RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The human eye is provided with the sensitivity to detect the electromagnetic waves with in a small
range of the electromagnetic spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation belonging to this region of the
spectrum (wavelength of about 400 nm – 750 nm) is called as light.

The straight line along which light travels is called a ray. It is indicated by a straight line with an arrow.
A bundle of rays is called a beam of light.

Reflection of light

Reflection of light is a phenomenon in which a light ray traveling from one medium to another and
incident on a surface separating the two media, returns back to the same medium.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY A PLANE MIRROR

LAWS OF REFLECTION:
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal drawn to the surface at the point of
incidence lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS

A spherical mirror is a part of a hollow sphere whose one side is reflecting and the other side is
opaque.
Two types of spherical mirrors:
1. Concave mirror: whose reflecting surface is towards the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror is a part.
2. Convex mirror: whose reflecting surface is away from the centre of the sphere of which the
mirror is a part.
Pole(P): The middle point or centre of spherical mirror is called the pole or vertex of the mirror.
Centre of curvature: of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a
part.
Radius of curvature: The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere of
which the mirror forms a part.
Principal axis: The straight line joining the pol (P) and centre of curvature (C) of a spherical mirror is
called the principal axis of the mirror.
APERTURE: of a spherical mirror is the area of the spherical mirror available for reflection.
Principal focus (F) of a spherical mirror is a point on the principal axis of the mirror at
which a narrow beam of light incident parallel to the principal axis actually meets or
appears to diverge, after reflection from the mirror.
Focal length: The distance of the principal focus (F) from the pole (P) of the spherical mirror
is called focal length (f) of the spherical mirror. PF=f
Focal plane: A plane passing through the principal focus and perpendicular to the principal axis is
called focal plane of the mirror.

RELATION BETWEEN FOCAL LENGTH AND RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF A SPHERICAL MIRROR

let p be the pole, C be the centre of curvature and F be the principal focus of concave mirror and
convex mirror respectively.

Let a ray of light MN be incident on the mirror in a direction parallel to the principal axis of mirror
which gets reflected along NF. Join CN.

Let  be the angle of incidence and ND be perpendicular drawn from N on the principal axis then,
MNC = NCP =  and MNF = NFP = 2 
𝐶𝐷
 In triangle NCD, tan = → (1) and
𝑁𝐷
𝐹𝐷
In triangle NFD , tan 2 = 𝑁𝐷→ (2)

Since paraxial rays are considered,  is very small such that

tan  = , tan 2 = 2  and D is very close P

 CD = CP , FD = FP and ND = NP
𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝑃
Thus (1) becomes  = 𝑁𝑃➔ (3) & 2  = 𝑁𝑃➔ (4)

Using (3) in (4) for  we get

𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
2 𝐶𝑃
= 𝐹𝑃

 2 FP = CP

Since FP = -f and CP = -R

we get R = 2f
THE MIRROR EQUATION:

The relation between the object distance (u), image distance (v) and the focal length (f ).

Two paraxial rays AM and AP are incident on a concave mirror from the object. A real image
AB is formed as shown in the diagram.
 ABF and MPF are similar triangles. (since the rays are paraxial and ‘M’ is close to ‘P’. MP
may be approximated to be a straight line)
AB 𝐵𝐹
=
𝑀𝑃 𝐹𝑃
But MP=AB
AB 𝐵𝐹
= (1)
𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝑃

ABP and ABP are also similar triangles.

