CVE 303 Fluid Mechanics (Lecture 1)

Goals
The goal is that you will:
1. Have fundamental knowledge of fluids:
 compressible and incompressible;
 their properties, basic dimensions and units;
2. Know the fundamental laws of mechanics as applied to fluids.
3. Understand the limitations of theoretical analysis and the determination of correction factors,
friction factors, etc from experiments.
4. Be capable of applying the relevant theory to solve problems.

Course contents

Basics:
• Definition of a fluid: concept of ideal and real fluids, both compressible and incompressible.
• Properties of fluids and their variation with temperature and pressure and the dimensions of
these properties.
Hydrostatics:
• The variation of pressure with depth of liquid.
• The measurement of pressure and forces on immersed surfaces.
Hydrodynamics:
• Description of various types of fluid flow; laminar and turbulent flow; Reynolds’s number,
critical Reynolds’s number for pipe flow.
• Conservation of energy and Bernoulli’s theorem. Simple applications of the continuity and
momentum equations.
• Flow measurement e.g. Venturi meter, orifice plate, Pitot tube, notches and weirs.
• Hagen-Poiseuille equation: its use and application.
• Concept of major and minor losses in pipe flow, shear stress, friction factor, and friction head
loss in pipe flow.
• Darcy-Weisbach equation, hydraulic gradient and total energy lines. Series and parallel pipe
flow.
• Flow under varying head.
• Chezy equation (theoretical and empirical) for flow in an open channel.
• Practical application of fluid mechanics in civil engineering.

Introduction to Fluids
Background and Definition
Background
• There are three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases.
• Both liquids and gases are classified as fluids.
• Fluids do not resist a change in shape. Therefore, fluids assume the shape of the
container they occupy.
• Liquids may be considered to have a fixed volume and therefore can have a
free surface. Liquids are almost incompressible.
• Conversely, gases are easily compressed and will expand to fill a container
they occupy.
• We will usually be interested in liquids, either at rest or in motion.

Definition
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces.
To understand this, remind ourselves of what a shear force is:

Definition Applied to Static Fluids

According to this definition, if we apply a shear force to a fluid it will deform and take up a state
in which no shear force exists. Therefore, we can say:
If a fluid is at rest there can be no shearing forces acting and therefore all forces in the fluid
must be perpendicular to the planes in which they act.
Note here that we specify that the fluid must be at rest. This is because, it is found
experimentally that fluids in motion can have slight resistance to shear force. This is the source
of viscosity.
Definition Applied to Fluids in Motion
Although there can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest, shear stresses are developed when the
fluid is in motion, if the particles of the fluid move relative to each other so that they have
different velocities, causing the original shape of the fluid to become distorted. If, on the other
hand, the velocity of the fluid is the same at every point, no shear stresses will be produced, since
the fluid particles are at rest relative to each other. Usually, we are concerned with flow past a
solid boundary. The fluid in contact with the boundary adheres to it and will, therefore, have the
same velocity as the boundary. Considering successive layers parallel to the boundary, the
velocity of the fluid will vary from layer to layer as y increases.

FIG 1.2
If ABCD represents an element in a fluid with thickness s perpendicular to the diagram, then the
force F will act over an area A equal to BC * s. The force per unit area (F/A) is the shear stress
(τ) and the deformation, measured by the angle ϕ (the shear strain) will be proportional to the
shear stress.

FIG 1.3
In a solid, ϕ will be a fixed quantity for a given value of τ, since a solid can resist shear stress
permanently. In a fluid, the shear strain will continue to increase with time and the fluid will
flow. It is found experimentally that, in a true fluid, the rate of shear strain (or shear strain per
unit time) is directly proportional to the shear stress.
Shear stress αRate of shear strain
Shear stress= Constant* Rate of shear strain
Suppose that in time t a particle at E (Fig. 1.1) moves through a distance x. If E is a distance y
from AD then, for small angles,

Where u = x/t is the velocity of the particle at E. Assuming the experimental result that shear
stress is proportional to shear strain, then
τ = constant * u/y
The term u/y is the change of velocity with y and may be written in the differential form du/dy.
The constant of proportionality is known as the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
This constant is a property of the fluid called its dynamic viscosity (dynamic because the fluid is
in motion, and viscosity because it is resisting shear stress). It is denoted μ which then gives us:
du
τ=μ*
dy
which is Newton’s law of viscosity. The value of μ depends upon the fluid under consideration.

