41

WORK AND MACHINES

Specific Objectives WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
 Explain work, energy and power. Work
 Identify simple machines.
Work is done on an object when an
 Explain the terms mechanical advantage,
velocity ratio and efficiency of machines. applied force moves it through a distance
 Explain the effects of friction and methods of in the direction of the force.
reducing friction in machines.

Work = Force  distance

Or
W=Fs

Work is a scalar quantity. The SI unit for

INTRODUCTION
work is the joule (J), which is newton-
Since prehistory, humans have been meter (Nm).
working day-in and day-out for various
reasons. To make the work they do easier When work is done on a body, there is a
and effective, they have invented numerous transfer of energy to the body, and so work
machines. can be said to be energy in transit.
The dawn of civilization brought with it
even more complex machines. Every work, If, for example, an object is lifted from the
no matter how simple or complex, has got floor to the top of a table, work is done in
a machine with which the work is done overcoming the downward force of gravity,
efficiently and with ease. and the energy imparted to the body as
work will increase its potential energy.

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Examples Distance = 80 m
1. A boy applies a force of 30N to move a 1200
 Force = 80
= 15 N
wooden box across the floor over 2m.
Calculate the work done. 15
Mass = 10 = 1.5 kg

Solution
Energy
Work (W) = force (F) x distance (s)
W = 30 N x 2 m = 60 J Energy is the ability to do work.
 Work done = 60 J Energy can also be defined as the capacity
of matter to perform work as a result of its
2. A bag of cement of mass 50 kg is motion or its position in relation to forces
raised to a height of 4 m. Find the work acting on it.
done in raising the cement.
[g = 10 m s-2] Like work, energy is also measured in
joule, J.
Solution
W=Fxs NB: The various forms of energy have
been treated in chapter 15.
F=mxg
m = 50 kg, g = 10 m s-2 Mechanical energy
F = 50 x 10 = 500 N Mechanical energy is defined as the
energy possessed by a body by virtue of its
s=4m
position or motion
W = 500 x 4 = 2000 J = 2 kJ Or
Mechanical energy is the sum of potential
3. 1.2kJ of work is done in pushing a load and kinetic energies of a body or system.
over a distance of 80m. Determine the
mass of the load. Potential energy is the energy an object or
[Take g = 10ms-2] a system has because of it position or
condition.
Solution
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Mass = Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by
𝑔
an object due to its motion.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
Force =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Potential and kinetic energies are treated in
Work = 1.2kJ = 1.2 x 1000 = 1200J detail in chapter 15.

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 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
(ii) Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
2560
P = = 170.67 W
15

2. An electric motor is fed with 1200W of

power. If it is allowed to run for two
Fig. 107.0: Examples of PE and KE minutes, calculate the total work it can
produce.
Power
Power is the rate of doing work. Solution
Or 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
Power =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Power is the rate of transferring energy.
Work done = power x time
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
Power = Power = 1200W
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
Time = 2 minutes = 2 60 = 120s
Or
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 Work done = 1200  120 = 144000J
Power =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 Total work produced = 144kJ

Its S.I unit is the watt (W).

3. An engine does 40kJ of work when it
1 watt is equivalent to 1 joule per second
was supplied with 2.0kW of power.
(Js-1).
What is the total time with which the
engine does the work?
Example
1. A man pulls a load with a force of 80N
Solution
across a distance of 32m in 15s.
work done
Determine the Power =
time taken
i. work done;
work done
ii. power of the man. Time taken =
power

Solution Work done = 40kJ = 40000J

(i) Work done = force  distance Power = 2.0kW = 2000W
= 80  32 40000
= 2560 J
Time take = = 20 s
2000

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 composed of the combination of some of
SIMPLE MACHINES the simple machines.
A simple machine is any device that
enables work to be done more easily and
effectively.
A force called effort is applied to the
machine which responses by providing a
greater force to move, lift or break a load.