𝑨′𝑩′ 𝑩′𝑷
 = (2)
𝑨𝑩 𝑩𝑷

Comparing (1) and (2)

𝐵𝐹 𝐵′𝑃
=
𝐹𝑃 𝐵𝑃

Also,
𝐵𝐹 𝐵′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃
=
𝐹𝑃 𝐵𝑃

𝐵′ 𝑃−𝐹𝑃 𝐵′𝑃
=
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
𝐵 𝑃= -v , FP= -f, BP= -u
′

−𝑣+𝑓 −𝑣
=
−𝑓 −𝑢

𝑣 𝑣
–1=
𝑓 𝑢

1 1 1
- =
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
Linear magnification (m)
It is the ratio of height of the image (h’) to the height of the object (h).
ℎ′
m= ℎ
ABP and ABP are similar triangles
𝑨′𝑩′ 𝑩′𝑷
𝑨𝑩
= 𝑩𝑷

A’B’= -h’ , AB = h , B’P=-v, BP=B-u

−ℎ′ −𝑣
 = −𝑢
ℎ
ℎ′ −𝑣
m= =
ℎ 𝑢

CARTESIAN SIGN CONVENTION

• All the distances are measured from the optic centre of the lens (or pole of the mirror) along
the principal axis.
• Measurements made along the direction of incident light is positive; measurements against
the direction of incident light is negative.
• Heights measured upwards and normal to the principal axis is positive; heights measured
downwards and normal to the principal axis is negative.

REFRACTION:
• When a ray of light travel obliquely from one optical medium to another optical medium,
there is a change in the direction of a ray of light at the interface separating these two
media. This phenomenon of light is called as REFRACTION OF LIGHT.

LAWS OF REFRACTION
• I Law: The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal drawn to the surface at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
• II Law: (Snell’s law) : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction
is a constant for a given pair of media and for a given wavelength (colour) of light.
If 𝑖̂ is the angle of incidence and 𝑟̂ is the angle of refraction,
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐢
then according to snells’ law: = constant= n21
𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝐫
where n21 is the refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1.

limitation of snell’s law:

For normal incidence, i.e., when a ray of light is incident along the normal (i = 0) then from Snell’s
law. Ie, i= r = 0. Then Snell’s law of refraction cannot be applied.
 Case 1 Case 2
When a ray of light travel from a optically RARER When a ray of light travel from a optically DENSER
medium (medium 1) to a optically DENSER medium (medium 1) to a optically RARER medium
medium (medium 2), it is found that (i) (medium 2), it is found that
(i) the ray of light BENDS TOWARDS THE NORMAL (i) the ray of light BENDS AWAY FROM NORMAL
(ii)the angle of incidence (i) is greater than the (ii) the angle of refraction (r) is greater than angle
angle of refraction ( r) (i.e., i > r) of incidence (i) (i.e r > i)
Speed of light decreases when light travel from Speed of light increases when light travel from
rarer to denser medium. denser to rarer medium.
(iii)the angle of deviation (d) is given by d = i – r
which is as shown below in figure (iii) the angle of deviation given by d = r – i which is
as shown below in figure.

➢ The refractive index of any medium with respect to another medium which is not vacuum is
called relative refractive index.
➢ The refractive index of a medium with respect to vacuum is called absolute refractive index.

RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX AND ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX IN TERMS OF VELOCITIES

ABSOLUTE REFRACTIVE INDEX:
Absolute refractive index of a medium is the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of
light in the medium.
𝐜
n=
𝐯

RELATIVE REFRACTIVE INDEX

When a ray of light travels from medium 1 to medium 2, then, the relative refractive index of
medium 2 with respect to medium 1 can be defined in terms of velocity of light as the ratio of
velocity of light in medium 1 to the velocity of light in medium 2.
c
n2 v2
n21 = = c
n1
v1
𝑣1
n21 =
𝑣2

Note:
1. Refractive index has no unit and no dimension.
2.Absolute refractive index of any medium is always greater than 1.
1
3. n12 =
n21
CONSEQUENCES DUE TO REFRACTION

LATERAL SHIFT:

When a light ray is incident on a parallel sided glass slab, it undergoes refraction and emerges out of
the slab parallel to the incident rays, with a shift with respect to the incident ray. This is called lateral
shift.

