THE ROLE OF SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION AND

ITS RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON

CROP PRODUCTION; A CASE OF SAYINT WOREDA

DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE
OF BACHELOR OF geography and environmental studies

APPROVAL

This research proposal is submitted For examination with my approval as the university

supervisor.

1. MR. AMMON ORISHABA .R

Signature

Date

(Supervisor)

2. MR. OMUNA DANIEL

Signature

I wish to dedicate this research to my beloved parents Mr.Henry Andrew Mayaka & Mrs. Robina

N4oraa, My sister Dyna. and my Brothers Alex. Innocent and Valentine.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to God and all the people who assisted me towards

the successful completion of this research for their moral support. Special acknowledgement

goes to my loving parents Mr.Henry Andrew Mayaka & Mrs. Robina Moraa. My sister Dyna.

and my Brothers Alex, Innocent and Valentine, my sister-in-law Damacline and Linnet.

Mv sincere gratitude also goes to my supervisor. Mr. Omuna Daniel and Mr. Ammon orishaba R

LBR THEIR GUIDANCE DURING THE COURSE OF CONDUCTING THIS RESEARCH AND
REPORT WRITING. I SINCERELY
 THANK THEM FOR THEIR PATIENCE AND COMMITTED SUPERVISION AND FOR
THE EDITORIAL EXPERIENCE THAT

CONTRIBUTED HIGHLY TO THE SUCCESSFUL COMPLETION OF THIS WORK.

I WOULD LIKE TO THANK MY FRIENDS, MOST NOTABLY; ANDY, NORAH, ANN,

DANSTAN, SHEM, AGATHA,

VINCENT. DELVIN,MERCY,FAITH AND SHALOM FOR THEIR ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL

SUPPORT THEY OFFERED ME.

FINALLY MY THANKS GO TO THE ENTIRE K.L.U COMMUNITY; ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE CLASS 2009-2012,

TEACHING STAFF FOR THEIR ASSISTANCE DURING MY STUDIES NOT FORGETTING ALL
THE RESPONDENTS MOST

ESPECIALLY KISII COUNTY FARMESUCCESSFUL.

THANK YOU

May God bless you all

~
Dedication

Acknowledgement iv

Table of contents v

Acronyms

List of tables

List of plate ix

Abstract

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

.1 Background to the study

1,2 Statement of the problem 4

I .3 Objectives of the study 4

I .3.1 General objective 4

1 .3.2 Specific objectives 4

1 .4 Research questions 4

1.5 Scope of the study s

Geographical scope s

Content scope 5

~l~ime scope

1.6 Significance of the study 5

CHAPTER TWO 6

LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.0 Introduction 6

2.1 Impact of soil and water conservation on crop production 6

2.2 Challenges facing soil and water conservation 8

2.3 Strategies put in place against challenges of soil and water conservation 12

CHAPTER THREE .18

RESEARCI-1 METhODOLOGY 18

3.0 Introduction 18
3.1 Research design 18

3.2 Location of the study area and economic activities 18

3.3 Sample size 18

3.4 Sample selection 19

3.6 Research instruments 20

3.6.1 Questionnaires 20

3.6.2 Focus group discussion 20

3.6.3 Interviews guide / schedule 20

3.6.4 Observations 20

3.7 Data analysis 21

3.8 Ethical consideration 21

CHAPTER FOUR 22

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSION 22

4.0 Introduction 22

4.1 Characteristics of respondents 22

4.2 The impact of soil and water conservation on crop yield 25

4.3 Challenges of soil and water conservation 26

4.4 Measures ol’challenges ol’soil and water conservation in Kisii highland 27

CHAPTER FIVE 29

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 29

5.0 Introduction 29

5.1 Conclusion 29

5.2 Recommendations 30

5.3 Areas for Further ResREFERENCE 32

APPENDICES 34ACRONYMS

SWC Soil and water conservationLIST OF TABLES

Table: I Age of respondents 21

Table 5: Number of people in a house hold 21

Table 3: Educational background 22

Table 4
: Occupation of respondents 22viiiix

ABSTRACT

A study on the impact of soil and water conservation and its related environmental effect on crop

production ~~as carried out in Kisii highland. Kisii count>. With emphasis on determining the

impact of soil and water conservation on crop productivity, challenges of soil and ~sater

conservation and measures for promotion of soil and water conservation so as to improve soil

productivity.

Literature from various institutions, libraries and inherent sources, this provided relevant

information regarding this study, by collection of information from other parts of the ~sorld

hawing relevant case studies on the impact of soil and ~~ater conservation and its related

en’ ironmental effect on crop production and on the environment.

A general research design was used in carrying out the study. method of data collection included

questionnaires, interviews, photography and direct observations from different parts in Kisii

highland and data analysed quantitatively and qualitatively.

[he research findings revealed that. main impact of soil and water conservation is high crop

production. Reasons prompting people use soil and water conservation was to: encourage high

crop yield and food sustainability and this has been boosted by practicing mulching. cover

cropping. and other soil and ~~ater conservation techniques.

The research provided clear guidelines to communities living in Kisii on importance of of using

soil and ‘~ater conservation and the need to involve them in this practice. As public participation

in this stud) ~as highly encouragcd this will ease implementation process. This made them

understands ~~hy it’s necessary to keep few animals and concentrate in soil and water

conservation.

‘C
ABSTRACT

A study on the impact of soil and water conservation and its related environmental effect on crop

production was carried out in Kisii highland. Kisii county. With emphasis on determining the

impact of soil and ~ater conservation on crop productivity, challenges of soil and ~sater

conservation and measures for promotion of soil and ~sater conservation so as to improve soil

productivity.

Literature from various institutions, libraries and inherent sources, this provided relevant

information regarding this study, by collection of information from other parts of the ~sorld

ha’ ing rele~ ant case studies on the impact of soil and ~sater conservation and its related

environmental effect on crop production and on the environment.

A general research design ~~as used in carrying out the study. method of data collection included

questionnaires, interviews, photography and direct observations from different parts in Kis

highland and data analysed quantitatively and qualitatively.

The research findings revealed that. main impact of soil and water conservation is high crop

production. Reasons prompting people use soil and water conservation was to: encourage high

crop yield and food sustainability and this has been boosted by practicing mulching. cover

cropping. and other soil and tsater conservation techniques.

Thc research provided clear guidelines to communities living in Kisii on importance of of using

soil and water conservation and the need to involve them in this practice. As public participation

in this study ~~as highly encouraged this will ease implementation process. This made them

understands why it’s necessary to keep few animals and concentrate in soil and water

conservation.

x
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background to the study

According to Speth (1994 cited in Pimentel el aL, 1995), about 80% of the world’s agricultural

land suffers moderate to severe erosion, and 10% sufThrs slight to moderate erosion. Soil erosion

occurs at varying rates and with varying degrees of severity in different parts of the world, and

even in different locations within the same country. Rates are generally higher in Asia, Africa,

and South America, averaging 30 to 40 t/ha/yr, and lower in the United States and Europe,

averaging about 17 Vhs/yr (Barrow, 1991 cited in Pimentel et aL, 1995). Substantial differences

also exist within regions. For example, de Graaff (1993) showed that annual soil loss from

cropland in selected developing countries ranges from I — 800 t/ha/yr depending on the slope of

land under cultivation, the type of crop grown and other environmental factors. His estimates for

some African countries included in the study show soil loss due to erosion of 7 I/ha/yr for

Lesotho. 72 Vhs/yr for Kenya, 3—35 t)ha/yr for Burkina Faso. and 14-221 Vhs/yr for Nigeria,

depending on the location of the plot and the type of land use. Such estimates, though not

definitive, can give insight into the problem. They clearly indicate that the natural stock of soil,

which is the main productive asset of poor farmers in developing countries, is under threat o

rapid depletion due to soil erosion and requires considerable attention. In addition to its natural

capital asset depleting effect, soil erosion also induces immediate on-site and off-site effects.

