the reservoir fluids to surface easily. If the well penetrates

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DD-12 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

only the top part of the reservoir, however, this pressure will the magnetic field varies more when drilling east to west
ease over time as the well produces. This pressure easing is across magnetic lines of flux. It therefore becomes evident
called drawdown. Recoverable reserves may be left behind that maintaining survey quality within even a single well is a
if the wells are not optimally placed in the beginning of the significant challenge. Wells that are drilled in close proximi-
life of the field. Nevertheless, a good understanding of the ty to other wells present complex survey problems because
various subsurface structural challenges is only understood the MWD sensor will pick up magnetic readings from offset
as the field produces over time. As a result, attempting to wells that are close-by. If the proximity cannot be avoided,
size targets continually results in a catch-22. The more one gyro-survey instruments may be required to properly survey
drills, the more one becomes aware about the best place to the well. Although a gyro survey is not influenced by nearby
drill wells to optimize recovery. It is important to remember magnetism, the gyro measurement is influenced by vibra-
though that the best recovery is already influenced by pre- tions, shocks and other motions typical in drilling environ-
viously-drilled wells. From a directional drilling perspective, ments. An absolute best measurement between magnetic
and with respect to reservoir requirements, directional drill- versus gyro is not likely; trade-offs will be required at differ-
ing targets become more challenging as a field ages. ent points in the well.

Anti-collision Survey accuracy

Anti-collision is an additional directional drilling challenge Survey accuracy will also influence target size. Regardless
that presents itself as a field ages. As more wells are drilled of the survey instrument used, there will be a small mea-
in a field, the risk for potential well collisions grows; thus, the surement error. This error can be affected by several fac-
anti-collision objectives when drilling new wells can become tors such as the survey instrument quality and calibration;
very complicated. Some platforms offshore may have more the surveying technique; pipe movement; survey frequency;
than 50 individual well slots with potentially multiple wells hole size and condition; the BHA ; the well trajectory; and
per slot. Furthermore, multiple platforms may be required the geographic location to name only a few. In addition, sur-
to fully produce the field. Each platform may have an equal veying errors compound over the length of the well and the
number of wells. Because of anti-collision issues, the well well position can be somewhere within a cone of uncertainty
design trajectory required to ultimately penetrate the reser- that reflects the maximum accumulated survey error. Un-
voir target can be so complex that the well may be steered in derstanding this cone of uncertainty is important when de-
completely the opposite direction from the final target mere- signing the geological targets for the well. The target defined
ly to get away from the platform and avoid collision risk. This by the subsurface team must account for this error to ensure
situation presents yet another challenge for the well, as this the well penetrates the desired reservoir target.
departure will increase the length of the well and will also
add what may seem like erroneous well curvature along the This uncertainty presents another challenge because this
borehole path. Related torque and drag considerations will type of departure will also increase the length of the well
be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. and add what may seem like erroneous well curvature along
the borehole path. The tortuosity of the well as a result of
Multiple wells also present issues with survey quality. Today, this complex curvature puts added strain on the drillstring
the most common MWD tools utilize magnetic sensors to and rig-drive system. Detailed torque-and-drag modeling
determine the direction of the well path. They are often cou- becomes a requirement during the design stages of the well
pled with a gravity sensor or direction and inclination (D&I) to ensure that the well can be drilled to the desired location
package that determines the inclination of the well. This D&I with the equipment available. Enhancements to a drilling
package continuously measures the magnetic field, which system, such as high-torque drillpipe, casing protectors,
translates to a corresponding azimuth, or direction, of the roller reamers, etc., could be required as a result.
well. The sensor must be isolated from nearby magnetic ma-
terial in order to deliver a clean measurement. Obtaining this Trajectory design considerations
clean measurement within the drillstring itself is achieved Once the surface location and subsurface targets are known,
by isolating the MWD tool from the rest of the steel drill- the trajectory planning can commence. Trajectory design,
string with nonmagnetic collars and/or nonmagnetic heavy- however, is not as straightforward as it would appear. The
weight drillpipe (HWDP). The length of nonmagnetic mate- well design with its respective casing and liner sizes and
rial, and the spacing of MWD sensors within the BHA, is a depths will constrain the trajectory. The rock properties in
function of the latitude of the drilling location and the direc- each hole section must also be considered. Certain direc-
tion in which the well will be drilled. tional drilling objectives cannot be achieved if the hole size
and rock properties are not conducive. The BHA and drill-
The Earth’s magnetic field is much stronger at the poles string components, such as the drive system and bit type,
than at the equator. The measurement of the strength of

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-13

will also influence the trajectory design, or vice versa, and deflection of BHA components, enhancing the dogleg capa-
will be selected based on trajectory design. bilities of the drilling assembly.

Designing a directional well will require blended consider- Drilling fluid

ation of several factors. It is easiest to lay out the factors The drilling fluid has a significant impact on BHA directional
one at a time and describe how each plays a role in optimum performance for several reasons. First, the fluid type will im-
trajectory design, both positively and negatively. pact hole gauge. If the hole is out of gauge, borehole contact
with the BHA components required to impart bending force
Hole depth on the BHA will be thrown off and achievable dogleg will be
Shallow-set casing is generally drilled vertically, as the rock impacted. In most cases, the DLS will deteriorate. In excep-
near the surface is not competent enough to support large tional circumstances, however, the wellbore may be so out
deviations in well trajectory. The larger casing strings are of gauge that excessive deflection occurs. In either case, the
also not flexible enough to support much change in direc- results will be unplanned and the outcome less than desir-
tion. In addition, the more well deviation that occurs in the able. Wellbore friction is also affected by the drilling fluid.
shallow part of the well, the greater the friction losses will High friction will impact weight transfer and torque transfer
be deeper in the well. The majority of shallow directional to the BHA, negatively affecting directional performance
requirements in large holes are for collision- avoidance pur- and achievable dogleg.
poses.
Hole cleaning will impact DLS as weight transfer is more
The best trajectory design will attempt to achieve the direc- limited if the hole is filled with cuttings. Mud design must
tional drilling objectives of the well as efficiently as possible. be appropriate for the trajectory design to ensure that hole
This is best done in the shallower part of the well where the cleaning and borehole stability are effective.
rock is softer and drilling can proceed faster once the larg-
er-surface casing strings are run. Weight and torque trans- Mud weight is an additional factor affecting directional
fer to the bit is more efficient at shallower depths; however, performance. Higher mud weights result in slower drilling
a few drawbacks must be counterbalanced. First, it is neces- and directional drilling becomes more difficult. If filter cake
sary to account for the overall depth of the well, as well as builds up along the wellbore due to the higher mud weights,
torque and drag considerations deeper down. The formation it will impact weight transfer as the drillstring drag will in-
must also be competent enough to accommodate wellbore crease. If this situation deteriorates, there is a serious risk of
deviations, or doglegs, if they are required to reach the tar- stuck pipe, particularly during slide drilling.
gets.
Hydraulics
Hole size Proper hydraulics is essential for effective bit performance
As a rule, it is more difficult to achieve a larger dogleg in a big and hole cleaning. Good jet-impact force at the bit will
hole because of the reduced flexibility of the larger diameter improve the ROP which will facilitate good directional re-
BHA components and the competency of the rock at shal- sponse. The orientation of the jets may also impact direc-
low depths. Large weight on bit (WOB) is required to bend tional response of the drilling system as the jet may cause
the BHA components and achieve the necessary deflection hole washout ahead of the bit and undermine the directional
to redirect the wellbore. Shallower depths do not typically efforts. Further up the hole, good hydraulics will keep the
have rock competent enough to support the WOB required hole clean and improve weight transfer to the bit. At sur-
to achieve the deflection. face, pressure limitations on the pumps will affect flow rate,
which in turn will impact the power supplied to the bit either
Rock competency through a motor, across the bit or through a RSS. All of these
Rock competency determines the limits of achievable dog- aspects will influence the directional capabilities of the drill-
leg severity (DLS). Soft rock may not support large deviation ing system.
as the hydraulic power through the bit will cause hole en-
largement before deviation can be achieved. On the other Drillstring RPM
hand, if the rock is too hard, deviations will be difficult as Drillstring rotating speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)
the drilling process is too slow to redirect the well efficiently. is often the best means of agitating cuttings to help carry
them out of the well; however, RPM will have an impact on
Wellbore inclination trajectory. At higher RPMs, the string will stiffen and this will
Deflecting a well from vertical will require a higher ratio of negatively impact the directional response of the BHA. High
steering. As inclination increases, wellbore deflection be- RPMs are also more prone to wipe out doglegs achieved in
comes easier. Gravity will begin to play a role in aiding the