NORMAL SHIFT:

The normal shift is defined as the apparent shift in the position of an object along the normal placed
in one medium, when it is viewed normally from another medium.
𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐥 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡
n=
𝐚𝐩𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐭𝐡

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon of reflection in which a ray of light traveling from a
denser medium to a rarer medium is incident on the surface of the media at an angle greater than
critical angle, the ray of light gets totally reflected back to the same (denser) medium.
Condition for total internal reflection
1. The ray of light must travel from an optically denser medium to an optically rarer medium
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the critical angle for a given
pair of media and for a given wavelength (colour) of light.

Critical angle for a given pair of media and for a given wavelength (colour) of light is defined as “the
angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium becomes
900 (or) refracted ray grazes the surface separating the two media”

Relation between critical angle and refractive index

Consider the refraction of light from a denser medium to of refractive index n1 into a rarer medium
of refractive index n2. Let C be the critical angle for the given pair of media and for the given colour
of the light. If the ray is incident at an angle C then the angle of refraction is 900 . From the law of
refraction, n1 sin i1= n2 sin i2

n1 sin C= n2 sin900

n1 sin C= n2  1
𝒏𝟐
sin C =
𝒏𝟏
𝒏𝟐
C= sin-1
𝒏𝟏

If the rarer medium is air or vacuum and the denser medium has a refractive index n, then n2=1 and
n1 = n
1
C= sin-1
𝑛

Thus higher the refractive index of the medium, the smaller is its critical angle.

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

➢ Total reflecting prism.
➢ Optical fiber.

Total reflection prism:

The R.I of glass is 1.5. Therefore, the critical angle for glass-air interface is found to be C  420. Thus,
whenever a ray of light is incident on any face of the glass (glass air interface) at an angle greater
than critical angle of glass. it undergoes total internal reflection.
Total reflection prism is an isosceles right angled glass prisms having angles 45 o – 90o – 45o. These
prisms are used to bend a ray of light through 900 (or) 1800 and to invert an image.
 c)

Optical fiber:
Optical fibre is a thin transparent fibre of glass or quartz which can transmit light along any desired
path. It works on the principle of total internal reflection. Optical fibre consists of thin transparent
fibre made of glass (or) quartz known as core of the fibre. The core is surrounded by a layer of
another transparent material called cladding. The refractive index of the material of the core is
higher than that of the cladding. The core and cladding are further housed in an outer protective
cover.

When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes
repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other
end. Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the
intensity of the light signal.
Advantage of optical fibres over copper cable in communication are:
➢ In optical fibres, a large number of signals of slightly differing wavelengths can be sent along
the same fibre. The number of signals carried by optical fibres is much more than that
carried by copper cables.
➢ Optical fibre is very thin compared to electrical cable. It is light weight.
➢ Since fibre is made of non-conductive material, It is safe to use near high-voltage
equipment.
➢ It is very difficult to tap an optical fibre cable to read data signals.

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES

Spherical surface is a portion of a solid sphere. Spherical refracting surfaces are of two types.

a) Convex spherical surface b) Concave spherical surface.

REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
RELATION BETWEEN n, u, v and R
(For a convex spherical refracting surface and object placed in the rarer medium)
The following assumption are made in deriving a relation for refraction at a spherical surface.
i) The aperture of the spherical refracting surface is considered to be small
ii) Only paraxial rays are considered (paraxial rays are the rays close to the principal axis)

Let O be the luminous point object placed on the principal axis in a medium of refractive index n1
(object space). A ray of light from O along the principal axis proceeds undeviated along the principal
axis. Another paraxial ray incident along OA gets refracted and the two refracted rays meets at I.
Hence, I is the real image of the object O. Let i be the angle of incidence and r be the angle of
refraction.

According to Snell’s law, n1 sin i = n2 sin r

For paraxial ray, the angles are small, n1 i = n2 r →equ 1
In AOC, i =  + 
Exterior angle= sum of interior opposite angles.
In IAC, = r + 
r=-

Substitute i and r in equ 1,

n1( + )= n2 ( - )
AP
tan    PO
AP
tan     PC
AP
tan     PI

𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃 𝐴𝑃
n1( + )= n2 ( - )
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2
+ = -
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛1
+ = -
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
+ =
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶

Using cartesian sign conventions, we get

PO = -u, PI = v, PC = R
n1 n2 n2 −n1
− + =
u v R

n2 n1 n2 −n1
- =
v u R

This equation gives the relation between object distance and image distance in terms of refractive
index of the medium and the radius of curvature of the curved spherical surface.

