I.

THE UNIVERSE
Universe
- the totality of existence
- includes galaxies, stars, planets, nebulae, etc.
Galaxies - consist of stars, planets, vast clouds of gas and dust, all bound by gravity
Types of Galaxies:
1. Spiral - resembles a rotating disk with spiral arms
2. Elliptical - range in shape from completely round to oval
3. Irregular - have unusual shapes
Stars
- giant balls of hot gas held together by its own gravity
- coolest (red), hottest (blue)
Types of Stars:
1. Protostar - a very young star
2. Main Sequence Star - a normal star like our sun
3. Giant Star - a star that has very large radius for its mass and temperature
4. Supergiant Star - much larger and more luminous than giant stars
5. White Dwarfs - the stellar core left behind by a dying star
Supernova
- the explosion of a star
Natural Satellites/Moons
- orbits around a planet
Planets
- orbits around a star
Nebula
- a giant cloud of gas and dust in space, between stars
- where new stars are born

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE:

1. Biblical Creation
- states that the universe was created by God in 6 days
2. The Big Bang Theory
- Georges Lemaître
- says that the universe began as a singularity then expanded
Red Shift aka Doppler Shift
- says that an object is moving away will appear red because its light is stretched
Hubble’s Law
- galaxies are retreating from us at a speed that is proportional to their distance
3. Steady State Theory
- Hoyle, Bondi, and Gold
- states that the universe expanded but did not change its density
4. Inflation Theory
- Alan Guth
- proposes a period of rapid expansion of the universe during its first few moments

II. THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Solar System
- contains a sun that has celestial bodies that orbits around it such as planets

Notable Personalities:
1. Eratosthenes - used the sun to measure the size of the earth
2. Claudius Ptolemy - Geocentric = earth is the center of the solar system
3. Nicolaus Copernicus - Heliocentric = sun is the center of the solar system
4. Johannes Kepler - planets travel in ellipses
5. Galileo Galilei - creation of optical telescope

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:

1. Nebular Hypothesis
- Immanuel Kant
- solar system was formed from a nebula that collapsed and turned into a disk
2. Protoplanet Theory
- Kuiper-Weizsacker
- modified version of the nebular hypothesis
3. The Planetesimal Hypothesis
- Chamberlin-Moulton
- solar system was formed by the accumulation of planetesimals

III. OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

A. Sun
- star at the center of our solar system
- primary energy source of the solar system

Layers of the Sun in Order:

1. Core - center of the sun where nuclear fusion happens
2. Radiative Zone - where energy is transported outward through radiation
3. Convective Zone - where energy is transported outward through convection
4. Photosphere - the visible surface of the sun that emits the light we see
5. Chromosphere - reddish and glowing layer of gas
6. Transition Region - separates the chromosphere from the corona
7. Corona - outermost layer of the sun's atmosphere
Solar Activities:
1. Sunspots - darkened areas on the sun's surface
2. Solar Flares - sudden bursts of energy
3. Coronal Mass Ejections (CME) - massive eruptions of plasma
4. Solar Wind - continuous stream of charged particles

B. Planets
- there are 8 Planets in total
- revolves the sun in elliptical orbit

The 8 Planets in the Solar System:

1. Terrestrial Planets/Inner Planets/ (MVEM)
- Mercury - closest planet to the sun
- Venus - has a thick atmosphere making it the hottest planet in the solar system
- Earth - the only known planet to support life
- Mars - known as the "Red Planet"
2. Jovian Planets/Outer Planets (JSUN)
- Jupiter - largest planet in our solar system
- Saturn - know for its ring
- Uranus - an ice giant that is tilted and made of ammonia and methane
- Neptune - farthest planet from the sun

The Small Bodies in the Solar System:

1. Asteroids - small, rocky objects that orbit the sun
2. Comets - snowballs of frozen gasses, rock, and dust that orbit the sun
3. Meteoroid - small, rocky, and still in space
Meteors
- when meteoroids enters the atmosphere
Meteorites
- when meteoroids reaches the ground
Meteor Shower
- several meteors per hour
4. Asteroid Belt - between Mars and Jupiter
5. Kuiper Belt - ring shaped region of icy bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune
6. Dwarf Planets - a celestial body that is too small to be considered a planet
7. Oort Cloud - a giant spherical shell surrounding our solar system

C. Moon
- revolves around the earth
- the brightest and largest object in our night sky
- takes 27.3 days to orbit the earth
Phases of the Moon:
1. New Moon - illuminated part faces away from the earth; the moon appears dark
2. First Quarter - half of the moon is illuminated and can be seen, resembling a
half-circle
3. Full Moon - the moon is fully illuminated
4. Third Quarter - opposite half of the moon is illuminated and can be seen
Eclipse
- happens when a planet or a moon gets in the way of the Sun's light
Solar Eclipse
- Sun-Moon-Earth position
Lunar Eclipse
- Sun-Earth-Moon position
Tides
- the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational pull
High Tide
- the state of the tide when at its highest level
Low Tide
- the state of the tide when at its lowest level