Although 60 percent of the Sub-Saharan Africa population depends on rain-based rural (mostly

agricultural) economies, generating in the range of 3040 percent of the countries’ GDP,

agriculture is still the most important economic activity supporting over 67 percent of the

population. As the region’s population continue to grow rapidly (3% per annum), the carrying

bringing closer the land frontier (Kaliba, A.R.M. and T. Rabele, 2004). Extensification on the

marginal and quality-poor lands has reached upper limits and, when farmers do intensi& land

use to meet increasing food and fibre needs they do it without proper management practices and

with little or no external inputs. Resulting consequences are a lowering of soil organic matter in

already poor soil, a depletion of nutrients that have contributed to a stagnation or decline of crop
production in many African countries.

In some cases the rate of nutrient depletion is so high that even drastic measures such as

doubling the application of fertilizers or manure or halving erosion losses, would not be enough

to ofibet nutrient deficits (Kaliba. A.R.M. and T. Rabele. 2004).

Furthermore, agricultural productivity and food security in Sub-Saharan Africa are being

seriously threatened by the steady decline in soil fertility. Declining soil fertility jeopardizes the

sustainability of farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. especially in arid and semi-arid areas
that are ecologically fragile. Highly variable and declining rainfall patterns observed since the

1970s compound the ecological fragility of these regions which account for half of the cultivable

land in Sub-Saharan Africa. In a report compiled by (l3yiringiro, F. and T. Reardon. 1996) had

estimated only 12 percent of African soils to be ~moderately fertile. flell-drained soils”

compared to 33 percent in Asia. The extent of soil degradation problem had also been

highlighted by (Brady. NC.. 1990) that degraded.soils amount to about 494 Million hectares in

Africa. It is also estimated that 65percent of Sub-Saharan Africa’s agricultural land is degraded

because of water and soil erosion. chemical and physical degradation (Byiringiro, F. and T.

Reardon. 1996). Forms of degradation vary with the causative movement or over blowing (water

and ~~ind erosion). loss of nutrient and organic matter. salinization/ alkanization. acidification.

pollution (chemical deterioration). compacting/crusting. water logging and subsidence of organic

area (physical deterioration). There is also human-induced soil degradation through overgrazing.

deforestation and inappropriate agricultural activities. This also poses a serious threat to land

productivity. Response to declining land productivity has been abandonment of existing

degraded pasture and crop land and the move to new land for grazing and cultivation. Unless

there are investments in soil conservation, the process is ill repeat itself in a vicious cycle with

oscrgrazing and cultivation causing land degradation and then the search for ness pasture and

erupland( Brady. N.C.. 1990)

Considering the background problem enumerated above on soil and water management in Sub

Saharan Africa. proper soil conservation becomes imperative when considering issues regarding

soil fertility improvement in Sub-Saharan Africa. This becomes evident to the effect that the
Ii’ es of a greater percentage of the populace in the region are directly connected to agriculture

and agricultural based industries (Brady. N.C.. 1990). As pointed out by (Kaliba. A.R.M. and ‘F.

Rabele. 2004) however, whether soil and moisture (water) conservation technologies increase

crop yields may depend on the agro-ecology and technology in question. This is an indication

that agro-ecological conditions may be a particularly important determinant of the profitability of

soil and water management practices. In effect, there is the need for economic research which

will explicitly incorporate these and to an appreciable extent, some social and economic issues

that can impact on agricultural productivity as a result of the adoption of the soil and water

conservation practices in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Among the soil and water management options which have been practised by some farmers in

Africa are: mulching, water harvesting, trenches/terraces, irrigation and conservation ti I lage.

These practices constitute some options among a couple of the “soil conservation and other land

management options” that some of the farmers enlisted in the Sub-Saharan Africa Challenge

Programme (Sub-Saharan Africa CP) have adopted in some past intervention programmes.

As the population of many countries in the sub Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa region

continues to grow rapidly, the carrying capacity of its agricultural land is becoming lower,

bringing closer the land frontier. Consequently, agricultural productivity and food security in

Sub-Saharan Africa are being seriously threatened by the steady decline in soil fertility. The

need therefore to economically examine the adoption of soil and water conservation technology

(SWCT) options to improve agricultural production becomes imperative in order to evaluate th

impact of their uptake by the resource-poor African farmers, Using the counterfactual outcomes

framework to estimate the ‘~Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE)” of SWCT adoption on

households’ crop production value, results indicate that the adoption of SWCT increases the

value of total crop production by 17-24% per household. Furthermore, the impact could be

higher to 22-33% within the population of the farmers who are involved in the Sub-Saharan

Africa CP IAR4D’s intervention programme. The findings indicate that there is scope for

improving farmers’ income from crop production through increased use of the SWCT. This also

suggests that there is the need on the part of the stakeholders in the Integrated Agricultural
Research for Development’s (IAR4D’s) Innovation platforms to explore more avenues for

providing adequate incentives, particularly technical assistance to the farmers to use a lot more

of the SWCT options on t

heir farms (Bekele, W., Drake, L., 2003).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Land degradation is one of the major challenges in agricultural production in many parts of the

world, especially in developing nations like Ethiopia. Even though a number of soil and water

conservation methods were introduced to combat land degradation. adoption of these practices

remains below expectations. There are several challenges facing soil and water conservation in

that there is productivity lost on land used by soil and water conservation practice for example an

estimate of land is lost to conservation based on the field estimates (Altshul and Okoba, 1997)

shoe considerable variation between f~rmers. reflecting the flexibility of and dynamic nature of

soil and water conservation practice. This is the main reason why this research was conducted in

Kisii highland in order to find out the role of soil and water conservation and its environmental

impact on crop production

.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of this study was to determine the role of soil and water conservation and

its related environmental effect on crop production in Kisii highland.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The study specifically sought

i. To determine the impact of soil and water conservation on crop yield in Kisii highland.

ii. To determine the challenges of soil and water conservation in Kisii highland.

iii.To find out the measures for promotion of soil and water conservation in Kisii highland.

1.4 Research questions

i. What is the impact ofsoil and water conservation on crop yield in Kisii highland?

ii. What are the challenges of soil and water conservation in Kisii highland?

iii. What are the measures of promoting soil and water conservation in Kisii highland?

impact of their uptake by the resource-poor African farmers, Using the counterfactual outcomes

framework to estimate the ‘~Local Average Treatment Effect (LATE)” of SWCT adoption on

households’ crop production value, results indicate that the adoption of SWCT increases the

value of total crop production by 17-24% per household. Furthermore, the impact could be

higher to 22-33% within the population of the farmers who are involved in the Sub-Saharan

Africa CP IAR4D’s intervention programme. The findings indicate that there is scope for

improving farmers’ income from crop production through increased use of the SWCT. This also

suggests that there is the need on the part of the stakeholders in the Integrated Agricultural

Research for Development’s (IAR4D’s) Innovation platforms to explore more avenues for

providing adequate incentives, particularly technical assistance to the farmers to use a lot more

of the SWCT options on their farms (Bekele, W., Drake, L., 2003).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Land degradation is one of the major challenges in agricultural production in many parts of the

world, especially in developing nations like Ethiopia. Even though a number of soil and water

conservation methods were introduced to combat land degradation. adoption of these practices
remains below expectations. There are several challenges facing soil and water conservation in

that there is productivity lost on land used by soil and water conservation practice for example an

estimate of land is lost to conservation based on the field estimates (Altshul and Okoba, 1997)

shoe considerable variation between f~rmers. reflecting the flexibility of and dynamic nature of

soil and water conservation practice. This is the main reason why this research was conducted in

Kisii highland in order to find out the role of soil and water conservation and its environmental

impact on crop production.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of this study was to determine the role of soil and water conservation and

its related environmental effect on crop production in Kisii highland.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The study specifically sought

i. To determine the impact of soil and water conservation on crop yield in Kisii highland.

ii. To determine the challenges of soil and water conservation in Kisii highland.

iii.To find out the measures for promotion of soil and water conservation in Kisii highland.