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DD-14 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

the well after steering because wall contact with the drill- the hole size. J- profile wells are common for single-target
string will be more forceful. wells, multi-target wells at angle or wells that are a good dis-
tance from the rig location. S-profile wells may be designed
Well profile types for multiple stacked targets and wells closer to the rig. Sim-
Directional wells are often classified based on the type of ilar to vertical wells, the J- and S-profile wells are generally
profile. Directional profiles dictate the type of BHA compo- not limited by hole size or rig capabilities. The depth of the
nents required and may also dictate the rig requirements well and drawworks load will determine the rig require-
needed to achieve the well objectives. A list of profiles, the ments.
well requirements dictating the need for such profiles, and
BHA and rig considerations are described below. Horizontal wells
Horizontal wells are designed to intersect a target reservoir
Vertical Wells laterally at a designed vertical depth and remain within this
Vertical wells are the simplest directional profile. If the for- reservoir for the length of the designed well section. The
mation allows, no directional control is required to maintain length of the lateral may be governed by reservoir size, lease
vertical. As formation strength increases, however, more boundaries or rig capabilities. The type of reservoir may
WOB is required to achieve the ROP. As the WOB increas- vary from an ancient sandy riverbed to a limestone cave sys-
es, the BHA components can flex and cause deflection of tem. The objective may also be to intersect multiple natural
the well profile. In these cases, directional drilling may be fractures along the horizontal section that will flow hydro-
required to return the well to vertical and ensure target pen- carbons into the wellbore. More common now in unconven-
etration. tional reservoirs, the desired target may be a shale known
to contain hydrocarbons that are released when the well is
Basic directional wells – J- and S-profile hydraulically fractured along the reservoir. Horizontal wells
This well type is required when the rig cannot be located commonly use some means of LWD measurements to help
above the desired subsurface target (Figures DD-11a and geo-steer the well and remain within the reservoir target.
DD-11b). The kickoff point (KOP) is the depth in the well at From a rig perspective, rotary torque, hoisting capability and
which point the direction begins to deviate toward the de- hydraulic horsepower (pump-pressure rating) are consider-
sired target. The depth of the KOP is a function of the dis- ations for drilling a designed horizontal profile.
tance required to drill to the target, the formation type and

KOP
Build section
EOB
}

True True
vertical Tangent
KOP vertical
}

depth depth

}
Build section
EOB
} Drop section

Horizontal departure
Horizontal departure

Figures DD-11a and 11b: Examples of J- and S-profile wells (left and right, respectively).

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-15

Extended-reach drilling high angle has the well direction established beyond repair
Extended-reach (ER) wells are very long wells with signif- by the time the early surveys are taken. The only recourse
icant lateral reach to vertical depth ratio. Horizontal wells for correcting deviation errors is cementing off the well
often fit this classification. Other types of ERD wells are and redrilling. Rig requirements are generally benign as the
required if a rig cannot be located close to the reservoir. drillstring has a small interior diameter (ID); the hole size is
In the early 1990s, ERD wells gained attention because of small; and consequently hook load and pump requirements
a BP Wytch Farm development campaign in Poole Harbour are not taxing. Short- radius wells can even be drilled with
offshore Southern England. The region was a well-known coiled tubing units. The limitation with short-radius wells
tourist destination and offshore platforms were not desir- usually comes from completion and production sides, since
able. Wells were drilled from a very powerful land rig, reach- the very small well diameter reduces the volume of produce-
ing out under the sea with ERD wells stretching more than able oil and gas.
10 km offshore at a vertical depth of 1,600 m. The drilling
campaign led to the development of new directional drilling Coiled tubing directional drilling
technology, such as AGSs and RSSs. The technology pushed As with short-radius wells, coiled tubing directional drill-
the boundaries of ERD drilling. As with horizontal wells, ERD ing (CTDD) wells are typically limited due to the diameter
wells challenge the limits of the rig from torque, hydraulics of the coiled tubing. Because the coil is not able to rotate,
and hoisting standpoints. Additionally, wellbore drag due to directional drilling applications require special tools. A typ-
the tremendous depth may limit the ability to slide drill with ical CTDD BHA requires a downhole motor to rotate the bit
motors or turbines. This means rotary assemblies or rota- as well as a means of orienting the motor. Orienting devices
ry steerable technology may be required. Rotary steerable have a ratchet-type lock at various toolfaces that are acti-
technology, combined with downhole motors to help rota- vated either electrically or hydraulically depending on the
tion, may also facilitate the drilling of this type of well. design.

Reentry wells Due to the inability of this type of application to rotate, the
Capitalizing on the costs spent drilling an original wellbore, wells are steered continuously, alternating the toolface to
a reentry well will deviate from an existing borehole, usual- achieve the desired well profile. Alternatively, recent ad-
ly through a casing exit. The casing exit is facilitated with a vances in small-diameter rotary steerable technology have
mechanical whipstock oriented toward the desired reservoir enabled a BHA system that uses a motor to rotate a rotary
target. Special milling and casing exit equipment is usually steerable tool and bit at the end of the coil, eliminating the
required to initially exit the wellbore. Whipstocks can usu- need for the orienting device. This combination allows for a
ally be set at any depth, provided the casing size accommo- straight well path between steering sessions and improves
dates the desired hole size to exit the well and still reaches the overall well profile.
the target reservoir objective with single or multiple casing/
liner sections. Additionally, the rig must be capable of set- Coiled tubing units use an injector head to push the coil into
ting and triggering the mechanical anchoring device for the the well. The push power must overcome wellbore drag
whipstock. along the length of coil in the well while also providing the
desired WOB. Because the coil cannot rotate, this drag can
Short-radius wells be substantial. Due to the tubing diameter, buckling is a high
Short-radius wells have extreme doglegs exceeding 36°/100 risk. Advances in coiled tubing hybrid rigs that combine
ft drilled. Such wells may often be reentries. To accommo- coiled tubing and drillpipe have expanded the range of wells
date such high DLS, one’s BHA and drillstring components that can be drilled with coiled tubing. In some rig designs,
must be very flexible. Tubulars with small outside diam- the entire coil reel can be rotated at surface, eliminating
eters of 3 ½ in. or less should generally be used. Special- many of the limitations of coiled tubing drilling.
ly designed downhole motors are commonly required for
short-radius wells. These motors may have multiple bends Multilateral wells
to help accomplish such high doglegs. They may also have The first multilateral well was drilled in the Soviet Union
articulated bends, which are like a loose knuckle when rotat- in 1953. Multilateral wells incorporate multiple departures
ed, but during sliding will lock into place and allow the well to from a main wellbore. This type of well may be used to de-
be directed at high dogleg. Short-radius drilling can be very velop fields with low-reservoir pressures that require res-
challenging, because directional control is complicated by ervoir contact to move hydrocarbons such as heavy oil ap-
the articulated motor. MWD survey packages must also be plications. Additionally, multilateral wells may be a means
at a sufficient distance from the magnetic BHA components of reducing overall development costs by eliminating the
to prevent interference and deliver good surveys. This dis- expense of drilling multiple wells from surface to reach the
tance is often 50 ft or more. A well that deviates at such a reservoir. Departure from the main wellbore is achieved