LENS:

A lens is an optical medium bounded by two surfaces of which at least one is spherical or
cylindrical.

A convex lens is thicker at the middle than at the edges while a concave lens is thicker at the edges
than at the middle

A lens which converges a parallel beam of light passing through it is called converging lens. A convex
lens of glass surrounded by a rarer medium such as air or water will be a converging lens.

A lens which diverges a parallel beam of light passing through it is called diverging lens. A concave
lens of glass surrounded by a rarer medium such as air or water will be a diverging lens.

➢ Principal axis: The straight line passing through the centres of curvature of the two
spherical surfaces of the lens.
➢ Optic centre of a lens is a point on the principal axis inside the lens such that all rays
passing through this point will have the emergent ray parallel to the corresponding
incident ray.

➢ A thin lens is one whose thickness is negligible compared to the radii of curvature of its
surfaces. In such a lens a ray directed towards the optic centre passes undeviated with
negligible displacement.

O’
 ➢ Principal focus: A narrow parallel beam of light incident on a lens parallel to the principal
axis and close to it, after refraction converges to a fixed point on the principal axis in the
case of a converging lens or appears to diverge from a fixed point on the principal axis in the
case of a diverging lens. This fixed point is called principal focus of the lens.

➢ The focal length of a lens is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus
of the lens.
➢ Conjugate foci: For a lens there are pair of points on the principal axis of the lens such that
an object at one of the points produces an image at the other point. Such pair of points are
called conjugate foci.

LENS MAKERS’ FORMULA

Consider a thin convex lens of refractive index n2 surrounded by a medium of refractive index n1 such
that n2> n1 . Let R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of two surface ABC and ADC respectively. Let O’
be the optic centre of the lens as shown below.

Let O be the luminous point object placed on the principal axis at a distance of ‘u’ from the optic
centre. A ray of light OB incident along the principal axis proceeds undeviated. Another paraxial ray
OP incident at P after refraction through the lens emerges along QI. Hence, I is the real image of the
object O due to refraction by lens.

The formation of image due to refraction by lens can be considered in two steps.

i) Refraction at the surface ABC

In the absence of ADC, the refracted ray PQ travels undeviated and meets the principal axis at I1. I1
is the real image of the object O formed in a medium of refractive index n2.
We have the relation for refraction through a spherical surface to be
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
For refraction through the surface ABC,
u =BO V =BI1 R = BC1
on applying sign convention,
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
− =
𝐵𝐼1 (−𝐵𝑂) 𝐵𝐶1

𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
+ = -------(1)
𝐵𝐼1 𝐵𝑂 𝐵𝐶1

ii) Refraction at the surface ADC,

For surface ADC, I1 will act as virtual object forming a real image I in medium 1.
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
For refraction through surface ADC,
u =DI1 v = DI= v R = DC2
on applying sign convention,
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 −𝑛2
DI
− =
(−DC2)
𝐃𝐈𝟏

𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1
DI
− =
DC2
---------(2)
𝐃𝐈𝟏

Add equ 1 and equ 2,

𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 −𝑛1 𝑛2 −𝑛1
BI1
+
𝑂𝐵
+
DI
− = 𝐵𝐶1
+
DC2
(for thin lens, B and D are closer, BI1DI1)
DI1

𝒏𝟏 𝑛1 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 𝑛2 −𝑛1
𝑶𝑩
+
DI
= 𝑩𝑪𝟏
+
DC2