1.4 Research questions

i. What is the impact ofsoil and water conservation on crop yield in Kisii highland?

ii. What are the challenges of soil and water conservation in Kelders ‘sill use the collected data to sensitize the
community members on the need to adopt

soil and i~ater conservation practices.

iii. The research will also enable future researchers to increase on the available literature for

further studies. The future researchers ‘~hile conducting their research “ill use the data

collected to add on their literature.

isii highland?
Chapter two

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

This chapter reviews literature as an account of the knowledge and ideas that have been

established by accredited scholars and experts in the field of study. It is guided by the objectives

ofthe study outlined in chapter one.

2.1 Impact of soil and water conservation on crop production

The continued use of new soil and water conservation technologies in developing countries has

attracted much attention from scientists and policy makers alike mainly because agriculture is an

important sector in those countries (Dc Graaffei aL, 2008). There arc several definitions for the

adoption of soil and water conservation activities. Rogers (1995) has defined the adoption

process as “the mental process an individual passes through, from first hearing about an

inno~ation to final adoption.” According to Dc Graaffet aL (2008), there are three phases in the

adoption process: the acccptance phase. the actual adoption phase and the continued use phase.

The acceptance phase generally includes the awareness, evaluation and the trial stages and

eventually leads to starting investing in certain measures. The actual adoption phase is the stage

whereby efforts or investments are made to implement SWC measures on more than trial basis.

The third phase of continued use or final adoption is the stage in which the existing SWC

measures are maintained over many years and new ones are replicated on other fields. Kessler

(2006) considers SWC totally adopted only when its implementation is sustained and fblly

integrat~d in the household farming system.

There are different factors related to the continued use of soil and water conservation measures.

These factors are mainly personal and social, economic, institutional, and biophysical factors. unless proper
consideration is given to these factors (Mc Donald and Brown. 2000).

Distinguished problems in the transfer and adoption processes. mainly the lack oftesting and the

limited responsibility of extension agents. as important reasons for the non continued use of soil

and water conservation technologies.

In a research concerning adoption, Tenge el a!. (2004) identifled household variables, farming

and economic variables and other external factors as the major determinants of adoption. In the

Ethiopian case, several household and economic factors that influence the decision to accept

SWC measures have been analyzed. Amsalu and de Graaff (2006) found in their study area, age.

Eirm size. and livestock numbers as the most important Eictors with significant influence.

Earmers’ decisions to conserve natural resoLirces generally and soil and water in particular are

largely determined by their knowledge of the problems and the perceived benefits of

conservation. In their research on the adoption of soil and water conservation practices, Amsalu

and de Graaff (2006) made a distinction between the initial adoption and the continued use of

conservation measures. A distinction was made between farm characteristics, including personal

attributes and socio-institutional factors and plot characteristics, including slope, soil fertility,

etc.

Generally. this conservation type of terrace is constructed for the following benefits, to improve

water availability due to water conservation leading to higher actual Evapotranspiration resulting

in increasing yields, less soil nutrient losses due to reduced soil erosion, and thus higher nutrient

availability resulting in increasing yields, increased lifetime of land for cultivation particularly in

the case of shallow areas.

r—

4 ~ — 4~

-—

4._

4-,-- ~. - -~

—-~~

4_~ ~~—~-—-

-~ ~— —~ ~-~--~ ;~. — ‘_4y_q,~_

—4—,— ~—-,, 4

— ~--—~ L~

— .—

* 4-____ ~,—.—

—F —, .-_ 4

Photo of soil and water conseri~’ation practice in Kisii watershed (Bradj~, N. C’., 1990. The

Nature and Properties ofsoils. Tenth editIon,).

There are different types of soil and water conservation technologies (terraces) employed in the

Kisii watershed of Kisii county. Kenya. Some are well recognized and have formed the basis o

much of the research on soil conservation whilst others are less well known and are adapted by

farmers to their local environmental conditions. Each conservation technology is suitable for

certain characteristics of land (slope, soil type. availability of stone). climate and farming system.

Among these, graded Fanyc Juts, graded bunds, and grass strips are the common ones.
2.2 Challenges facing soil and water conservation

There are several challenges facing soil and water conservation in that there is productivity lost

on land used by soil and water conservation practice for example an estimate of land is lost to

conservation based on the field estimates (Altshul and Okoba, 1997) shoe considerable variation

between farmers, reflecting the flexibility of and dynamic nature of soil and water conservation

practice. Based on this we have assumed a distance barrier of 15 meters, of being the closest that

the farmers are willing to accept where the width is over 0.5 meters. In practiced land lost is

likely to vary with the slope. According to (Altshul and Okoba, 1997) the land lost in terms of

productivity is of a bigger margin on that particular piece of farm land.

The family size of households plays an important role in the investment of soil and water

conservation practices. This can be seen in the positive and significant correlation (at 5% level of

significance) of the variable with the continued use of SWC structures. Among the IS

household’s heads who implemented, maintained and replicated the structures, JO household

heads have a family size of more than 7. The households with a large families are more involved

in the continued use of SWC measures. This implies that the presence of a sufficient work labour

is an important requirement for the continued application of SWC structures. Our results seem to

contradict with the findings of Amsalu (2006) who found out that, in the Beressa watershed in

the highlands of Ethiopia, farmers with a larger family size are less likely to continue using stone

terraces. Another study by Bekele and Drake (2003) also found different results from ours in the

eastern highlands of the country. They noted that in a family with a greater number of mouths to

feed, competition arises for labour between food generating off-farm activities, like daily labour.

in. estment and in maintenance of SWC.

8

The difference with our results is possibly causcd by some underlying difThrences between the

localities in which the research is conducted (such as availability of other off-firm sources of

income).

Economic factors can play important role in determining the continued use of SWC practices.

The main economic factors considered in this study are annual income from agriculture, off farm

income, expenditures on fertilizers, access to credit and farm size. Annual income is significantly

correlated to continued work on SWC as can be seen in the last column of table 8. The

significant and positive correlation with continued use of SWC shows that rich firmers are more

involved in the maintenance and replication of SWC than farmers that have a low income. The

study results clearly show that almost 100% ofthe farmers who obtain an annual income of more

than 5,500 Birr are strongly involved in the continued use of SWC work (Table 7). This is

similar to the findings of Kessler (2006), who found that a greater income from the land

encourages farmers to invest more in conservation measures.