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DD-16 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

The drill bit will try to climb uphill, or up dip, in laminar for-
mations. In general, it is much easier to drill a straight or
nearly vertical hole in soft formations than in very hard for-
mations. The effect of the drillstring bending and the influ-
ence of formation dips may be much less significant when
drilling soft formations. Drilling hard formations at high dip
Hole gauge angles requires high bit weights and works against drilling a
Side force straight or vertical hole.
at bit
Side force Vertical wellbores are essential because operators must:
Resultant at stabilizer •• Stay on a particular lease and not drift over onto
force at bit adjacent property;
Bit tilt Hole axis •• Drill a near-vertical hole to meet field rules and legal
Formation
angle requirements from regulatory agencies;
ansitropy
•• Ensure drilling into a specific pay zone, e.g., a
Figure DD-12: Forces acting on the drill bit and stabilizer. stratigraphic trap, a lensing sand or a fault block;
•• Avoid production problems such as rod wear, tubing
through sidetracking off specially- designed mechanical de- leaks, trouble setting packers and distorted casing;
vices or in open hole, depending on the competency of the •• Ease the running of casing, ensuring better cement
rock and the completion plans for the well. The limitation bonds and minimizing casing wear;
of this approach is the hole size of the lateral legs off the •• Limit torque-and-drag due to curvature.
main wellbore and the degree to which this wellbore size
may impact wellbore production. Additionally, post-well in- The need to control the rate of build is driven by the need to
tervention is important to consider. It may also be necessary drill a functional hole with a full-gauge smooth bore that is
to isolate different legs of the laterals along the wellbore de- free from excessive doglegs, keyseats, offsets, spirals and
pending on how the production engineer wishes to develop ledges.
the field. As the complexity of the multilateral production
and intervention requirements change, the complexity of In the early 1960s Arthur Lubinski made the point that rate
the multilateral system requires changes as well. of change in angle (expressed in degrees per 100 ft) is more
important that the total deviation from vertical. At the time
Steam-assisted gravity drainage wells tables were used to determine the maximum permissible
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) wells are essential- dogleg that would be acceptable for rotary drilling and com-
ly a pair of horizontal wells drilled in close proximity, one atop pletion (Lubinski, 1990). In the modern era, torque and drag
the other. This is a common application in heavy oil sands and finite element analysis mathematical models determine
where heat is required to facilitate the flow of hydrocarbons. each well’s maximum allowable dogleg.
The top well is used to inject steam into the reservoir while
the oil is produced from the bottom well. From a directional Generally, the tolerance for high dogleg increases with
drilling perspective, the proximity between wells must be a depth. The deeper the point of maximum curvature, the less
precise distance in order to achieve the desired thermal ef- the tension in the pipe. This is due to the fact that there is
fect and melt the oil without having too much steam break less weight hanging below the bend and therefore less lat-
through into the producing well. Specialized magnetic-rang- eral force exerted at the apex of the bend. The tension in the
ing technology is required to steer one well relative to the drillpipe forces itself laterally into the inside of the curve and
other and maintain this distance. The first lateral will be wears a groove into the rock. This lateral force is proportion-
cased off after drilling; the second lateral will have special al to the weight below the dogleg.
instruments that can measure the magnetic field of the cas-
ing in the offset well, guiding the steering. A keyseat, a small-diameter groove worn into a large-diam-
eter borehole, is usually formed in soft formations where
drillpipe is pulled through an abrupt change in hole angle or
Deviation control direction. When large-diameter drillstring components are
A common problem in the drilling industry is the delivery pulled into the groove, the string is restricted from moving
of a smooth, cylindrical, vertical borehole. It is surprising- upward. Keyseats can be prevented by restricting the DLS
ly difficult to maintain verticality while drilling as formation and can be removed by enlarging the diameter of the groove
effects, BHA bending, bit-side cutting force and drilling dy- with downhole tools such as keyseat wipers and reamers.
namics all act to deviate the well path. (Figures DD-12 and -13).

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-17

DOG-LEG KEY SEAT Borehole patterns, keyseats, and doglegs

Tension Tension
Drillpipe (DP) fatigue
•• Failure of the DP tube caused by stress reversals as pipe
is rotated across the bend.

Top View of Stuck pipe

Key Seat •• Large-diameter tools are pulled into keyseat;
Section
•• Poor hole cleaning due to hole enlargement and
Lateral
Force irregular hole geometry;
B •• Collapse of borehole wall.
A

Wellbore positioning
•• Loss of steering control in directional wells;
•• Inability to intersect desired target.

Wireline logging
Tension Tension
•• Stuck tools in keyseats;
•• Increased line tension due to capstan effect (wireline
Figure DD-13: Problems related to severe doglegs. A
keyseat (right) is a small-diameter groove that wears
operations);
into a large-diameter borehole. Key seats are usually •• Poor log quality, particularly from image logs, from
formed in soft formations when drillpipe is pulled damaged borehole wall.
through an abrupt change in hole angle or direction.
Casing
•• Stuck casing;
•• Distorted casing;
•• Inability to run completion equipment.

Figure DD-14a, b and c: Conceptual examples of three

undesirable borehole patterns—from left, spiraling, Casing wear
hourglassing and rippling. Courtesy Baker Hughes. •• Hole in casing caused by friction from drillpipe;
•• Loss of pressure integrity.
Borehole patterns
Spiraling, corkscrewing, hourglassing, rippling and the for- Cementing
mation of ledges and other borehole patterns are additional •• Poor cement bond caused by off-center casing.
undesirable effects commonly encountered while drilling.
These patterns are a consequence of bit tilt, bit side- cutting Production problems
force, bit design, stabilizer spacing and BHA bending as well •• Rod wear;
as formation variability, formation dip and bedding planes •• Tubing leaks;
(Figure DD-14). •• Difficulty running packers.