1 1 𝑛2 −𝑛1 1 1
+ = +
𝑩𝑶 DI 𝑛1 𝑩𝑪𝟏 DC2

Applying sign convention, BO = - u , DI = v , BC1 = R1 , DC2 = -R2

𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = −
−𝒖 𝐯 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝐑𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- = − ----------(3)
𝐯 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝐑𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐯
-
𝒖
= (𝐧𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝑹𝟏
−
𝐑𝟐
When u= , v=f
𝟏 𝒏𝟐 −𝒏𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝐟 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝐑𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟
= (𝐧𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝑹𝟏
−
𝐑𝟐
---------------(4)
Equation 4 is called lens makers’ formula.
Comparing equ 3 and 4,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟
= - 𝒖 → Thin lens formula
𝐯

Note:
For bi-convex lens, R1 is positive and R2 is negative. Therefore, its focal length f is positive. For bi-
concave lens R1 is negative and R2 is positive. Therefore, its focal length is negative.

Power of a lens (P)

Power of a lens is the ability of a lens to converge (by convex lens) or to diverge (by concave lens)
the incident beam of light.

The power (p) of a lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which it converges (or) diverges a
beam of light falling at unit distance from the optical centre.

ℎ
From the figure tan  =
𝑓

1
If h = 1, tan  = 𝑓

For small value of  , tan  = 

1
P=𝑓

Thus, the power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. The SI unit of power of a lens is dioptre
(D). The power of lens is said to be one dioptre (1D) if its focal length is one metre.

For converging lens (convex lens) , power is positive and for a diverging lens(concave lens), power is
negative.

Image formation in the case of thin lens

Linear magnification

Linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the height of the image to the height of the object.
𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐠𝐞 (𝐡𝐢 ) 𝐡
m= → m = 𝐡𝐢
𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐨𝐛𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭 (𝐡𝟎 ) 𝟎

ABO’ AND  A’B’O’ are similar triangles. (The ratio of corresponding sides are equal)

𝑨′ 𝑩′ 𝑶′ 𝑩′
=
𝐀𝐁 𝑶′ 𝑩
−𝐡𝐢 𝐯
=
𝐡𝐎 −𝐮

𝐡𝐢 𝐯
=
𝐡𝐎 𝐮
𝐯
m= 𝐮
Thus, the magnitude of the linear magnification produced by lens is also equal to the ratio of the
image distance to the object distance.

Linear magnification is negative when image formed is real and magnification is positive when
image is virtual.

Combination of thin lenses in contact

Consider two lenses L1 and L2 of focal length f1 and f2 placed in contact with each other. Let the
object be placed at a point O beyond the focus of the first lens L1.
The first lens produces an image at I1. Since image I1 is real, it serves as a virtual object for the
second lens L2, producing the final image at I. Since the lenses are thin, we assume the optical
centers of the lenses to be coincident. Let this central point be denoted by P.

Refraction through lens L1

In the absence of the second lens L2, the refracted ray from the first lens will travel straight to meet
the principal axis at I1. I1 is the real image of the object formed due to refraction through lens L1.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Using thin lens formula,
𝐟
= -𝒖
𝐯
we get, u= −PO, v= PI1, f=f1
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −
𝐟𝟏 𝐏𝐈𝟏 (−𝐏𝐎)

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟𝟏
= +
𝐏𝐎
--------(1)
𝐏𝐈𝟏

Refraction through lens L2

The image I1 acts as virtual object and the image after refraction through lens L2 is formed at I. This
image I is the final image(real) of the object O, due to refraction through combination of lenses.
Using thin lens formula, u= PI1 , v= PI, f=f2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟𝟐
= -
𝐏𝐈𝟏
---------(2)
𝐏𝐈

adding equ 1 and 2,

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = + + -
𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐 𝐏𝐈𝟏 𝐏𝐎 𝐏𝐈 𝐏𝐈𝟏

But PO =-u , PI= v

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ = + → 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐 −𝐮 𝐯 - = +
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐
The equivalent lens of a combination of lenses is that single lens which produces the same
effect as that produced by the combination of lenses.
This single lens is called equivalent lens and its focal length is called the equivalent focal
length f.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
- =
𝐯 𝐮 𝐟
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐

P=P1 + P2
If several thin lenses of focal length f1, f2 , f3 …. are in contact, the effective focal length of
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
their combination is given by = + + + …….
𝐟 𝐟𝟏 𝐟𝟐 𝐟𝟑
In terms of power, P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……..Where P is the net power of the lens combination.