Although the amount of income generated from off farm activities is not significantly correlated

with continued work of soil and water conservation, it appears that farmers who get more offfarm earnings
are less involved in the continued work. They may spend more time on cash

generation and on satis~ing immediate needs than on investing in soil and water conservation

activities. Similar results were found by Tenge el aL (2004): the involvement in off-farm

activities negatively influenced the continued use of soil and water conservation measures. This

is due to competition in labour between SWC and off- firm activities. Pali et al. (2002) tbund

different results in Uganda, where farmers with off-farm activities were better “continued users,”

implying that the off-farm income was used as a source of cash to invest in SWC.

There is no significant correlation between the education level and the continued use of soil and

water conservation. Although the correlation shows that comparatively better educated farmers

are not more involved than illiterate farmers, the conclusion is not statistically significant. Hence,

the effect of insufficient education is not the main hindrance to the involvement in the continued

use of SWC. Furthermore, it can be seen that education has a positive and significant correlation
~ ith the off-farm activities at 5% significance level.
9

This is because better educated farmers involved in other kind of off-farm activities and those

with a high level of education have more access to other sources of income. The same study

conducted by Gebremedehin and Swinton (2003) did not found level of education as an

important factor, possibly because ofthc generally low level of education among their farmers.

Another study carried out by Krishna et at (2008) found different results: education of the HF!

head was found to have a positive and significant influence on the continued use of improved

soil and water conservation technology. This indicated that the higher educated household head

~~as increased their ability to find information. Besides, longer education leads to a better

understanding of the new technology by assessing the different extension materials, which

increased the continued use of soil and water conservation technology.

Human and Livestock Population Pressure. In the eighteenth century Malthus. who had

pessimistic view on the increment of population pressure. had hypothesized that the exponential

growth of population is a threat for food production (Malthus, 1798 as cited in Boserup, 1965).

To the contrary. Boserup (1965) hypothesized that increasing population pressure will lead to

adjustments in production and hence the quality and productivity of the land improves as far as

appropriate development strategy is used. Findings imply that as pressure from people and

livestock exceeds some threshold, a rapid degradation of land take place (Grepperud, 1996).

When we see the effect of population growth, nowadays it has got both positive and negative

effects depending on the awareness and practice of the population under discussion. If the

population.is willing to live friendly with the environment it will have positive impacts and the

reverse holds true. For example in most developed countries, their population is living friendly

with the environment and the land mismanagement is minimal (Kahsay. 2004). The direct impact

of population growth is increased consumption of resources which would lead to increased

demand for food and fibre and necessitate more intensive use of agricultural land.

In the Kisii highlands population pressure has increased the conversion rate of land cover to

cropland and then soil degradation. Because of that, many areas are either abandoned or their

productivity has declined.

10

Contrary to this, studies have highlighted situations where population growth and agricultural

intensification have been accompanied by improved rather than deteriorating soil and water

resources (Tiffen et al., 1994). Machakos, Kenya experiences has shown that population is not a

culprit but it is an asset if the population lives in a friendly manner with the environment.

As a consequeextended mainly to steeper slopes, which have been cleared of the natural vegetation. This

process has led to steadily increasing destructive land use practices and irreversible soil

degradation (Krauner, 1988 as cited in Wagayehu, 2003). The highlands of Kisii support 88% of

the human population, 60% of the livestock, and 90% of the agriculturally suitable area of the

country (Constable, 1984). Soil degradation is particularly a problem in these densely populated

highlands of the country where settlement and agriculture have been going on quite for a long

time. As Gronvall (1995) found out on his population pressure and land degradation research, the

pressure from people and livestock exceeded some threshold and rapid degradation of land took

place especially in the highland of Kisii. Because of the exponential growth of the population the

land holding has been dwindling.

Off Site Effect of Soil Degradation. Apart from decline in on farm crop yield, soil degradation

has got off site effect which is imposed after the soil particles are removed from the site. These

effects can be positive or negative depending on the level of soil degradation and redistribution

of eroded material. Some of the off site effects are siltation of lakes and reservoirs, flooding,

gullying, productivity loss, debris fan expansion and social infi’astructure destruction,

As compared to the upper catchment, the lower catchrnent has got moderate soil erosion because

of the lower runoff velocity and low slope gradient (Thomas,1989). Such a long period of

agriculture could not have been sustained until today, if erosion rates at lower catchment would

not have been relatively low (Hurni, 1988). The soil, which is eroded from the upper catchment,

is redistributed in the lower slope as long as the slope is gentle. This slope process might be good

at the early stage of erosion since it transports fertile soil from the upland but after the fertile soil

is removed coarser materials and boulders will continue to move down and that will have a

11
hampering effect on the lo\\er catchment. Just after the re-distribution, secondary erosion in the

lhrm of gully and debris fan expansion will continue (Hurni. personal communication).

In addition, rapid siltation of lakes and water reservoirs is another dimension of the problem.

According to the reservoir sediment survey analysis made by Nigussie et a!. (2005) siltation of

dams have got different severity levels of sedimentation: 50 percent of the studied reservoirs had

an extreme siltation problem so they will lose their economic life v~ ithin half of the design

period, 20 percent of the reservoirs from half to the design period under present conditions and

30 percent of the reservoirs are expected to sustain the design period. The annual storage loss in

the studied reservoirs ranged from 0.1 8 to 4 percent with a mean of I percent of the total storage

capacity.

2.3 Strategies put in place against challenges of ~oil and water conservation

Some of the strategies put in place include making farmers to practice the following:

Mulch is a layer of dissimilar material placed between the soil surface and the atmosphere.

Different types of material such as residues from the previous crop, brought-in mulch including

grass.perennial shrubs, farmyard manure, compost, byproducts of agro-based industries, or

inorganic materials and synthetic products can be used for mulching (Lal 1990). Mulch’s impact

in reducing the splash effect of the rain, decreasing the velocity of runoff. and hence reducing the

amount of soil loss has been demonstrated in many field experiments conducted on several

Nigerian research stations (Orimoyegun 1988; Lal I976a, I993a; Kirchhof and Salako 2000:

measured soil loss of about 152.9 t ha-I from a plot with bare fallow and 0.2 t ha-I from a plot

with maize and mulch. Salako et al. (2006) compared the effect of burned residues with mulched

residues from Mzicuna pruriens and Pueraria phaseoloides. They recorded that soil loss from

plots with burned residues of Jvt pnlriens were significantly higher (6 and 2.8 t ha-I) than from

plots ~ iih mulched residues of 3~ pruriens and P. phuseoloides (1 .5 and I .3 t ha-I) in 1997. M.

pruriens was more effective in minimizing the detachment of soil from mounds due to its faster

establishment rate. but finally P. phaseoloides was more reliable for soil and water conservation

12
as it produces more mulch. Lal (1990. 2000) stated that a mulch rate o

Odunze 2002: Adekalu et a!. 2006; Salako et a!. 2006) (table I). For example, Lal (1993a

nce of Kisii’s continuous population increases, agricultural production has

Farmers seldom sustain the technical solutions offered by external interventions in the long ter

iii. What are the measures of promoting soil and water conservation in Kisii highland?

4 to 6 t ha-I is needed

for an effective erosion control, as 70% to 75% of the soil surfice should be covered by mulch.