Lateral movement of the bit, while drilling, occurs when an Control of hole angle
oscillation in the drillstring is transferred to the bit. This is Dumb-rotary BHAs, assemblies with neither mechanical
common when low WOB is used with high rotary speeds. nor electronic deflection devices, are the most economical
The lack of engagement of the bit face allows side cutting approach to drilling simple trajectory wells. While fine con-
by the bit shoulders. This movement, or whirl, is repeated trol of azimuth is not always possible, a reasonable ability
at high frequency and causes hole enlargement as the bit to control inclination is available with rotary BHAs. Gravity
moves about the borehole from one side to the other. Once deflects and pulls on the BHA, allowing for inclination con-
started, the pattern is self-generating and can be difficult to trol. An inclined borehole is necessary for this method to be
stop even when additional weight is placed on the bit. Drill- effective.
ing with whirl reduces drilling efficiency by causing hole en-
largement, accelerated bit wear, spiraling, lateral vibration The hole is drilled by the bit, and the BHA follows the bit.
and stabilizer wear. Two factors determine the directional behavior of the bit:
the side force acting on the bit and the bit tilt angle. Both the
force and the angle are controlled in rotary drilling assem-

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DD-18 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Figure DD-15: Two factors determine the directional behavior

of the bit: the side force acting on the bit and the bit tilt angle.

blies by varying the size and spacing of the stabilization and

by modifying the weight and rotary speed of the bit. (Figure
DD-15). Figures DD-16a, b and c (from Figures DD-17a and -17b (from
left): 90-ft pendulum BHA, left): Fulcrum assemblies
10-ft pendulum BHA and 8-ft typically utilize a full-gauge
Three principles guide BHA design and influence bit, most- locked BHA to maintain vertical. near-bit stabilizer and under-
ly in the vertical plane: the pendulum principle, the fulcrum Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. gauge second stabilizer. From
principle and the stabilization principle. top, a 90-ft fulcrum BHA
and a 60-ft fulcrum BHA.
Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Pendulum principle: drop inclination
The pendulum principle was the first directional control prin- High rotary speed (120-160 rpm-plus) helps keep the pen-
ciple to be formulated, and was originally analyzed for slick dulum straight to avoid the situation mentioned above. Ini-
assemblies drilling straight holes. The major design feature tially, low WOB should be used. Once the dropping trend has
of a pendulum assembly is that there is either no near-bit been established, moderate weight can be used to achieve
stabilizer or an under-gauge near-bit stabilizer. For deviated a respectable ROP.
wells, the portion of the assembly from the bit to the first
string stabilizer hangs like a pendulum, and the weight of the Pendulum assemblies are prone to vibration and the cre-
pendulum presses the bit to the low side of the hole. In most ation of undesirable borehole patterns caused by a lack of
cases where a pendulum assembly is used, the main factor stabilization at the bit. The low WOB required also results
causing deviation is the vertical component of the forces at in slow ROP. Current thinking prescribes, rather than an
the bit acting on the low side of the hole (Figures DD-16a, un-stabilized bit, a near-bit stabilizer and a closely spaced
-16b and -16c). (6- to 12-ft) string stabilizer to create a pendulum while mit-
igating vibration and improving hole quality.
The length of collars from the bit to the first string stabiliz-
er, the ‘pendulum,’ must not be allowed to bend too much Fulcrum principle: build inclination
toward the low side of the hole. If the collars make contact Fulcrum assemblies typically utilize a full-gauge near-bit
with the low side of the borehole, the effective length of the stabilizer and under-gauge second stabilizer. A side force is
pendulum and the side force are both reduced. This situa- applied to the low side of the hole at the near-bit stabilizer
tion could result in the bit axis tilting upward in relation to which acts as a fulcrum to cause the bit to tilt toward the
the hole axis, thus possibly reducing the dropping tendency high side of the hole. The upward tilt of the bit cuts against
and producing a build tendency. Careful selection of drilling the high side, increasing the inclination. The greater the
parameters is therefore required. WOB applied, the greater the force exerted on the high side
(Figures DD-17a and -17b).

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-19

Figures DD-19a and b (from left):

The performance of a packed
assembly can be fine-tuned by
changing the length between the
near-bit stabilizer and the first
string stabilizer. This is particularly
true at higher angle and bit
weights. From top, a 10-ft packed
BHA and a 20-ft packed BHA.
Figure DD-18: Schematic illustrating tool behavior with and without Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
stabilizers (right and left, respectively. At right, three stabilizers
placed in quick succession behind the bit are separated by short
and stiff drill collar sections. The three stabilizers will resist
rounding a curve and forcing the bit to drill a reasonably straight
path. The first of the three stabilizers should be immediately
behind the bit, i.e., a near-bit stabilizer, and should be full gauge.

Rate of build can be increased by the following:

•• Increase the distance from the near-bit stabilizer to the
first string stabilizer;
•• Increase hole inclination;
•• Reduce drill collar diameter;
•• Increase WOB;
•• Reduce rotary speed directional wells, maintaining angle and direction. High rota-
•• Reduce flow rate in soft formations. ry speeds (120-160 rpm-plus) will augment the tendency to
drill straight (Figures DD-19a and -19b).
Stabilization principle: maintain inclination and
direction The performance of a packed assembly can be fine-tuned by
Stabilized or packed assemblies are most effective when changing the length between the near-bit stabilizer and the
full-gauge stabilizers are used. The aim is to have the bit drill first string stabilizer. This is particularly true at higher angle
along the hole axis. and bit weights.

Full-gauge or near full gauge stabilizers are used at relatively Azimuth control
short spacing to prevent bit tilt and bending in the drill col- In reality there is very little control of hole direction when
lars as weight is applied to the bit. using dumb rotary BHAs.

Three stabilizers placed in quick succession behind the bit The BHA will wander depending on the following:
are separated by short and stiff drill collar sections. The •• Formation effects (dip, bedding planes, anisotropy,
three stabilizers will resist rounding a curve and forcing the etc.);
bit to drill a reasonably straight path. The first of the three •• BHA (stabilization, stiffness and drive mechanism);
stabilizers should be immediately behind the bit, i.e., a near- •• Turbine assemblies (typically walk left).
bit stabilizer, and should be full gauge (Figure DD-18).
Bit type and design
Assemblies which utilize this principle are called packed- •• Roller-cone bits typically walk right;
hole assemblies and are used to drill the tangent sections of •• PDC bits lack predictable walk tendency.

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DD-20 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

jetting, positive-displacement motors (PDMs), drilling tur-

bines, whipstocks and rotary steerable tools. These tools
are used to initiate the kickoff from vertical to drill a planned
trajectory to a specified target or to drill a sidetrack from an
existing wellbore to a revised target at a controlled rate of
curvature.

As the various systems each have their own strengths and

weaknesses, the choice of deflection device is determined
by a variety of factors including the trajectory design, for-
Figures DD-20a and b: Two mation strength, well depth, drilling rig capability, daily cost,
variations of positive displacement reservoir type and completion design. By any measure,
motors. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. the majority of directional wells worldwide are drilled with
steerable PDMs.

Vertical drilling systems

Automated vertical drilling systems were the forerunner of
today’s rotary steerable tools. They were initially developed
in deep vertical wells drilled for research purposes. These
automated systems detect any deviation from vertical and
apply force to the borehole wall to drive the bit back toward
vertical. Most service companies offer these vertical drilling
tools in both stand-alone surface rotary driven and down-
hole motor-assisted variants.

Drilling parameters Positive displacement motors (PDM)

•• Slow RPM generally walks right (direction of rotation); Positive displacement motors (PDM) operate by convert-
•• High WOB generally walks right (direction of rotation). ing the hydraulic energy generated by the rig pumps into
mechanical energy to turn the bit. These motors have gone
The importance of stabilization in the control of wellbore through enormous generational changes from their origins
trajectory cannot be understated and many technologies as a single high-speed, low-torque, high-RPM system mated
such as variable-gauge stabilizers have been developed to with a bent sub to today’s steerable motors which come in a
enhance the directional control of dumb-rotary BHAs. In ad-
dition, many automated vertical drilling systems, which con-
tinuously correct any deviation from vertical, have recent-
ly been developed by the large drilling service companies.
Discussion of these various downhole tools are covered in
another section of this manual.