The work input to a simple machine is

expressed as:

Work input = effort  distance moved by effort

The work done or work output of a simple

machine is given as: Fig. 107.1: Types of simple machines

Work output = load  distance moved by load Lever

A lever is a simple machine consisting of a
Types of simple machines rigid bar that rotates about a fixed point,
The types of simple machines include: called a fulcrum or pivot. Levers affect the
 the lever, effort needed to do a certain amount of
 the pulley, work, and are used to lift heavy objects.
 the inclined plane,
 the wheel and axle, To move an object with a lever, a force
 the screw, (effort) is applied to one end of the lever,
 the wedge, and the object to be moved (load) is
 gear. usually located at the other end of the
lever, with the fulcrum somewhere
Each machine affects the direction or the between the two.
amount of effort needed to do work. Most
mechanical machines, such as automobiles The distance from the effort to the fulcrum
or power tools, are complex machines is called the effort distance or arm and the
composed of many parts. However, no distance from the load to the fulcrum is
matter how complicated a machine is, it is called the load distance or arm.

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Parts of a Lever

Fig. 107.2: Parts of a lever Fig. 107.4: First-class lever

The velocity ratio (VR) of a lever is the Examples of first-class levers

ratio effort distance to the load distance.  Scissors
 Pliers
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  Seesaw
VR =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒  Pincers
 Claw hammer
 Shears
 Beam balance
 Catapult

Fig. 107.3: Man lifting a rock with a lever

Types or classes of levers

There are three types or classes of levers,
according to where the load and effort are
located with respect to the pivot. Fig. 107.5: Pliers is an example of first-class lever

First-class lever Second-class lever

A first-class lever has the pivot placed A second-class lever has the load in
between the effort and load. If the effort between the effort and the pivot. In this
goes upwards, the load goes downwards type of lever, the movement of the load is
and vice versa. in the same direction as that of the effort.

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 Examples of third-class levers
 Tweezers
 Stapler
 Mousetrap
 Broom
Fig. 107.6: Second-class lever  Hockey stick

Examples of second-class levers

 Wheelbarrow
 Crowbar
 Nut cracker
 Bottle opener

Fig. 107.9:
Example
1. A uniform bar 200 cm long is pivoted
at the centre of gravity. A load of 50 N
is hung 40 cm from the end of the bar.
What is the magnitude of the effort
Fig. 107.7: Wheelbarrow, an example of second- placed at the 200 cm mark?
class lever
Solution
Third-class lever
A third-class lever has the effort in
between the load and the pivot. Both the
effort and load are in the same direction.

Moment about the pivot:

Effort x effort arm = load x load arm
Effort = ?
Effort arm = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Load = 50 N
Fig. 107.8: Third-class lever Load arm = 100 cm = 1 m
E  1 = 50  0.4
20
E= = 20 N
1

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2. A crowbar is used to lift a load of 200 Pulley
N acting at a distance of 90 cm from A pulley is a simple machine used to lift
the pivot. objects. A pulley consists of a grooved
a) What is the value of the effort wheel or disk within a housing, and a rope
applied in at a distance of 2.3 m or cable threaded around the disk. The disk
raising the load? of the pulley rotates as the rope or cable
b) Draw a diagram to show the force moves over it. Pulleys are used for lifting
on the crowbar. by attaching one end of the rope to the
c) Calculate the mechanical advantage object, threading the rope through the
of the crowbar pulley (or system of pulleys), and pulling
d) What is the velocity ratio of the on the other end of the rope.
crowbar?
Pulley systems
Solution Two common types of pulley systems are
a) Moment about P: the chain hoist and the block and tackle
200  0.9 = 2.3  E systems.
180 = 2.3E
E = 78.26 N Chain hoist system, also called fixed
pulley is usually operated by hand. Take a
b) look at a flagpole. That is an example of a
fixed pulley. Because of the pulley at the
top, the person raising the flag can stand on
the ground and hoist the flag by pulling
c) Mechanical advantage of the down on the rope.
crowbar
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 200
MA = 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 = 78.26
MA = 2.56

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
d) VR=
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
2.3
VR = 0.9 = 2.56

Fig. 108.1: Fixed pulley

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The velocity ratio of a fixed pulley is given The V.R. of the block and tackle system is
by the ratio of the radius of the axel (r) to equal to the number of pulleys present in
the radius of the wheel (R). the system.
For example if there are 2 pulleys present,
𝑹 the V.R. is 2; if there are 4 pulleys, the
VR =
𝒓 V.R. is 4 and so on.