Refraction through a prism

Prism is an optical medium bounded by three rectangular faces and two triangular faces, which are
parallel to each other.
R.I. of the prism in terms of angle of the prism (A) and the angle of minimum deviation (Dm) /
Prism formula

In the quadrilateral AQNR,

𝐴̂ + 𝑄̂ + Q𝑁
̂𝑅 + 𝑅̂ = 360o

̂ + Q𝑵
𝑨 ̂ 𝑹 = 180o -------(1)
In triangle QNR, r1 + r2 + Q𝑵̂ 𝑹 = 180o ----(2)
From equation (1) & (2) we get, A = r1 + r2 -------(3)
Deviation 1 due to refraction at the face AB, is 1 = i – r1
Similarly, deviation 2 due to refraction at the face AC, is 2 = e – r2
total deviation  = 1 + 2

 = (i – r1) + (e – r2)

= i + e – (r1 + r2)
=i+e–A
i + e = A +  ------(4) (This shows angle of deviation depends on the angle of incidence)

Minimum deviation (Dm)

It is found that, as the angle of incidence is gradually increased from small value, the angle of
deviation first decreases reaches a minimum value, and then increases as shown in the diagram.

For a prism, this minimum (least) value of deviation is called as angle of minimum deviation
represented as Dm.
From the graph, for any given value of deviation, () there are two values of angle of incidence
namely i and e that is because the values of i & e are interchangeable since the path of light can be
retraced.
At minimum deviation position, these two angles are found to be equal. i.e., the incident and
emergent ray are symmetrical with respect to the two refracting faces of the prism.
At Dm , the refracted ray through the prism travels parallel to the base.
 = Dm , i=e
→ r1 = r2 = r
Equation 3 becomes, A= r+ r
𝐀
A= 2r or r =
𝟐
𝐀+𝐃𝐦
Equation 4 becomes, 2i= A+ D  i=
𝟐
The refractive index of the prism is
𝐀+𝐃𝐦 𝐀+𝐃𝐦
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝑛21 =
𝑛2
𝑛1
= 𝟐
𝐀  𝐧𝟐𝟏= 𝟐
𝐀 --------Prism formula
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝟐 𝟐

Note:
For a thin prism, A and Dm are very small,
𝐀+𝐃𝐦
𝐬𝐢𝐧 (
𝟐
)
𝒏𝟐𝟏 = 𝐀
𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
𝟐
For small angles, Sin
A+Dm
2 A+Dm
n21 = A =
𝐴
2
Dm = 𝑛21 A − A

𝐃𝐦 = (𝐧𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏)𝐀 , This shows that thin prisms do not deviate light much.

Optical Instruments:
Simple microscope: A simple magnifier or microscope is a converging lens of small focal length. The
idea is to get an erect, magnified and virtual image of the object at a distance so that it can be
viewed comfortably. This is why simple microscope is called magnifying lens.
Case 1: Image is formed at near point (D≈ 25cm)
Object is placed between the focus and the optic centre of the lens. A virtual, erect and magnified
image of the object is formed at the near point D.

𝑣 1
m= = v ( 𝑢)
𝑢
1 1 1 1 1
m=v − (using thin lens formula: 𝑓 = 𝑣
− 𝑢)
v 𝑓
v
m= 1 - , v= -D
f
𝑫
m=1+
𝐟