IV. THE EARTH

Earth
- third planet from the sun
- it's the only place we know of inhabited by living things
- orbits the sun

Movements of the Earth:

1. Rotation
- spinning of the earth around an imaginary line called the axis
- Earth’s axis: 23.5º
2. Revolution
- movement of the earth along its orbit (counterclockwise)
- takes 365.25 days to orbit around the sun
- the cause why there are seasons
Solstice
- day and night are unequal in length
Equinox
- day and night are equal in length
V. THE EARTH'S 4 SUBSYSTEMS
A. Atmosphere
- a mixture of gasses that surrounds the Earth
- helps life possible by providing us air to breathe and protects us from ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun

Layers of the Atmosphere:

1. Troposphere
- the part were we live in
- lowest layer and where weather activities occur
- gets colder as one goes higher
2. Stratosphere
- gets warmer as one goes higher
- where the Ozone Layer is found
Ozone Layer
- absorbs radiation from the sun
3. Mesosphere
- gets cold as one goes higher
- where most meteors burn
4. Thermosphere
- gets hotter as one goes higher
- where aurora's are found
5. Exosphere
- the outermost layer

B. Hydrosphere
- refers to all the water on Earth, approximately 71%
- includes water on the surface, underground, and air

Distribution of Water:
1. Salt Water - around 97%
A. Oceans - covers around 70% of the earth's surface
2. Fresh Water - around 3%, includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands

Hydrologic Cycle or The Water Cycle:

1. Evaporation - when water is turned into a vapor by heat
2. Condensation - process by which water vapor is turned into water
3. Precipitation - any form of water, such as rain, snow, sleet, or hail, that falls from
the atmosphere
4. Runoff - the movement of water by land
Hydrometeorological Phenomenons:
1. Monsoons
- a seasonal shift in wind patterns that brings changes in weather
Southwest Monsoon (Habagat)
- from May to October
Northeast Monsoon (Amihan)
- from November to February
2. Tropical Cyclones (Bagyo)
- storms

C. Biosphere
- the part of the earth where living things exist
- it encompasses all living things living in the lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere
D. Geosphere
- encompasses all the solid parts of the Earth
- including the rocks, minerals, crust, mantle, and the core

The Earth's Structure:

1. Crust - outermost layer of the earth and rich in oxygen and silicon
A. Continental Crust
- thicker but less dense than oceanic crust
- older than oceanic crust
B. Oceanic Crust
- thinner and more dense than continental crust
- younger than continental crust
2. Mantle
- the largest layer of the earth
- rich in oxygen and silicon
Upper Mantle:
A. Lithosphere - composed of the crust and upper portion of the mantle
B. Asthenosphere - hot and semi-liquid
Lower Mantle:
A. Mesosphere - hot and solid
3. Outer Core
- hot and liquid
4. Inner Core
- solid because of immense pressure
- made up of iron and nickel

VI. ROCKS AND ITS CYCLE

Rocks
- naturally occurring aggregate or combination of minerals
The Rock Cycle:
1. Igneous Rocks
- formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
- created through the process of crystallization
- Ex. granite, diorite, gabbro, andesite
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
- solidify within the earth
- slow cooling
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
- solidify in the earth's surface
- fast cooling
- Ex. obsidian
2. Sedimentary Rock
- formed through the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments
from weathering and erosion
- Ex. shale, limestone, conglomerate, sandstone
Lithification
- the processes where sediments are solidified into sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks
- formed from the exposure of igneous or sedimentary rocks to high temperature
and high pressure
- Ex. quartzite, schist, gneiss, marble
Metamorphism
- refers to the process by which rocks undergo changes in composition and texture
Aphanitic
- rocks that have grains too small to see
Phaneritic
- rocks that have grains big enough to see

VII. MINERALS AND ITS PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES
Minerals
- naturally occurring inorganic element or compound
- building block of rocks

Physical Properties:
1. Colour
- main body color of the mineral
2. Luster
- appearance of a mineral surface in reflected light
3. Streak
- the color of a mineral in its powdered form when it is rubbed
4. Hardness
- mineral's ability to resist scratching or abrasion
Mohs Scale of Hardness
- scale used to measure the scratch resistance of minerals
- 1-10 (talc = lowest) (Diamond = hardest)

5. Cleavage
- the property of a mineral that allows it to break smoothly along specific internal
planes
6. Fracture
- the property of a mineral breaking in a more or less random pattern
7. Specific Gravity
- the density of that object divided by the density of water
- 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3