Bottomhole assembly components

The BHA includes everything screwed to the drillpipe. The
BHA comprises several components, all serving a particular
purpose to help accomplish the objectives of the particular
hole section being drilled. The directional driller ensures
that all components meet the objectives of the run, validates
the physical measurements of each component and visual-
ly inspects each component’s mechanical integrity. Typical
BHA components, along with information on their influence
on wellbore trajectory, are described below.
Figure DD-21: Positive displacement motor. The drive mechanism
is displacement by mud. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Deflection tools currently used in directional drilling include

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-21

Steel

Elastomer

Even wall stator

Standard stator 80% less elastomer
Steel tube with cylindrical ID Thin & “equidistant” elastomer layer
Varying elastomer layer thickness Less distortion results in greater volumetric efficiency

Steel

Elastomer
Figure DD-22: Contoured steel vs. contoured elastomer. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

variety of speed and power ranges (Figures DD-20a, -20b, by the ratio of rotor lobes to that of the stator, such that a
and -21). 5:6 motor features five lobes on the rotor and six on the sta-
tor. Fluid pumped through the drillstring displaces the rotor
Today’s motors are capable of a wide range of build rates as inside the progressive cavities of the stator, forcing the rotor
they can be configured with different bend and stabilization to turn.
options. The housing-bend angle and stabilization geome-
try determine the maximum RPM that can be used in rotary The mechanical characteristics of a PDM are such that as
mode and whether the motor can even be rotated. the number of rotor/stator lobes increases, RPM and me-
chanical efficiency decreases and torque output increases.
Motors are available with a variety of bent-housing geome-
tries which influence bit-side force and buildup rate (BUR). Development of even-wall power section technology has
Today, this includes adjustable and fixed-bend housings and greatly increased the power output of downhole motors.
short bit-to-bend configurations. This stator technology uses a constant thickness of elasto-
mer covering a variable thickness of steel to deliver torque
Stabilization options which influence BUR and rotary drill- and power increases of up to 100% over traditional stators,
ing behavior include slick, fully-stabilized and partially-sta- which have a variable thickness elastomer inside a con-
bilized motors; clamp-on stator stabilizers; and a variety of stant-thickness steel tube. The contoured steel distorts less
kick pads to enhance the effect of the bent housing. Curved than contoured elastomer, resulting in greater volumetric
trajectory is achieved by the alternation of oriented-sliding efficiency (Figure DD-22).
(curved) intervals with rotary drilling (tangent) intervals.
In general:
Motor-bearing sections have both axial and thrust bearings •• With PDMs, torque is proportional to differential
to deal with WOB and side forces. They are available in a va- pressure; RPM is proportional to flow;
riety of options including diamond bearings, sealed bearings •• The majority of PDM drilling is done with mid-range
and ball-and-race bearings. motors (5:6 or 7:8 lobes) to optimize between steering
control and ROP;
Motor power sections are available in a variety of torque, •• High-speed, low-torque motors are used to drill very
RPM and efficiency ranges. The stator of the power section hard rock with diamond-impregnated bits;
has one more lobe than the rotor. PDMs are characterized •• Low-speed, high-torque motors are used to drill with

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DD-22 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Figure DD-25: PDM versus a turbodrill. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

higher temperatures than mud motors;

•• The operating life of turbines in terms of circulating
hours can be 50-100% longer than PDMs;
Figure DD-23: Drive mechanism for a •• The BUR capability of turbines is less than that available
turbine is the impact of mud flow.
from PDMs;
•• Turbines generally have higher pressure drop across the
large diameter PDC bits or with reamers; tool than PDMs;
•• Increasing the bend in the motor increases both hole •• Turbines are less tolerant of lost circulation material
totuousity and vibration; (LCM) than PDMs.
•• BUR capability is governed by the motor contact points
with the borehole (3-point geometry), which define a
circle. The same geometric principles apply for RSSs. Rotary steerable systems (RSS)
Rotary steerable systems (RSS) operate on three basic de-
sign principles:
Steerable turbines •• Point the bit: the bit is angled to the desired direction as
Turbines have been utilized in the drilling industry for a with a PDM;
number of years, primarily to drill very hard rock with dia- •• Push the bit: the hydraulic side force is activated near
mond-impregnated bits or to drill through troublesome for- the bit face pushing the well trajectory to a desired
mations as quickly as possible. They have also been used to direction;
reduce stress on the drillstring by reducing the rotary speed •• Combination of push-point principles.
at surface (Figure DD-23).
Figure DD-25 compares PDMs and turbodrills.
In general:
•• Turbines induce rotation by the impact of mud flow on Like any BHA, the forces applied (either through gravity or
the rotor blades; by machine force) will act on the BHA and flex the com-
•• With turbines, torque and RPM are inversely ponents while redirecting the wellbore. The relationships
proportional. As torque increases, RPM decreases; between the BHA component flexibility, gravity effect and
•• The RPM is directly proportional to flow rate at a mechanical-applied force will all impact the directional per-
constant torque; formance of the system.
•• Off bottom, turbine RPM will reach runaway speed and
the torque is zero; The introduction of rotary steerable tools enabled the drill-
•• On bottom, just at stall, a turbine achieves maximum ing of wells previously thought impossible (Figure DD-26).
torque and the RPM is zero; RSSs carried a premium price, but offer significant increases
•• Maximum horsepower is achieved at half the stall in efficiency. The RSS tools allowed the addition of extensive
torque and at half the runaway speed (optimum formation evaluation sensors to the BHA, allowing for real-
performance); time evaluation of the geologic space as well as optimized
•• Turbines operate at very high RPM and can operate at wellbore placement within the reservoir.

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-23

Figure DD-26: Rotary steerable system. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

Figure DD-27: High build-rate rotary steerable system. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

With steerable motors, the forces necessary to overcome Shale play wells are typically drilled to maximize reservoir
friction in oriented drilling meant that horizontal reach from exposure for fracturing operations, which are the largest
surface was limited. Overall drilling efficiency was increased component of the well cost. Correlation of the target for-
with RSSs due to higher overall ROPs achieved by reducing mations via a gamma ray measurement is required for well
the time spent orienting and slide drilling (without rotation). placement, but the difficulty of formation evaluation in shale
In addition, as 3D steering was continuous, the same targets precludes the need for traditional measurements such as re-
could be achieved more precisely with reduced curvature sistivity and neutron density.
(2°-4°/100 ft) when compared to wells drilled with steer-
able motors. This reduced curvature also enabled the drill- Constraints of tight boundaries and small leasing units re-
ing of more complex profiles. quire rapid build rates to maximize the lateral length. Wells
are drilled to KOP and the angle built to horizontal at 8°-
Continuous rotation enhanced the quality of formation-eval- 12°/100 ft. Finally, an extensive lateral section is drilled
uation measurements, particularly those yielding borehole through the reservoir. These wells require three different
images, and enabled the deployment of reaming while drill- steerable PDM BHAs as the tool configuration needs to be
ing devices for hole enlargement. Additionally, service com- adjusted for each of the vertical, curve and lateral sections.
panies developed rotary steerable tools with incorporated These multiple trips are not efficient, and the hole quality
motor power sections near the bit, further increasing effi- issues caused by fractional orientation, often require a clea-
ciency and extending horizontal reach. The ability to drill a nout trip before any casing or completion can be run.
smoother trajectory while continuously rotating allowed the
drilling of more complex profiles and increased the available High build rate rotary steerable tools were developed to drill
reach from fixed platforms, allowing field development with the entire well in one run Figure DD-27). These tools can
fewer wells and reduced capital investment. maintain a vertical hole to the KOP, then build angle (capable
of ± 15°/100 ft) through the curve and finally hold inclination
Typically, RSSs are capable of delivering 6°-7°/100 ft dog- in the long horizontal section. They contain only gamma ray
legs in 8 ½-in. hole size. Dogleg capability decreases as col- sensors. This simplicity reduces the tool costs and increases
lar size and hole diameter increase. Conversely, dogleg ca- drilling efficiency.
pability increases as collar size and hole diameter decrease.
From a client perspective, the superior hole quality allows
immediate running of casing or completion and yields a bet-
High build rate rotary steerable systems ter cement job or better production. The reduction in drill-
Initially, rotary steerable tools were only deployed offshore ing time and subsequent well-construction savings lead to
where operating costs and rig rates were high, but the ad- fewer days to deliver a well and a faster return on invest-
vent of unconventional resources in US land plays and the ment (ROI). One drawback is that rotary steerable tools can
unique needs of those wells drove the development of a new generate undesirable borehole patterns if used with short-
generation of rotary steerable tools. gauge bits or if used with excessive deflection force.