Case 2: Image is formed at infinity

The object is placed at focus of the simple microscope which produces the image at infinity.
ɵ𝑖
The angular magnification m=
ɵ𝑜
Where, ɵi = angle subtended by the image at the observer
ɵo = The maximum angle it can subtend, and be clearly visible (without a lens),
is when it is at the near point, i.e., at distance D.
ℎ𝑜
tan ɵ0 ≈ ɵ𝑂 =
𝐷
ℎ𝑜
tan ɵ𝑖 ≈ ɵ𝑖 =
𝑓
𝐡𝐨
ɵ𝑖 𝐟 𝐷
m= = 𝐡𝐨 =
ɵ𝑜 𝑓
𝐃
𝐃
m=
𝐟

This is one less than the magnification when the image is at the near point. but the viewing is more
comfortable. A simple microscope has a limited maximum magnification (≤ 9) for realistic focal lengths.
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:
For much larger magnifications, one uses two lenses (Objective and eyepiece) one compounding the
effect of the other. This is known as a compound microscope. Objective has small focal length and
small aperture. Eye piece has a moderate focal length and large aperture.

The lens nearest to the object, called

the objective, forms a real, inverted,
magnified image of the object. This
serves as the object for the second
lens, the eyepiece, which functions
essentially like a simple microscope
or magnifier, produces the final
image, which is enlarged and virtual.
The final image is inverted with
respect to the original object.

Magnification due to a compound microscope, m=mo  me

The (linear) magnification due to the objective mo
𝐡𝟎 𝐡𝐢
tan  =
𝐟𝐨
=𝐋
𝐡 𝐋
= 𝐢=
𝐡𝟎 𝐟𝐨
𝐋
mo = 𝐟
𝐨
L is the distance between the second focal point of the objective and the first focal point of the
eyepiece is called the tube length of the compound microscope.
Magnification due to eye piece, me
Case 1: When the image is formed at near point
𝑫
𝐦𝐞 = 1 +
𝒇𝒆
 Total magnification of a compound microscope, when the image is formed at near point,
m=mo  me
𝐋 𝑫
m= 1+
𝐟𝐨 𝒇𝒆
Case 2: When the image is formed at infinity
𝑫
𝐦𝐞 =
𝒇𝒆
 Total magnification of a compound microscope, when the image is formed at infinity,
m=mo  me
𝐋 𝑫
m=
𝐟𝐨 𝒇𝒆

Telescope:
Refracting type telescope:
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects. It also has an objective and
an eyepiece. But here, the objective has a large focal length and a much larger aperture than the
eyepiece.

Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its second
focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image. The final image is
inverted with respect to the object.
The length of the telescope tube is fo + fe
Magnifying power ‘m’ of an astronomical telescope in normal adjustment is defined as the ratio of
the angle subtended at the eye by the final image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object
when both are at infinite distance from the eye.


m= where  is the angle subtended at the eye by the final image and  is the angle subtended

by the object at the eye.

𝐴′𝐵′
tan  = 𝑂𝐵′


𝐴′𝐵′
tan  = 𝐵′𝐸
  𝑶𝑩′
m= =
 𝑩′𝑬

𝒇𝒐
m=
𝒇𝒆

Note: To increase the magnifying power in normal adjustment, the focal length of the objective lens
should be large and focal length of the eye piece should be small.

The main considerations with an astronomical telescope are its light gathering power and its
resolving power. The light gathering power depends on the area of the objective. Therefore, with
larger diameter of objective, fainter objects can be observed. But lenses of large diameter are heavy
and difficult to make and to support their edges and larger diameter can lead to aberration and
distortions.
Reflecting type Telescope (Cassegrain telescope):

Modern telescope uses a concave mirror as objective instead of a lens. Telescopes with mirror
objectives are called reflecting telescopes. In these reflecting telescopes, there is no chromatic
aberration. The image formed is much brighter and the resolving power is much higher compared to
refracting telescopes. Such a telescope is known as Cassegrain telescope, named after its inventor.

Parallel rays from a distant star entering the telescope in a direction parallel to the principal axis of
the mirror tend to converge at the focus of this mirror. But before converging at this point, they are
reflected by a secondary convex mirror on to the eyepiece. The final image is seen through the
eyepiece. The final image seen by the eyepiece is inverted with respect to the object.