NEWTONIAN AND NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

Even among substances commonly accepted as fluids, there is a wide variation in behaviour
under stress. Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity and for which μ has a constant value are
known as Newtonian fluids. Most common fluids fall into this category, for which shear stress is
linearly related to velocity gradient (Fig. 1.4). Fluids which do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity are known as non-Newtonian and fall into one of the following groups:
 FIG 1.4
I. Plastic: for which the shear stress must reach a certain minimum value before flow
commences. Thereafter, shear stress increases with the rate of shear according to the
relationship.

( )
n
du
τ =A + B
dy
where A, B and n are constants. If n = 1, the material is known as a Bingham plastic (e.g.
sewage sludge).
II. Pseudo-plastic: for which dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases (e.g.
colloidal solutions, clay, milk, cement).
III. Dilatant substances: in which dynamic viscosity increases as the rate of shear increases
(e.g. quicksand).
IV. Thixotropic substances: for which the dynamic viscosity decreases with the time for
which shearing forces are applied (e.g. thixotropic jelly paints).
V. Rheopectic materials, for which the dynamic viscosity increases with the time for which
shearing forces are applied.
VI. Viscoelastic materials, which behave in a manner similar to Newtonian fluids under time-
invariant conditions but, if the shear stress changes suddenly, behave as if plastic.

The above is a classification of actual fluids. In analyzing some of the problems arising in fluid
mechanics we shall have cause to consider the behaviour of an ideal fluid, which is assumed to
have no viscosity. Theoretical solutions obtained for such a fluid often give valuable insight into
the problems involved, and can, where necessary, be related to real conditions by experimental
investigation.

Units
Fluid mechanics deals with the measurement of many variables of many different types of units.
Hence, we need to be very careful to be consistent.
Dimensions and Base Units
The dimension of a measure is independent of any particular system of units. For example,
velocity may be in metres per second or miles per hour, but dimensionally, it is always length per
time, or L/T = LT−1 . The dimensions of the relevant base units of the Système International (SI)
system are:

Properties of Fluids

The following properties of fluids are of general importance to the study of fluid mechanics.

Mass Density
The mass per unit volume of a substance, usually denoted as ρ . Typical values are:
• Water: 1000 kg/m3;
• Mercury: 13546 kg/m3;
• Air: 1.23 kg/m3;
• Paraffin: 800 kg/m3.
Units: kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).
Dimensions: ML3.
Specific Weight
The weight of a unit volume a substance, usually denoted as γ. Essentially density times the
acceleration due to gravity:
Weight per unit volume = Mass per unit volume × g
γ = ρg.
Units: newtons per cubic metre (N m−3).
Dimensions: work it out
Typical values: water, 9.81 × 103 N m−3; air, 12.07 N m−3.
γ=ρg

Relative Density (Specific Gravity)

Relative density (or specific gravity) σ is defined as the ratio of the mass density of a substance
to some standard mass density. For solids and liquids, the standard mass density chosen is the
maximum density of water (which occurs at 4 °C at atmospheric pressure):
σ = ρsubstance / ρH2O at 4 °C.
Units: since relative density is a ratio of two quantities of the same kind, it is a pure number
having no units.
Dimensions: as a pure number, its dimensions are M0L0T0 = 1.
Typical values: water, 1.0; oil, 0.9.
VISCOSITY
A fluid at rest cannot resist shearing forces, and, if such forces act on a fluid which is in contact
with a solid boundary, the fluid will flow over the boundary in such a way that the particles
immediately in contact with the boundary have the same velocity as the boundary, while
successive layers of fluid parallel to the boundary move with increasing velocities. Shear stresses
opposing the relative motion of these layers are set up, their magnitude depending on the velocity
gradient from layer to layer.
 Coefficient of dynamic viscosity
The coefficient of dynamic viscosity μ can be defined as the shear force per unit area (or shear
stress τ) required to drag one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit distance
away from it in the fluid. Rearranging equation,
μ = τ/(du/dy)
Units: work it out
Dimensions: work it out

 Kinematic viscosity
The kinematic viscosity ν is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density:
ν = μ/ρ.
Units: square metres per second (m2 s−1). (But note that kinematic viscosity is often measured in
stokes (St); 104 St = 1 m2 s−1.)
Dimensions: L2T−1.