This high amount of material might be available in the humid and semi-humid agro-ecological

zones but not in the semi-arid regions of Nigeria where climatic conditions restrict the

production of sufficient mulching material (Kayombo and Lal 1993). Other reasons that reduce

the amount of residues are bush fire (Okigbo 1977) or termites (Maurya I 988a). Another

possibility is to stop frequent burning (Okigbo 1977). to use dead weed and grasses from the

field and surrounding areas, and to leave a certain amount of crop residues on the farmland to

obtain a protective mulch la3er in this environment. There are various investigations on the

beneficial effects of mulch on the physical, chemical, and biological soil properties which

influence the soil’s erodibility. Ilulugalle et al. (1985, 1987) and Lal (2000) found that the bulk

density and penetration resistance of the soil are decreased by mulching. Ogban et al. (2001) and

C’hiroma et al. (2004) investigated on the influence residue mulch on the infiltration capacity and

hydraulic conductivity of soils. Ogban et al. (2001) stated that the infiltration was five times

higher and the transmissivity four times higher in plots with incorporated mulch compared with

the surface or no mulch application.

Soil loss can also be prevented or reduced by appropriate crop management, which includes

cover cropping, multiple cropping, and high density planting. Cover crops such as the legumes P.

phaseoloides. At pruriens. Cenirosemc, pubescens. Stylosanihes guianensis, and Phaseolus

aeon!!(folius or the grasses Pennisetum purpureum, Brachiaria ruzizknsis~ and Paspalum

no,aiun, are plants that grow rapidly and close (Lal I 995a). Their dense canopy prevents rain
drops from detaching soil particles and this keeps soil loss to tolerable limits, so cover crops play

an important role in soil conservation (Okigbo and Lal 1977; Lal 1978b, Lal et al. 1979:

Ahaneku 1985). Our measurements conducted in Ibadan in 2007 have shown that 3.3 t soil ha-I

were eroded from plots cultivated with sole maize and 1.8 t ha-I from plots with the cover crop

P phaseoloides (figure 3). The erosion was high on all plots at the beginning of the rainy season

due to the small canopy cover and the high rainfall intensity but differed significantly until the

cnd of this period as the coverage of the maize plots was much smaller (max. 40%) than of the

13
plots with P. phuseolcndes (max. 100%) (figure 4). Comparable results ‘sere published by

Kirchhof and Salako (2000) and Odunze (2002). Cover crops also positively influence physical

soil properties such as the infiltration rate, moisture content, and bulk density (Hulugalle ci al.

1986; Lal ci al. 1979). They increase the organic matter content, nitrogen (N) levels by the use of

N,-fixing legumes, the cation exchange capacity, and hence crop yields (Obiagwu 1995; lIe et at.

1996: Jbewiro et at. 2000; Salako and Tian 2003a). For example, Tian et al. (1999) estimated an

amount of 84 to 202 kg N ha-I fixed by P. phaseoloides within 18 months. This resulted in a

higher maize grain yield (2.5 t ha-I) than in the control without a legume (1.3 t ha-I). Another

benefit of cover crops is the suppression of weeds, such as speargrass (Imperala cylinth’ica) or

~itchweed (Sir/ga hennonthica) which are common in Nigeria (Wilson ci al. 1982; Chikoye et

al. 2002: Ekeleme et al. 2003). Farmers benefit from cultivating cover crops as soil loss is

reduced and physicochemical soil properties are improved. However, a problem can be the

intensive growth of several cover crop species that might result in competition with food crops

for gro~~th factors. Tian ci al. (1999) recorded no significant competitive effects from P.

phaseoloidey to maize but reduced yields of cassava. This problem can be combated by choosing

compatible crops and by controlling the cover crop by timely cutting.

Improved fallows of short periods with selected tree or herbaceous species remain important as

the long fallow periods that were part of the traditional shifting cultivation system for

encouraging soil regeneration are no longer possible in most Nigerian locations. For example.

iuo and Lal (1977) showed that fallows with Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) provide much

organic matter to the soil. Shrubs of woody plants such as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) are

advantageous in improving the physical soil conditions due to the penetration of their rootlets

into deeper soil layers (Juo et at. 1995; Owoeye 1997; Salako 1997: Chianu et al. 2002; Jaiyeoba

2003. Salako and Kirchhof2003) (table 3). Leguminous fallows with Leucaena leucocephala, At

pnirlens or P. phaseoloides are known especially for increasing the N content and changing the

quantity of available P fractions in the soil (Okeke and Omaliko 1992: Tian et at. 1999, 2001 a,

2001 b: Okpara and Njoku 2002; Salako and Tian 2003b; Ekeleme et al. 2004; Kolawole ci al.

2004). Wick ci al. (1998) state the benefits of improved fal lows on soil microbiological
parameters and Akobundu et al. (1999), Hauser et al. (2006), and Ikuenobe and Anoliefo (2003)

on weed control. Tarawali ci at. (1999) tested the impact of the forage legume S. hamata on

14
livestock productivity in the subhumid zone of Nigeria and showed that cattle grazing on £

hcimasu-based pastures in the dry season produced more milk, lost less weight, and had shorter

calving intervals. I lence. improved fallows have a high potential for soil conservation especially

in farming systems ‘~ithout fertilizer input.

Tillage enhances bacterial growth in the short-term by aerating the soil and by thoroughly mixing

the organic matter with bacteria and soil. The bacterial activity increases the loss of carbon as

C02. and triggers explosions of bacterial predators such as protozoa. A single tillage event is

generally inconsequential to microorganisms. but repeated tillage eventually reduces the amount

of soil organic matter that fuels the soil food web. The mechanical action of tillage can kill

individual organisms and Lends to temporary reduce populations of fungi. these populations may

decline because of lack of food (i.e surface residue), rather than because of the mechanical action

of tillage. (Greene. W.H.. 1997).

During long fallo~~ periods, most arthropods will emigrate or die of starvation. Mycorrhizal

fungi (fungi that need to form associations with plant roots and are critical to the growth of most

crops) also ~starve” during a fallow period and recover slowly after the fkllow periods ends.

Cover crops help maintain or build arthropod populations and diversity by reducing the length of

fallow periods at the beginning and end of growing seasons. Cover crops also affect the

biological habitat by changing temperature and moisture levels. (Gebremedhin. B 2003).

Crop rotation is a planned sequence of cropping. Rotation of crop is an important method for

checking erosion and maintaining productivity of soil. A good important method for checking

erosion and maintaining productivity of soil. A good rotation should include defensely planted

small grain crops. spreading legume crop etc. which may check soil erosion. (Greene. W.H..

1997).

Strip cropping: it consist of growing erosion permitting crop (e.g. grasses. pulses etc) strip

cropping employs several good farming practices including crop rotation, contour cultivation.

proper Lillage. stubbles mulching. cover cropping etc. it is very effective and practical means for

controlling soil erosion, specially for gently sloping land. It may be ofdifferent types as follo~ss:

15
Contour strip cropping: contour strip cropping is the growing or erosion permitting and erosion

resisting crops alternatively in strips across the slope and on the contour line. (Greene. W.H..

1997).

i’his practice is useful because it checks the fast flow or run-off water increases the infiltration of

~~ater in the soil and prevents soil erosion

Field strip cropping. strips of crop are parallel to the general slope of the land

Wind strip cropping: strips of crop are across the direction of wind regardless of contour.

Buffer strip cropping: in this. the severally eroded portion of land is permanently kept under

grass and contour strip cropping is practices in the rest of the area. There is a special type of

contour strip cropping in ~~hich care is taken to check soil erosion, (Greene. W.H.. 1997).