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DD-24 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

Figure DD-28a and b: Examples of whipstock slides. At top is a short whipstock ,with a 3° slide angle, short radius, tight
doglegs. The bottom shows a long whipstock, with 1 ½°-2° slide angle and a smooth window exit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

Open-hole whipstocks can be executed as part of the original well plan or as the
Open-hole whipstocks are often used to initiate sidetracks result of an unexpected situation, e.g., fish in the wellbore.
in hard formations and also to perform sidetracks in hori-
zontal sections where there is difficulty in laying a good Sidetrack drivers
cement plug. These whipstocks can be used in conjunction There are a variety of reasons to sidetrack a well:
with other deflection tools to achieve difficult sidetracks. In •• To exit the existing casing for reentry;
fact, they can be used on sidetracks in place of cement plugs •• To create the new legs or laterals of a multilateral well;
to save time. Stable anchors are a key to success with open- •• To bypass fish or other obstructions in the original hole;
hole whipstocks (Figures DD-28a and -28b). •• To straighten a deviated hole;
•• To develop a field with few slots;
When using open-hole whipstocks, there are a number of •• To land a well where a pilot well has already determined
planning considerations involved including: the correct zone;
•• Anchor type (dependent on compressive strength of •• To hit a new zone or redefined target.
the formation);
o Retrievable: mechanical, inflatable; Sidetrack categories
o Permanent : cemented, mechanical, cemented in- •• OHST with motor:
flatable; o Cement plug;
•• Cased-hole anchors (used with stuck liner or casing); o No cement plug.
•• Open-hole anchors (usually inflatable systems); •• Cased-hole sidetrack:
•• Cemented tail pipe; o Section milling;
•• Attachment to a fish (screwing into a fish, latching with o Whipstock.
an overshot).Anchor set mechanism;
o Hydraulic; Design considerations
o Inflatable. The three main considerations for selection of a sidetrack
•• Slide geometry; point are formation, depth and inclination.
o Short (3° slide angle; short radius, tight doglegs);
o Long (11/2°-2° slide angle; smooth window exit); 1. Formation: To maximize the chances of success, the side-
o Note: The equivalent DLS of the whipstock slide track point should be selected in the softest formation. Ide-
curvature should be calculated to avoid exceeding ally, the formation should be softer than any cement plug
connection tolerances. used or should be between harder formations. Formation
•• Orientation Method; hardness will influence bit selection. It is better to choose a
o••MWD; location of higher ROP—softer rock, for example. Trying to
o••Gyro. enter a hard rock would be considerably more difficult since
the bit will always try to follow the path of least resistance.
Sidetracks When using a motor or RSS, it is best to sidetrack at a place
A sidetrack is defined as creating a new wellbore from an ex- where the original hole has a build, drop or turn dogleg, i.e.,
isting wellbore to the same or a different target. Sidetracks sidetrack away from the original trajectory.
can be performed when casing is already in place; by cutting
a window or milling a section of the casing; or in open hole 2. Depth: The depth of the sidetrack point determines the
with a cement plug, without a cement plug or with a perma- distance needed to be drilled (MD) to achieve the target
nent/removable whipstock. An open-hole sidetrack (OHST) and thereby the DLS required. The dogleg required will de-

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-25

Figure DD-29: At top is a long slide whipstock (1 ½ - 2° slide angle) bottom short
slide whipstock (3° slide angle). Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

termine the choice of deflection tool and the BHA design to If cement is firm, drill ahead to the planned KOP.
achieve the sidetrack.
Test the quality of the plug by applying weight with 50% of
3. Inclination: The inclination at the sidetrack point is im- the motor-minimum flow rate and by rotating the string +/-
portant because it dictates the sidetrack orientation relative 30 rpm. A WOB of ±0.5-1.5 k lb./in. of diameter is consid-
to the high side of the hole. In an open-hole near-vertical ered a strong cement plug. If the cement plug takes weight
sidetrack scenario, the sidetrack can be in any direction off and the motor starts to stall, the plug is firm enough to start
a cement plug. In an inclined hole, gravity can be used to sidetrack. If the weight drops off and the cement washes
assist in getting away from the original hole by orienting the away, the plug is not firm.
deflection tool to the low side of the hole. Orienting to the
low side does not work with cased-hole whipstocks. Once firm cement is found, the string should be picked up,
the pumps brought up to operating flow and the toolface ori-
If the wellbore to be sidetracked is vertical, a sidetrack will ented to the desired direction. The timed drill-off of the plug
be more difficult to achieve since there is no support from should occur at an ROP no greater than 50% of the penetra-
the borehole to the BHA. In addition, the stabilizers will not tion rate at which the formation would drill with the param-
be touching the borehole in a consistent manner. The best eters and bit used. This rate may be adjusted per customer
results would be obtained by using a whipstock or a good request. Make sure to mark the pipe at known intervals.
hard cement plug. Whenever possible, a drill-off test should
be performed to evaluate the cement’s quality, i.e., strength. Open-hole motor sidetrack with no cement plug
It is best to begin the sidetrack at the start of a joint/stand to When performing an OHST without a cement plug and with
avoid making a connection during the operation. Always try a motor assembly, it is recommended to orient it toward the
to stay on bottom. If it is necessary to make a connection, do low side of the hole, either left or right. If sidetracking in a
not allow the pipe to rotate. curved interval, set the sidetrack toolface against the curve.
The same applies for a rotary assembly and for jetting as-
While attempting a sidetrack in hard formation (unconfined semblies.
compressive strength [UCS]>25k psi), a whipstock is the
preferred choice since the cement will not be harder than
the formation. For medium formations (UCS 15-25k psi), a Casing whipstocks/window cutting
motor with a good cement plug is the base for a success- Sidetracks involving a casing exit using a whipstock involve
ful sidetrack. For soft formations (UCS<15k psi), it is best to two stages: a milling phase and a drilling phase, Casing
sidetrack with a motor toward the high side of the hole with a whipstocks are available in 1-, 2- or 3-trip variants. See Fig-
good cement plug or to the low side if no cement is set. Drill ure DD-29.
purely in slide mode until the desired well path is achieved. A
high percentage of formation returning to the shakers would Milling phase
normally be a good indication of successful sidetracking. Initially, the whipstock should be oriented (gyro or high-side
measurement) and set in the desired direction. A window
Open-hole motor sidetrack with cement plug is then milled in the casing wall and into the formation. The
As a precaution to avoid running into green cement, washing milling BHA is usually tapered, resulting in an undergauge
down should be started to +/- 2 stands above the expect- borehole outside of the casing. Some points to adhere to in-
ed top of cement (TOC) with minimum motor flow rate and clude:
+/- 30 rpm to tag TOC. The depth at which the BHA takes •• Avoid setting the whipstock in a position which requires
weight should be noted and compared to the expected TOC. a casing collar to be milled;