Bulk Modulus
In analogy with solids, the bulk modulus is the modulus of elasticity for a fluid. It is the ratio of
the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit volume, expressed as:
Change in Volume/ Original Volume = Chnage in pressure / Bulk Modulus

Problems - Properties
1. If 6 m3 of oil weighs 47 kN, find its specific weight, density, and relative density.
2. At a certain depth in the ocean, the pressure is 80 MPa. Assume that the specific
weight at the surface is 10 kN/m3 and the average bulk modulus is 2.340 GPa.
Find:
a) the change in specific volume between the surface and the large depth;
b) the specific volume at the depth, and;
c) the specific weight at the depth.
3. A 100 mm deep stream of water is flowing over a boundary. It is considered to have zero
velocity at the boundary and 1.5 m/s at the free surface. Assuming a linear velocity profile, what
is the shear stress in the water?

Lecture 2
 Hydrostatics
Introduction
Pressure
The general rules of statics apply to fluids at rest, but, from the definition of a fluid, there will be
no shearing forces acting and, therefore, all forces (such as F in Fig. 2.1(a)) exerted between the
fluid and a solid boundary must act at right angles to the boundary. If the boundary is curved
(Fig. 2.1(b)), it can be considered to be composed of a series of chords on each of which a force
F1, F2 , . . . , Fn acts perpendicular to the surface at the section concerned. Similarly, considering
any plane drawn through a body of fluid at rest (Fig. 2.1(c)), the force exerted by one portion of
the fluid on the other acts at right angles to this plane.

FIGURE 2.1 Forces in a fluid at rest

In fluids we use the term pressure to mean:

The perpendicular force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
A fluid will exert a force normal to a solid boundary or any plane drawn through the fluid. Since
problems may involve bodies of fluids of indefinite extent and, in many cases, the magnitude of
the force exerted on a small area of the boundary or plane may vary from place to place, it is
convenient to work in terms of the pressure p of the fluid, defined as the force exerted per unit
area. If the force exerted on each unit area of a boundary is the same, the pressure is said to be
uniform:

If, as is more commonly the case, the pressure changes from point to point, we consider the element of
force δF normal to a small area δA surrounding the point under consideration:
 In the limit, as δA→0 (but remains large enough to preserve the concept of the fluid as
continuum),

.
As we saw, force per unit area is measured in N/m2 which is the same as a pascal
(Pa). The units used in practice vary:
• 1 kPa = 1000 Pa = 1000 N/m2
• 1 MPa = 1000 kPa = 1 × 106 N/m2

• 1 bar = 105 Pa = 100 kPa = 0.1 MPa

• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars = 1013.25 millibars
For reference to pressures encountered on the street which are often imperial:
• 1 atm = 14.696 psi (i.e. pounds per square inch)
• 1 psi = 6894.7 Pa ≈ 6.89 kPa ≈ 0.007 MPa

PASCAL’S LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT

By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element in the form of a triangular prism
surrounding a point in the fluid (Fig. 2.2), a relationship can be established between the pressures
px in the x direction, py in the y direction and ps normal to any plane inclined at any angle θ to the
horizontal at this point.
If the fluid is at rest, px will act at right angles to the plane ABFE, py at right angles to CDEF and
ps at right angles to ABCD. Since the fluid is at rest, there will be no shearing forces on the faces
of the element and the element will not be accelerating. The sum of the forces in any direction
must, therefore, be zero.
Considering the x direction:

(since sinθ = δy/δ s). As py has no compound in the x direction, the element will be in equilibrium
if

Similarly, in the y direction,

(since cosθ = δx/δs).

As px has no component in the y direction, the element will be in equilibrium if

Since δx, δy and δz are all very small quantities, δxδyδz is negligible in comparison with the
other two terms, and the equation reduces to
py = ps.
Now ps is the pressure on a plane inclined at any angle θ; the x, y and z axes have not been
chosen with any particular orientation, and the element is so small that it can be considered to be
a point. This proof may be extended to the z axis. Equation (2.3), therefore, indicates that the
pressure at a point is the same in all directions. This is known as Pascal’s law and applies to a
fluid at rest.

VARIATION OF PRESSURE VERTICALLY IN A FLUID UNDER GRAVITY

Figure 2.3 shows an element of fluid consisting of a vertical column of constant cross-sectional
area A and totally surrounded by the same fluid of mass density ρ. Suppose that the pressure is p1
on the underside at level z1 and p2 on the top at level z2. Since the fluid is at rest the element must
be in equilibrium and the sum of all the vertical forces must be zero. The forces acting are:

Since the fluid is at rest, there can be no shear forces and, therefore, no vertical forces act on the
side of the element due to the surrounding fluid. Taking upward forces as
positive and equating the algebraic sum of the forces acting to zero,

Thus, in any fluid under gravitational attraction, pressure decreases with increase of height z.