Afforestation means growing forests ~shere there is ere no forests before owing to lack of seed

trees or due to adverse factors such as unstable soil, aridity or swampiness. A long with

afforestation, reforestation, and reforestation should be undertaken which means replanting of

forests at places where they have been destroyed by uncontrolled forest fires, excessive felling

and lopping. Afforcstation is the best means to check the soil erosion. Organic manure: organic

manure improves the soil structure. The crumb and granular structure increases the infiltration

and permeability in the soil and conserve the soil water. Consequently soil erosion decreases. (T.

Rabele. 2004).

Contour bunding consists of building earthen embankment at intervals across the slope and along

the contour line of the field. A series of such bund divide the area into strips and act as barrier to

the flow of siater. As a result the amount and velocity of run-off are reduced resulting reducing

the soil erosion. (Contour bunding is made on land where the slope is not very steep and the soil

is fairly permeable. (Contour bunds are also called level terraces, absorption type terraces or

ridge type terraces. Contour bunding works are carried out over wide areas in many parts of

India. notably in (Andha Pradesh et al, 2004).

LIST OF PLATE

Plate 1: Soil and water conservation practice in Kisii watershed 8

‘lable 2: Sex of respondents 23

16
Terracing is an embankment of ridge of earth constructed across the slope to control run off and

to minimize soil erosion. A terrace reduces the lengths of the hill side slope, thereby reducing.

Sheet and nIl erosion and prevents formation gullies. (Gebremedhin. B 2003).

Kisii Research Station was established in March 1984 as the fifth SCRP research site. Situated in

the Gojam I lighlands in North-Central Kenya. the catchment lies at a favourable altitude and has

optimum climatic conditions. Consequently. it is intensively cultivateth there are practically no

fallow periods, and present soil and sediment loss rates are extremely high. Kenya’s %read

basket” — as the region is called — is threatened by loss of potential within very few years. The

population pressure is high in the area, and population density is already considerable. A new

soil conseriation technology and approach was introduced in Kisii , first in a small area outside

the catchment in 1985. then in the whole catchment from February to April 1986 (Soil Erosion

and (‘onsenation Database. 2000). In Kisii water%hed, the mechanical based type of terrace is

used as the soil and water conservation practices. It is a combination of an embankment and a

channel constructed across a slope at regular vertical intervals down the slope to reduce slope

length and gradient. It is designed for control of surface runoff due to high rainfall in the areas

and for conservation of water in the watershed. Generally. this conservation type of terrace is

constructed for the following benefits. to improve water availability due to water conservation

leading to higher actual Evapotranspiration resulting in increasing yields, less soil nutrient losses

due to reduced soil erosion. and thus higher nutrient availability resulting in increasing yields.

increased lifetime of land for cultivation particularly in the case of shallow areas. (Gebremedhin.

B 2003).

Il
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter discusses the research methodology adopted in this study. It consists of research

design. location of the study area. population samples and sampling procedures~ research

instruments, data collection and analysis procedures.

3.1 Research design

The study used a descriptive research design. This enhanced the researcher to obtain a better

understanding of the impact of soil and water conservation on crop production. Orodho, (2005)

notes that a descriptive survey is intended to produce statistical information about aspects of

education that interest policy makers and educators. the method chosen allowed a collection of

comprehensive intensive data and provided an in depth study on why teaching aids being

employed had not produced the desired results. According to Naitho (1995) descriptive survey

attempts to describe what was or what is a social system of schools. The design helped determine

the relationship between variables at the time ofthe study.

3.2 Location of the study area and economic activities

The study area is in Kisii highland, Kisii County Nyanza province, Kenya. It is one of the

locations in the county that has the highest number of soil and water conservation taking place.

The location is transverse by one tarmac road which runs from Nairobi to Kisii town to the south

east. The economic activities of the people in this location include maize framing and dairy

farming. majority are subsistence firmer. The choice of the location for the study was influenced

by the limitations of time and funds. Singleton (1993) observes that the ideal setting for any

study is one that is directly related to the researcher’s interest.

3.3 Sample size

The respondents in the study were randomly selected and categorized. They comprised both the

male and female sexes.

18

The study intends to use 100 respondents as the best representative sample to give information in
the attachment area comprising of core stakeholders who may have known the details of the

problem under investigation. They include 70 farmers including 30 men and 40 women which

comprised both the young and the old and 30 community members were randomly selected

totaling to 100 respondents.

3.4 Sample selection

According to Gay (1973) in descriptive research, 20 percent of the population may be required

for consideration of the study where the population is small. Therefore in order to get a more

representative sample four areas which is about 20 percent of the total number of 24 areas under

SWC was randomly selected for the study. Mwana (1982) points out that sampling subjects in

any study is advantageous. Taking total census is costly and offer difficult and some eases

impossible. According to Mouly (1970) if a sample data is to be used as a basis for

generalization to a population. It is essential that the sample be representative of the population.

In strict sense of the term a representative sample would be a miniature or replica of the

researchers in mind since they are easily accessible, this purpose sampling. The basic

assumptions behind purposive sampling is that with good judgment and appropriate strategy one

can hand pick the cases to be included in the sample that are satisfactory in relation to ones

needs. The research selected four areas namely, Jogoo, Nyamataro, Mosocho and Suneka for the

purpose for the purpose of the study using simple random sampling and purposive sampling.

Farm owners of the five areas were purposively selected to participate in the study. The use

purposively sampling technique by the researcher is because of its relative advantage of time.

money and manageability Nungu (1997). In the selection of teachers. age. gender and duration of

their experience was taken into consideration.

19

easy understanding of the interviewees and lastly, the language used was comfortable for the

interviewee.

3.6.4 Observations

This is commonly used specifically in studies relating to behavior science. In this study the

researcher observed the behavior of community members without being involved in their

activities. The main advantage for this is that subjective bias is eliminated if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this relates to what is currently happening;

it’s not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this

method is independent of respondents’ willing to respond and as such very less active

cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the

questionnaire method. This method will enable the researcher to get some information that

cannot be revealed by the respondents which they think is confidential or sometimes respondents

may not be articulate enough but the researcher can observe and understands what is going on

(Kakooza, 2009). The researcher observed that farmers in Kisii Highland are rapidly joining the

soil and water conservation practice because this was very evident from their farms as the

researcher went round the study area.

3.7 Data analysis

The data generated was both quantitative and qualitative. The quantitative data was tabulated and

analyzed using the descriptive statistics including frequency and percentage. Tables were used

extensively in respect to reports because they present research result more clearly and

economically than in the case with text presentation. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) say that in

order to save time and to increase the accuracy of results, a computer should be used. Therefore,

the data was subjected to statistical analysis using the computer programme of analyzing data.

3.8 Ethical consideration

The researcher assured the respondents of the confidentiality of the information they will give

out. This is to assure the respondents that the research was for academic purposes only and it

shall not be used for any other use.

21
CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSION

4.0 Introduction

In this chapter an attempt is made to present the findings and discussion.

4.1 Characteristics of respondents

4.1.1 Age of respondentsEducational background Frequency Percentage (%) ~

~ Primary I IS

Secondary 50 50

fniversity 20 20

Never attended school I 5 —— 1 5 -~respondents are literate. The education level helped the researcher to
determine how to conduct

the research. According to (~ebremedhin (2003). most of the farmer household heads in the area

are educated and thus have access to information about newly introduced soil and water conservation

practice.

4.1.4 Occupation of respondentslabourers in the implementation of soil and water conservation as a way of
boosting the yielding

potenti~il of the crop / land.