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DD-26 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

•• Set the whipstock in a position where there is good reactions that correspond to unique rock properties. Based
cement behind the casing; on these measurements, petrophysicists and geologists are
•• Set the whipstock in the target direction in a vertical able to interpret the rock type downhole and improve their
well; understanding of the reservoir and its surroundings. Com-
•• Set the whipstock a maximum 45-50° right or left of mon measurements are described briefly below.
high side in an inclined well;
•• Avoid magnetic interference or tool damage by using Gamma ray
ditch magnets to remove the metal cutting generated Shales are very high in potassium, uranium and thorium con-
by milling the casing from the circulating system. It tent. These formations emit photons that can be measured
should be noted that some whipstocks have a severe with a gamma ray detector, technically known as a scintilla-
whipstock face angle and can generate a 16-20°/100 ft tion detector. The greater the shale content, the higher the
equivalent dogleg. Rotating tools through this curvature gamma ray counts. Very low gamma ray counts indicate
can cause failure. a high concentration of either sand or carbonate which is
common reservoir rock.
Drilling phase
In this phase, a drilling assembly is run in the hole and a new Resistivity
borehole is drilled away from the existing casing toward the Resistivity is the opposite of conductivity. Rocks have pore
target. Some points to consider include: space that is filled with fluids that are either water or hydro-
•• Care should be taken to trip slowly and carefully over carbons, such as oil or gas. The resistivity measurement is
the whipstock face and through the window to avoid made by measuring the strength of an electric current trans-
damaging the window or moving the whipstock mitted from the LWD tool out into the formation and then
anchors; received again by the LWD tool.
•• Traditional milling systems use a series of tapered
cutting tools ( e.g., pilot mill, taper mill and watermelon A high-resistivity measurement indicates low-water content
mill) which start undergauge and increment to full and higher hydrocarbon content. Because drilling fluid will
gauge. Any rathole drilled outside the window with invade the rock near the wellbore as the hole is drilled, resis-
these systems will be undergauge; tivity tools are designed to measure at various depths into
•• Newer starter mill designs utilize PDC cutters and are the formation so that deep formation resistivity can be com-
able to drill a full gauge hole; pared with near wellbore resistivity and interpretation can
•• Care should be taken to orient the motor toolface to the be made over the fluid mobility within the rock. It is import-
whipstock face before opening the undergauge rathole; ant to understand how the drilling fluid will impact resistivity
•• To avoid movement or damage to the whipstock, measurements so that interpretations are not distorted by
rotating stabilizers across the whipstock face should be the wellbore fluid.
avoided.
Neutron and density
Radioactive material has a natural decay, constantly emit-
Measuring tools ting atomic particles. While some sources will emit neutrons
Downhole tools have developed from providing basic mea- while they decay, others will emit electrons. The particles
surements of toolface inclination and azimuth to the provi- that are emitted during this decay move at speeds faster
sion of sophisticated formation evaluation and mechanical than light. They will collide with other atomic particles in the
measurements. formation creating additional atomic activity.

Measuring while drilling/logging while drilling Low-level radioactive sources are loaded into the LWD tools
Directional drilling targets are based on geology and petro- prior to running in the well. During drilling, the neutrons
physics analysis during well design. LWD helps confirm the emitted from the radioactive source collide with the hydro-
analysis applied to design the well targets. These LWD tools gen in the formation, either water or hydrocarbons. This
incorporate various petrophysical measurements built into leads to excitation that releases gamma rays, which are then
NMDC that are part of the BHA. These measurements will measured by receivers in the LWD tool. Depending on the
help the directional driller geosteer the well toward targets. quantity of gamma rays received, an interpretation of rock
While drilling in a reservoir, the measurements will also help porosity can be derived. Additional wellbore characteristics
the directional driller remain inside the reservoir. such as hole size, filter cake thickness, mud weight, type, sa-
linity and tool position in the wellbore must be incorporated
Each LWD measurement uses unique sensors to take phys- to get an accurate interpretation.
ical measurements of either electrical, acoustic or chemical

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-27

The density source in the LWD tool will emit gamma rays with the borehole wall. Over a period of time, ranging from
that collide with electrons in the formation rock, causing ex- a few to several minutes, the formation pressure will build
citation that can be measured by the receivers in the tool. up within the seal and a pressure sensor will measure ac-
Because different rock types have different signatures of tual formation pressure. This measurement is valuable for
electron excitation, an interpretation of the rock type can be assessing where casings should be set during exploration
made. Combining both the density and porosity measure- drilling. It is also a useful measurement for the analysis of
ments helps geologists understand the type of rock being formation productivity, particularly in highly deviated wells
drilled. where pressure measurements are not easily achievable on
wireline. Knowing what the pressures are across the well-
Exposure to radioactive sources used in LWD tools can be bore helps to distinguish productive zones from non-pro-
dangerous over long periods of time. At the wellsite, special ductive zones; for example, best identifying where to perfo-
controls are required to properly handle these sources and rate the production casing.
eliminate exposure to untrained individuals. The crews in-
volved in handling radioactive sources are specially trained Formation sampling while drilling
and use strict procedures to ensure the risk of exposure is This tool is a new addition to LWD options. Forma-
minimized. tion-sampling tools use a probe similar to formation pres-
sure-while-drilling tools. Rather than taking pressure-only
Acoustic measurements measurements, the tool will draw in reservoir fluid and store
Sonic tools are LWD tools that measure sound waves in the it in a canister to be brought back to surface once the BHA
formation. They generate a high-frequency chirping sound is tripped out of hole. Collecting fluids from the reservoir al-
that transmits into the formation and then listens for reflec- lows reservoir and production engineers to best determine
tive sound coming back to the tool. Based on the speed of how to design field production to maximize total recoverable
the returning sound wave, interpretation of rock density can reserves.
be determined.
Drilling mechanics measurements
Seismic While Drilling: This method is similar to sonic tools, MWD tools are commonly equipped with drilling mechan-
but the acoustic measurement is much deeper. This mea- ics measurements that help interpret downhole conditions.
surement replicates surface or marine seismic, in the sense Monitoring the drilling mechanics data helps to identify cur-
that the tool is listening for a noise source generated at sur- rent drilling conditions and to make any necessary changes
face; however, having the tool in the drillstring allows for at surface required to continuously improve drilling or to
a more local assessment of the seismic environment and prevent drilling problems.
helps geophysics experts better tie their field seismic in-
terpretation to the well being drilled. While surface seismic Downhole WOB, downhole torque, azimuthal bending
generally allows geophysicists to identify formation tops moment and string RPM are measured with strain gauges
accurate to within hundreds of ft, LWD seismic can localize mounted in specialized subs connected to the MWD tool.
the measurement to exact depths. This helps drillers to bet- Downhole string RPM and shock and vibration in the BHA
ter place casing strings before large-pressure changes are are measured with sensors similar to those used to take sur-
encountered. veys.