Example:
A diver descends from the surface of the sea to a depth of 30 m. What would be the pressure
under which the diver would be working above that at the surface assuming that the density of
sea water is 1025 kg m−3 and remains constant?
Solution
taking sea level as datum, z1 = 0. Since z2 is lower then z1 the value of z2 is −30 m. Substituting
these values and putting ρ = 1025 kg m−3:
Increase of pressure = p2 − p1
= −1025 × 9.81(−30 − 0) = 301.7 × 103 N m−2.

EQUALITY OF PRESSURE AT THE SAME LEVEL IN A STATIC FLUID

If P and Q are two points at the same level in a fluid at rest, a horizontal prism of fluid of
constant cross-sectional area A will be in equilibrium. The forces acting on this element
horizontally are p1A at P and p2A at Q. Since the fluid is at rest, there will be no horizontal shear
stresses on the sides of the element. For static equilibrium the sum of the horizontal forces must
be zero:
p1A = p2A
p1 = p2.
Thus, the pressure at any two points at the same level in a body of fluid at rest will be the same. In
mathematical terms, if (x, y) is the horizontal plane.
 GENERAL EQUATION FOR THE VARIATION OF PRESSURE DUE TO GRAVITY
FROM POINT TO POINT IN A STATIC FLUID

Let p be the pressure acting on the end P of an element of fluid of constant cross-sectional area A
and p + δp be the pressure at the other end Q

The axis of the element is inclined at an angle θ to the vertical, the height of P above a horizontal
datum is z and that of Q is z + δz. The forces acting on the element are:

pA acting at right angles to the end face at P along the axis of the element,
( p + δp)A acting at Q along the axis in the opposite direction;
mg the weight of the element, due to gravity, acting vertically down
= Mass density × Volume × Gravitational acceleration
= ρ × Aδs × g.

There are also forces due to the surrounding fluid acting normal to the sides of the element, since
the fluid is at rest, and, therefore, perpendicular to its axis PQ. For equilibrium of the element
PQ, the resultant of these forces in any direction must be zero. Resolving along the axis PQ,
pA − ( p + δp)A − ρgAδs cos θ = 0, δp = −ρgδs cosθ
or, in differential form,
dp/ds= –ρg cosθ.

In the general three-dimensional case, s is a vector with components in the x, y and z directions.
Taking the (x, y) plane as horizontal, if the axis of the element is also horizontal, θ = 90° and
confirming the results of pressure at the same level, in a static fluid, pressure is constant
everywhere in a horizontal plane. It is for this reason that the free surface of a liquid is
horizontal.
If the axis of the element is in the vertical z direction, θ = 0° and

and, since ∂p_∂x = ∂p_∂y = 0, the partial derivative ∂p_∂z can be replaced by the total
differential dp_dz, giving

Thus, the conditions for equilibrium under gravity are:

1. The pressure at all points on a horizontal plane must be the same.
2. The density at all points on a horizontal plane must be the same.
3. The change of pressure with elevation is given by dp/dz = −ρg.

PRESSURE AND HEAD

In a fluid of constant density, dp/dz = −ρg can be integrated immediately to give

p = −ρgz + constant.
In a liquid, the pressure p at any depth z, measured downwards from the free surface
so that z = −h, will be
p = ρgh + constant
and, since the pressure at the free surface will normally be atmospheric pressure patm,
p = ρgh + patm.
It is often convenient to take atmospheric pressure as a datum. Pressures measured above
atmospheric pressure are known as gauge pressures.
Since atmospheric pressure varies with atmospheric conditions, a perfect vacuum is taken as the
absolute standard of pressure. Pressures measured above perfect vacuum are called absolute
pressures:
Absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure.

A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 350 kN m −2. Express this pressure in terms of a
head of (a) water (ρH2O = 1000 kg m−3), (b) mercury (relative density 13.6).
What would be the absolute pressure in the cylinder if the atmospheric pressure is 101.3kNm−2?