4.1.5 Number of people in a house hold

Table 5: N urn ber of people in a house ho

The above table shows that a big number of household s in Kisii Highland have 5—10 people with

46%. the followed b\ those ~ liii less than 5 people with 32% and lastly those households with

more than I I people ~ ith 22%. This is because there people of Kisii I lighland still believe in a

ha\ ing man~ children. This will determine whether bigger families have enough labour or they

would still opt for hiring other labourers to help in soil and \\ater conservation practices and to

some this affects the practice since it leads to land fragmentation and conflicts.

3.2 The impact of soil and water conservation on crop yield

Table 6: Response on the effect of soil and water conservation on crop pro(luction

Effects of soil and water Frequency Percentage

conservation on crop yield

High crop yield 77 77

~ Lo\\ crop yield 3 3

Reduced land area 3 13

N~o difference 7 7

lotal 100 100

Source: field data 2012

According to the table above 77% of the respondents believe or confirm that there is high crop

yield on farms that use soil and water conservation method, 3% say that the effect is low on crop

production. 13% of the respondents say that \vhen they use soil and water conservation methods

their land is reduced due to the activities involved in SWC and 7% see no difference in crop

production when ~ ou use normal farmland and when you apply soil and water conservation

pr~1ctce.

Soil and water conservation agriculture has been practiced for three decades and has been spread

~ idelv. There are many nomenclatures surrounding soil and water conservation and differ to

each other lightR soil and water conservation is a s~ stem approach to soil and water

conservation. high crop prodllct\’ity and protitabilit~ in one word. it is a system approach to

sustainable agriculture.

25

According to table 6 its in minimal cases where you t~nd farmers who have use soil and ~\ater

conservation practice have less crop yield.

4.3 Challenges of soil and water conservatiolL

Table 9: Response on how the farmers solve their labour shortage problem Percentage

~onse

Combined ellorts —

Shortage of extension stal f

Ignorance’ lack o
Total F a\\a~ss2

Poverty

According to the above table 35% oF farmers supplement their labour shortage b~ hiring labour.

20% oF the farmers solve their labour problems by combining efforts with other l~rmers. 18%

said that there is a shortage in extension workers. 12% oF the t~rmers said that it is ignorance or

lack ol awareness that is a big challenge to SWC and 15% opted tbr poverty as the main

challenge in soil and water conservation in the area.

Land to labor ratio measured as the ratio of the area operated to the number of family members

engaged in Farming is used as an indicator of the population pressure. Households ~vith lo~ er

land to labor ratio may ha\ e incentives to invest in soil conservation. On the other hand. the

potential loss oF land to soil conserving structures ma~ discourage use oF soil and \\ater

conserving Structures. For households \~ith more land per unit of labor, this potential loss of land

and the subsequent reduction in cropping area may be less of a constraint relative to those \\ith

little land. Hence households with higher land to labor ratio may be more likely to use soil and

~ ater conservation structures. The effect of land to labor ratio is. therefore. indeterminate a

priority. T. Rahele. (2004).

26
4.4 Measures of challenges of soil and water conservation in Kisil highland

Table 10: Strategy against challenges of soil and water conservation

afl(l water conservation

- -~- -.-

L se or mulching. cover crops. and 62 62

~ imprO\Cd Iallo\\s

~ Government lnltIatI\’e 2 2

~ Venturing into other business 7 7

~dricetillage 5 5

~ Minimize fallo\\ periods 10 10

Contour hunding 2 — 2

strip croppine 12 12

~lorL~ilIoi1 otal 100

Chart 3: A chart showing measures of challenges of soil anti water conservation

~1~O~H )JH~

Mm n~a

V~:~t~ ~ v~.) )fl~~

bu’~~ 1.~

‘-~ -P’

1 0-

Oseof

ji~olch~ng, cover

crops~ and improvod ~

faflows

56%

p
Govt iii~fl I

ii Ii ~ I i\i

27
According to table I 0 and the above chart. 62% of the farmers use other techniques such as

mulching. co’ er crops. and improved fallows as a measure to challenges of water and soil

conservation. 2% wait for government initiative to help the come against the challenges of soil

and ~~ater conservation, 7% of the respondents do venture into business, 5% use reduce tillage.

10% of them use Minimize fallow periods as a measure against problems of water and soil

consenation. 2% said they use contour bunding. 12% use Strip cropping and 10% use

alTorestation.

The high use of mulches. cover crops and improved fallows is inline with the stud) where it

pointed out that. mulch’s impact in reducing the splash effect of the rain, decreasing the velocity

of runoff. and hence reducing the amount of soil loss has been demonstrated in many field

experiments conducted on several Nigerian research stations (Orimoyegun 1988; Lal 1976). Also

co’s or crops also positively influence physical soil properties such as the infiltration rate.

moisture content. and bulk density (I lulugalle et al. 1986; Lal et al. 1979). They increase thc

organic matter content. nitrogen (N) levels by the use of N,-fixing legumes. the cation exchange

capacity. and hence crop yields (Obiagwu 1995: lIe et al. 1996)

Strip cropping and aforestation. are also one of the best way to go against the challenges of soil

and ‘s’sater conservation in that the) also increase the crop yield since it helps conserve soil and

~stiter in the land. s~hich requirements are ve~ important in the growth of plants and b) so doing

ma) lead to high yield especially in instances where these occur since conserved soil are likely to

fertile due to reduced erosion of the upper layer of the soil which supports normal growth of the

crops. This is so because afforestration (trees) help bind the soil particles together. reduced rate

of erosion and the falling leaves or organic matter improve the soil.

28
CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Introduction

This chapter shows the summary of major findings, conclusion and recommendations. The area

for further research is also indicated here.

5.1 Conclusion

Agricultural development in Kenya is hampered by land degradation: degradation in turn is

threatening the overall sustainability of agricultural production. Soil erosion is a major cause of

land degradation in Kenya. Based on the result of this study, personal factors socio-economic

factors and poverty have contributed greatly in the use of soil and water conservation methods as

discussed bellow, -

According to the findings most of the local residents of Kisii highland are practicing soil and

water conservation. The results there are getting from the practice is encouraging. there is an

increasc in crop production among those farmers who have decided to incorporate soil and water

conservation into their farms.

As discussed in the findings, sufficient labour is one of the major requirements for the

construction and maintenance of soil and water conservation practice. Hence female-headed and

small-family households are at disadvantage in employing SWC measures.

Another finding has been to the effect that other factors like socio-economic factors were

contributing to the use of SWC in general. One of these factors adversely affecting soil and water

conservation is poverty. Poverty may be due to low ways in which extreme poverty might be

expected to exert an influence on the use of soil and water conservation.

Investment in physical soil and water conserving technologies becomes more attractive as the

area of farm land is larger. i.e. farmers make more soil and water conservation investment in

holdings that are wider in area.

29

From the informal discussion, key informants said concerned organizations and government

bodies involved in soil conservation should shift emphasis to give greater attention in conserving
soils before the land lost all the fertile soi Is rather than targeting land that has been already

exhausted and degraded.

As the results indicated, SWC structures are more likely to be implemented and maintained on

lo\\ fertility and steep sloping farmland by giving the priority for it rather than fertile lands.

because labor and other resources are scarce.

5.2 Recommendations

The government must therefore continue to invest heavily in providing logistical support in order

to provide farmers with the much needed funds and training on how to conserve soil and water

to all Kenyans irrespective of their region of origin, income status, gender, religion and nay other

disparities. It must invest in people by expanding access to funds, the neediest and providing

l’ertil izer and other farm requirements for the working poor, those unable to work and special

vulnerable and targeting marginalized groups. This would help improve the standards of food

generation among the farmers and the country thus bettering means of livelihood and standards

of living.