Magnetic resonance Vibration measurements

This LWD tool emits a magnetic field that will energize elec- Low-level vibrations and high-level shocks can be measured
trons in the formation. Based on the energy absorbed, a re- to indicate drilling conditions downhole. If shocks and/or vi-
sponse measurement can be made that will determine the brations are high, drilling parameters must be changed. The
fluid type in a well. This measurement is particularly useful type and severity of the measurements will indicate the like-
for determining different hydrocarbon density measure- ly cause, at which point corrective actions can be applied.
ments, allowing for interpretation between heavy oil, tar,
light oil, condensate and gas. In addition, formation porosity Torsional vibrations are caused by the slowing and speed-
can be derived from the measurement. ing up of the drillstring or bit. Low to moderate vibrations
may be overcome by changing the rotating speed or mak-
Formation pressure while drilling ing small adjustments to the WOB. In cases where torsional
This measurement uses a probe in the tool to take an abso- vibrations grow, the onset of stick-slip can occur and this
lute pressure of the formation at any desired spot along the can cause the drillstring to stop completely downhole while
wellbore. The drillstring is held stationary while the probe rotation continues at surface. The stored rotational ener-
presses against the formation and creates a pressure seal gy is absorbed by the drillstring until eventually it releases,

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DD-28 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING

causing excessive speed downhole. In severe cases, at sur- of torque required to effectively turn the bit. The torque is
face with rotary speed of 100 rpm, downhole speed can go affected by the cutter size, type and layout. In the case of
from full stop (0 rpm) to in excess of 500 rpm. Over time, PDC bits, cutter-back rake will have a significant influence
this drilling dysfunction can lead to catastrophic failure of over the torque required to drill with the bit. In the case of
the BHA components such as drill bits, drive systems and slide drilling, delivering the appropriate WOB to drill without
MWD/LWD tools. In the worst cases, there is a significant stalling the motor can be very challenging, particularly when
risk of string twistoff or back-off if such conditions are not hole drag due to fluid type, hole cleaning and trajectory all
properly managed. have influence.

Lateral vibrations occur when the BHA moves from side to Roller-cone bits most easily deliver good DLS because they
side within the wellbore. As this vibration grows, it can reach accommodate large WOB. They deliver good BHA flex with
a point at which the BHA will slam into the borehole wall virtually no gauge length, accommodating good hole redi-
at g-forces exceeding 200. Clearly, this type of vibration is rection at the bit face. The weaknesses of roller-cone bits,
damaging to the BHA and hole. however, are slower ROP and shorter bit life than fixed-cut-
ter bits.
Axial vibration occurs along the direction of the borehole. In
severe cases, it can lead to bit bounce, where the bit actually Polycrystalline diamond compact bits were introduced in
leaves bottom and then slams back to bottom. Over time, the late 1980s. From a directional drilling perspective, they
this can damage bits and BHA components. were very difficult to steer as motor drilling could not deliver
adequate torque in a sufficiently steady fashion to keep the
Drilling dysfunctions can begin as one type and compound bit on bottom. The directional driller was constantly chasing
to a blend of types, eventually reaching levels that force the a toolface to achieve the desired directional path until the
driller to pick up off bottom, stop all drilling and let the BHA point when too much weight would fall on the bit, causing
settle out before resuming. the motor to stall. Advances in bit design to improve steer-
ability have produced more directional-friendly bits through
Measuring annular pressure changes to bit profile, cutter size, orientation, rake angle and
Measurements of annular pressure can also be made with count. Gauge design and protection have evolved to deliver
MWD/LWD tools. The measurement uses a pressure gauge consistent DLS with varying gauge length. The durability of
downhole that is exposed to the annulus. Monitoring chang- PDC cutters has also improved to the point at which PDC
es in annular pressure while the pumps are on will give in- bits can drill across a wide spectrum of formation types
dications of potential hole issues . If the annular pressure encountered throughout the bit run. The advance of rotary
readings with pumps on gradually increase, it is a good steerable technology, with longer bit runs across more for-
indication that the hole may be loading up with cuttings. mations, has also forced the advancement of PDC technolo-
If annular pressure suddenly increases, this may be a sign gy. With the advances in computing today, fixed-cutter bits
of pack-off, or possibly even an indication of a well influx. can now be customized for specific field applications with
Recorded annular pressure measurements are also valuable ease and efficiency. The trajectory response of these bits is
for determining the results of casing shoe, formation integ- now much more predictable.
rity and leak-off tests.
Hybrid Drill Bits: Recently hybrid bits that combine both
fixed cutters and roller cones have been developed. These
Bits bits are particularly effective in inter-bedded and high com-
Drill bits are either fixed-cutter or roller-cone. A fixed-cut- pressive strength formations. In the appropriate applica-
ter bit removes rock through shearing or grinding away the tion, hybrid bits produce more stable drilling, have better
rock, depending on the cutter type and size. A roller-cone side-cutting ability, have precise tool-face control, and can
bit removes rock through impact. Different bits are selected run higher WOB than traditional drill bits.
based on the formation type and hardness. An appropriate
drive system must be selected to match the bit type. Diamond and Diamond-Impregnated Bits: Another form
of fixed-cutter bits. The face of the bit is fitted with a dia-
From a directional drilling perspective, the choice of bit is mond-grit matrix that blends natural and manufactured
as critical as the selection of any other component in the diamonds specific to the objective formation. Blade count
well design. The achievable DLS will be a function of the bit- and height, as well as bit profile and gauge length, can be
gauge length, gauge profile, side-cutting ability, cutter lay- tailored. These bits are typically used at very high- bit RPM,
out and many other factors on the bit. The achievable WOB, most commonly delivered with downhole turbines or high-
or ability to flex the BHA, will be determined by the amount speed PDMs. The directional response of these bits is very

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 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-29

good due to the low torque at the bit face so steerability is BHA components. The blades may be welded or integrated
good. Due to the high RPM, gauge protection is absolutely into the main collar material. In addition, stabilizer profiles
necessary so these bits may have gauge lengths well over vary widely: by spiral or straight blade type, by wrap profile,
12 in. Compared to some PDC bits with 1-2 in. of gauge by taper and by material makeup. The size of the outside di-
length, or roller-cone bits with virtually no gauge length, ameter of the blades will determine how much offset within
long gauges make for difficult directional responsiveness as the borehole will be expected and, consequently, how this
the turning radius of the BHA is impacted by gauge length. offset will impact deflecting of the bit. All BHA touch points
Furthermore, diamond-impregnated bits are used in hard work together, helping to create the turning radius the bore-
rock, which is not the most effective place to achieve direc- hole will follow. The collar size and stiffness of each BHA
tional objectives; however, with certain well designs, drilling component consequently will affect BHA performance.
through hard rock may be unavoidable.
Drill collars provide weight to the drill bit. Depending on the
For more details on drill bits, refer to the separate chapter on well profile, drill collars may also add some stability to the
Bits in the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edtion. BHA. NMDC are commonly required in directional BHAs to
prevent magnetic fields from influencing surveys. Drill col-
lars may be omitted from the BHA in high angle wells (>65°)
Other components as their weight and large OD increases friction against the
Stabilizers add stability to the BHA and provide touch points borehole wall.
across the BHA to help deflect the bit and redirect the well-
bore. The BHA may include a variety of stabilizers which HWDP is now more often used than drill collars to provide
may be incorporated into other tools in the BHA such as weight to the drill bit. This component is lighter and more
motors or MWD/LWD tools. The stabilizer may be clamped flexible than drill collars, but heavier and stiffer than drill-
or screwed onto the component or integrated into the ma- pipe. HWDP generates less friction and is more flexible;
chined collar of the particular component. Stabilizers may therefore, it is commonly run as a transition from the drill
also be components that screw into the BHA between other collars to the drillpipe in most directional wells.

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015