VIII. WEATHERING AND ITS TYPES

Weathering
- the process where rocks and minerals are broken down and worn away

A. Physical Weathering or Mechanical Weathering

- when rocks break down into smaller pieces without changing their chemical
composition
1. Frost Wedging or Weathering
- repeated freezing and thawing of water in cracks of rocks
2. Exfoliation
- stripping of the outer layers of rocks
3. Thermal Expansion
- expansion and contraction of rocks caused by the hot and cold temperature

B. Chemical Weathering
- process by which rocks are broken down by chemical reactions
1. Oxidation
- reaction when a substance combine with oxygen
2. Carbonation
- mixing of water with carbon dioxide to make carbonic acid
3. Hydration
- the absorption or combination of water on a particular substance on the rock
C. Biological Weathering
- disintegration of rocks caused by living organisms (humans, plants, animals, etc.)
D. Soil Erosion
- process by which soil is moved from one place to another
1. Wind Erosion
- moves soil from one location to another by wind power
2. Sheet Erosion
- removal of thin layers of soil because of rain
3. Rill Erosion
- shallow narrow channels caused by concentrated running water
4. Gully Erosion
- deep narrow channels caused by concentrated running water

IX. PLATE TECTONICS

Plate Tectonics
- the idea that the Earth's outer layer is made up of large, moving pieces called
plates

Theories on the origin of Plate Tectonics:

1. Continental Drift Theory
- Alfred Wegener
- suggests that continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called
Pangaea and have since moved apart
2. Seafloor Spreading
- proposes that new ocean floor is created where two plates move away from one
another at mid-ocean ridges
Mid-Ocean Ridges
- underwater mountain ranges found at divergent plate boundaries

Plate Movements
1. Divergent Plate Boundary
- tectonic plates move away from each other
- normal fault
- tension
2. Convergent Plate Boundary
- tectonic plates move toward each other and may collide or undergo subduction
- if collided creates mountain ranges
- if subduction creates trenches (ex. Marianas Trench)
- reverse fault
- compression
Subduction
- where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another into the Earth's mantle, usually
the oceanic plate
3. Transform
- tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally
- strike-slip fault
- shear stress

Tectonic Forces:
1. Deformation
- the of shape or size of rock
2. Folding
- happens when earth is subjected to compression
Anticline
- upward arch in a fold
Syncline
- downward arch in a fold
3. Faulting
- result of displacement of rock
Normal Fault
- hanging wall moves downward
Reverse Fault
- hanging wall moves upward
Transform Fault or Strike-Slip Fault
- two tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally

X. EARTHQUAKES
Earthquake
- sudden and violent shaking of the ground caused by the movement of tectonic
plates
Aftershock
- smaller earthquakes that occur in the same region following a larger earthquake
Focus or Hypocenter
- where the earthquake originated
Epicenter
- the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus
Richter Scale
- used to measure the magnitude of earthquakes
Seismograph
- used to detect and record seismic waves produced by earthquakes
Seismic Waves
- waves that travel through or over Earth
- produced by earthquakes
Body Waves:
1. Primary Waves (P waves)
- faster and compressional
- can travel through solid and liquid
2. Secondary Waves (S waves)
- slower and tranverse
- can travel through solid only
Surface Waves
- slower than P-waves and S-waves
- only on the Earth's surface
- causes the most damage

XI. HISTORY OF THE EARTH

GEOLOGIC DATING:
1. Absolute Dating
- determines the absolute age of events or rocks
- uses isotopes
2. Relative Dating
- does not offer specific dates
- uses to determine if something is older than the other
Law of Original Horizontality
- sediments are originally deposited horizontally
Law of Superposition
- oldest layer is at the bottom while youngest is at the top
Principle of Cross-Cutting
- any rocks that cuts across is younger than those it cut across
Idea of Unconformities
- surface erosion that separates younger rocks to older ones

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE:

Geologic Time Scale
- divides up the history of the earth based on life-forms that have existed during
specific times
1. Hadean Eon
- represents the earliest stage of Earth's history
2. Archean Eon
- where the formation of continents begun and the formation of the atmosphere
- where life first appeared
3. Proterozoic Eon
- continents began to drift away
- atmosphere began to have oxygen
4. Palezoic Era
 - abundant animal and plant life has existed
- where life-forms developed hard shell
5. Mesozoic Era
- age of the dinosaurs
- where breakup of pangea happened
6. Cenozoic Era
- Age of Mammals

XII. WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather
- short term changes of the atmosphere
Temperature
- the degree or intensity of heat
Humidity
- the amount of water vapor in the air
Air Pressure
- weight of all the air above us
Wind
- the movement of the air
Air Current
- hot air is less dense than cold air
- hot air ascends, cold air descends
Sea Breeze
- during day time, land is hotter than water
Land Breeze
- during night time, land cools faster than the sea