To solve the farmers’ problem, the Agricultural Office of Kisii highland could encourage farmer

collaborations which enable all farmers to get the labor required to maintain and replicate their

SWC structures. Farmer collaboration can serve as insurance for households without sufficient

labor.

Underlying all planning efforts towards soil and water conservation obvious that such programs

must meet locally perceived priorities rather than externally imposed perceptions this means that

adequate background data on local needs. preference and other relevant factors must be

considered before any detailed rangeland management plan is undertaken in this region.

Important decision is to involve individuals in question v~here solutions ~\ould provide a fbr\~ard

way, this is a means of risk aversion in project implementation.

5.3 Areas for Further Research

The researcher recommends that further research should be done on the topic” Land reclamation

and its effect on crop production’S.

31
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Tekelu, E., and Gezeahegn, A. 2003 .Indigenous knowledge and practices for soil and water

manage~ent in East Wolega Ethiopia. Conference on International agricultural Research and

development. GOttingen. October 8-10. 2003.

USA.

Wegayehu, B. 2003. Economics of Soil and Water Conservation:.

33
APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE

Preamble

My name is Mayaka Kwamboka Elvine. a student of Kampala International University. I am

collecting data in relation to the impact of soil and water conservation and its related

environmental effects on crop production in Kisii County. Your co-operation and frankness in

answering the questions given below will be highly appreciated. All your responses and

information obtained will be treated ~sith utmost confidentiality and will be used for analytical

purposes onI>.

PART ONE: CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS

TICK WHERE APPROPRIATE a

l)Sex:

Male ( )

Female ( )

2) Marital status

Married ( )

Single ( )

3) Educational level

a. Primary level ( )

b. Secondary level ( )

c. University level ( )

d.N/A ( )

4. Age

<26 ( )

34

27-35 (

36> ( )

5. Number of people in your household

<5

6-10

II> (

PART TWO: Impacts of soil and water conservation on crop production

Landholding and Farm characteristics

No Types of land use Area in hectare (ha)

1. Cultivated land

2. Fallow land

3. Grazing land

4. I lome stead area

5. Forest (bush)

6. Others

6. Plot Fertility:

i. high

ii. mediuni

iii. low

7. Physical Improved soil and water conservation structures built in meter or

i. Soil terrace

ii. Cut oFf drain

iii. Fanvajuu

iv. Planting ofd/t trees in N~ ~

v. Others, specify

8. How do you compare the problem of soil erosion in your farm plots after conservation

structures were built?

i. aggravated

ii. reduced

iii. no change

iv. I do not know

v.NA
9. Do you have labor shortage for your farm activities?

Yes

No

If the answer to question 8 is yes, how do you solve labor shortage?

i. Hiring labor

ii. By cooperating with other farmers (Koga) ~

iii. Others, specify________________

10. If labor is hired, what type of labor do you hire?

i. Casual

ii. permanent

iii. both4)NA ~

11. Which family members participate in soil and water conservation works?

i. Men

ii. women

iii. Children

iv. all of them participate

~

36

PART THREE: Challenges soil and water conservation on crop production

13. Briefly explain the relationship between soil and water conservation and crop yield!

product ion?

14. What challenges do you encounter when practicing soil and water conservation?

PART FOUR: Measures to challenges of soil and water conservation

15. Which solutions do you give to the challenges you meet when practicing soil and water

conservation?

Thank you for your cooperation

003: Farm productivity in Rwanda: effects of farm size, erosion

lable 4: Occupation of res1)ofldefltS

Occupation F Frequenc~ ~cent~j~~

~arm~g 62

L.n\ironmental officers

~~,j100

Son rce: Field data 2011

According to the responses given above 62% of the respondents were l~rmers. 5% environmental

ollicer. 15% teachers and I 2% business men. The reason why farmers have a higher percentage

is because most of Kisii Highland resident have land which is very fertile. The survey showed

that 62% of the farmers are involved in various forms of off-farm activities. The major off-I~rm

activity was teaching and engaging business which could be the source of money used to pa~

Total 100 100

Source: Field data 2011

In the selected respondents 15% were of primary level and 50% of them went to secondary

schools. 20% of the respondent went to the university and 15% never attended school at all. This

is an indication that education has got its roots in Kisii Highland and that is why most of the

Table: I Age of respondents

Age Frequency Percentage (%)

26 yrs and below 5 5

27-3syrs 55 55

36 and above 30 30

Total 100 100

Source: Field data 2011

Then 15% of the respondents were between the age of 26 years and below while 55% were

between the age of 27-35 years and 30% of the respondents were of the age bracket of 36 years
and above. This shows that very many people within Kisii Highland that engage in farming are

between 27 and 35 years old. The main aim why the age brackets of 27-35years are very active

in soil and water conservation is because they are energetic hence people live longer and the

reason why they practice soil and water conservation unlike my study, the study by T. Rubele

(2004) noted that the proportion of elderly farmers is 55%, an age group in which labor shortage can

be a hindrance to practicing soil and water conservation. However, these farmers usually

implemented and accepted soil and water conservation practices because of having access to money

for rented oxen as well as hired labor.

22

HH Household

IAR4D ‘s Integrated Agricultural Research for Development’s

SCRP Soil Conservation Research program

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE 3

earch 3lable 2: Sex of respondents

Sex Frequency Percentage (%)

Female

Male 50

No response 5 5

Iota! 100 100

- -~ _____ ______ ____ __________________

Son rce: held data 2011

According to the above table 45% respondents were female, while 50% of the respondents ~~ere

male and 5% of the respondents did not indicate whether they were male or female and others

the responses were not clear. This proves that both male and female were given equal

opportunities to participate in the research. It was very essential to determine which gender is

mostl~ invol\ ccl in farming in relation to soil and water conservation needs and its clear from
(table 2) that male participate in farming because they own land and take part in cultivation of

land hence their role in soil and water conservation since they are gifted ~ ith energy.

4.1.3 Educational background

Table 3: Educational background

Educational background Frequency Percentage (%) ~

~ Primary I IS

Secondary 50 50

fniversity 20 20

Never attended school I 5 —— 1 5 -~

Total 100 100

Source: Field data 2011

In the selected respondents 15% were of primary level and 50% of them went to secondary

schools. 20% of the respondent went to the university and 15% never attended school at all. This

is an indication that education has got its roots in Kisii Highland and that is why most of the

23

respondents are literate. The education level helped the researcher to determine how to conduct

the research. According to (~ebremedhin (2003). most of the farmer household heads in the area

are educated and thus have access to information about newly introduced soil and water conservation

practice.

4.1.4 Occupation of respondents

lable 4: Occupation of res1)ofldefltS

Occupation F Frequenc~ ~cent~j~~

~arm~g 62

L.n\ironmental officers

~~,j100

Son rce: Field data 2011

According to the responses given above 62% of the respondents were l~rmers. 5% environmental

ollicer. 15% teachers and I 2% business men. The reason why farmers have a higher percentage

is because most of Kisii Highland resident have land which is very fertile. The survey showed
that 62% of the farmers are involved in various forms of off-farm activities. The major off-I~rm

activity was teaching and engaging business which could be the source of money used to pa~

labourers in the implementation of soil and water conservation as a way of boosting the yielding

potenti~il of the crop / land.

4.1.5 Number of people in a house hold

Table 5: N urn ber of people in a house hold

~

rs and residents for their cooperation that made this work

( Co – Supervisor