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

piezometer
The relationship between pressure and head is utilized for pressure measurement in the
manometer or liquid gauge. The simplest form is the pressure tube or piezometer shown in the
above figure, consisting of a single vertical tube, open at the top, inserted into a pipe or vessel
containing liquid under pressure which rises in the tube to a height depending on the pressure. If
the top of the tube is open to the atmosphere, the pressure measured is ‘gauge’ pressure:
Pressure at A = Pressure due to column of liquid of height h1,
pA = ρgh1.
Similarly,
Pressure at B = pB = ρgh2.
This instrument can only be used with liquids, and the height of the tube which can conveniently
be employed limits the maximum pressure that can be measured.
What is the maximum gauge pressure of water that can be measured by means of a piezometer
tube 2 m high? (Mass density of water ρH2O = 103 kg m−3.)

U-tube manometer

The U-tube gauge, can be used to measure the pressure of either liquids or gases. The bottom of
the U-tube is filled with a manometric liquid Q which is of greater density ρ man and is immiscible
with the fluid P, liquid or gas, of Lefthand limb and C is a point at the same level in the right-
hand limb,
Pressure pB at B = Pressure pC at C.
For the left-hand limb,
pB = Pressure pA at A + Pressure due to depth h1 of fluid P
= pA + ρgh1.
For the right-hand limb,
pC = Pressure pD at D + Pressure due to depth h2 of liquid Q.
But pD = Atmospheric pressure = Zero gauge pressure,
and so pC = 0 + ρmangh2.
Since pB = pC,
pA + ρgh1 = ρmangh2,
pA = ρmangh2 − ρgh1.
Example:
A U-tube manometer similar to that shown in Fig. 2.14 is used to measure the gauge pressure of
a fluid P of density ρ = 800 kg m−3. If the density of the liquid Q is 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, what will
be the gauge pressure at A if (a) h1 = 0.5 m and D is 0.9 m above BC, ( b) h1 = 0.1 m and D is 0.2
m below BC?
Solution
(a) In equation (2.18), ρman = 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, ρ = 0.8 × 103 kg m−3, h1 = 0.5 m,
h2 = 0.9 m; therefore:
pA = 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.9 − 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.5
= 116.15 × 103 N m−2.
(b) Putting h1 = 0.1 m and h2 = −0.2 m, since D is below BC:
pA = 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × (−0.2) − 0.8 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.1
= −27.45 × 103 N m−2,
the negative sign indicating that pA is below atmospheric pressure.

Measurement of pressure difference

A U-tube gauge is arranged to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipeline.
As in the previous case, the principle involved in calculating the pressure difference is that the
pressure at the same level CD in the two limbs must be the same, since the fluid in the bottom of
the U-tube is at rest. For the left-hand limb,
pC = pA + ρga.
For the right-hand limb
pD = pB + ρg(b − h) + ρmangh.
Since pC = pD,
pA + ρga = pB + ρg(b − h) + ρmangh,
Pressure difference = pA − pB = ρg(b − a) + hg(ρ− ρ).
A U-tube manometer is arranged, as shown in Fig. 2.15, to measure the pressure difference
between two points A and B in a pipeline conveying water of density ρ = ρH 2O = 103 kg m−3.
The density of the manometric liquid Q is 13.6 × 103 kg m −3, and point B is 0.3 m higher than
point A. Calculate the pressure difference when h = 0.7 m.
Solution
In equation (2.19), ρ = 103 kg m−3, ρman = 13.6 × 103 kg m−3, (b − a) = 0.3 m and
h = 0.7 m.
Pressure difference = pA − pB
= 103 × 9.81 × 0.3 + 0.7 × 9.81(13.6 − 1) × 103 N m−2
= 89.467 × 103 N m−2.

U-tube with one leg enlarged

In both the above cases, if the fluid P is a gas its density ρ can usually be treated as negligible
compared with ρman. In forming the connection from a manometer to a pipe or vessel in which a
fluid is flowing, care must be taken to ensure that the connection is perpendicular to the wall and
flush internally. Any burr or protrusion on the inside of the wall will disturb the flow and cause a
local change in pressure so that the manometer reading will not be correct. Industrially, the
simple U-tube manometer has the disadvantage that the movement of the liquid in both limbs
must be read. By making the diameter of one leg very large as compared with the other, it is
possible to make the movement in the large leg very small, so that it is only necessary to read the
movement of the liquid in the narrow leg. Assuming that the U-tube with one leg enlarged
manometer is used to measure the pressure difference p1 − p2 in a gas of negligible density and
that XX is the level of the liquid surface when the pressure difference is zero, then, when
pressure is applied, the level in the right-hand limb will rise a distance z vertically.