Fig. 108.2:

Block and tackle system

Block and tackle system is often used with
an engine or motor. This type of pulley Fig. 108.4: Pulley system with VR = 4
system is called a 'block and tackle', where
'block' refers to the pulleys and 'tackle' is Inclined plane
the chain that the person is pulling to lift Inclined plane is a simple machine
the load. consisting of a flat surface that is at an
angle to the load.
An inclined plane makes it easier to lift
heavy objects by enabling a person to
apply the necessary force over a greater
distance. The same amount of work is
accomplished in lifting the object with or
without the inclined plane, but because the
inclined plane increases the distance over
which the force is applied, the work
requires less force.

Examples of inclined planes are ramp for

wheelchairs and stare case.
Fig. 108.3: A man pulling a load with a block and
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆
tackle system Velocity ratio = 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆

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 The main benefit of the wedge is changing
the direction of effort to help split or cut
through an object. A knife and an axe are
forms of wedge. The wedge shape of their
edges helps the user cut through materials.

Fig. 108.5: Inclined plane

Wheel and axel

Wheel and axle is a simple
machine, consisting of a circular object
(the wheel) with a shaft (the axle) running
through and attached to the centre of the
wheel. Fig. 108.6: Axe, an example of a wedge
A round doorknob and a round water tap
are both examples of wheels and axles. The Screw
much larger handle turns a much smaller A screw is an inclined plane wrapped
axle to move a door latch, in the case of a around an axis, or pole. The edge of the
doorknob, or open a water valve, in the inclined plane forms a helix, or spiral,
case of a tap. A wheel and axle makes around the axis. Screws are often used to
work easier by changing the amount and raise objects.. The screw requires a lot of
direction of the force applied to move (or turning, which equates with effort applied
in this case turn) an object. over a long distance; this allows heavy
loads to be lifted with a small amount of
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝑹 effort. Screws are also useful as fastening
Velocity ratio = =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒍 𝒓 devices.

Wedge Screws driven straight into wood or other

A wedge is a form of inclined plane. A materials, as well as threaded nuts and
wedge is essentially a double inclined bolts take advantage of the friction that
plane, where two planes are joined at their results from the contact between the
bases. The joined inclined planes form a inclined plane and other objects. These
blunt end that narrows down to a tip. devices use friction to hold things together.
Wedges are often used to split materials
such as wood or stone. Since

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 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓
VR =
𝒏𝒖𝒎,𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE,
VELOCITY RATIO AND
EFFICIENCY OF A MACHINE

Fig. 108.7: A screw Mechanical advantage

Mechanical advantage (MA) is the ratio
The mechanical advantage of a screw is of load to effort.
related to the circumference of the screw 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅
MA =
divided by the pitch of the threads. 𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
𝟐𝝅𝑳
VR =
𝑷 The mechanical advantage (MA) of simple
The pitch of a thread is the distance along machine measures how much the machine
the axis of the screw from one thread to the magnifies the effort applied to it.
next.
Example
Gears A force of 200N is applied to a machine to
Gears are a type of simple machine raise a load of mass 30kg. Calculate the
consisting of wheels with teeth. The teeth mechanical advantage of the machine.
fit together so that when one gear turns it [Take g = 10ms-2]
also turns the other gear. Sometimes the
gears fit right together, and sometimes they Solution
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
work together through a chain or a belt. MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Gears are modified form of the pulley and
Effort = 200N
the wheel and axel.
Load = mg = 30 x 10 = 300N
300
MA = = 1.5
200

Velocity ratio
Velocity ratio (VR) is the ratio of the
distance moved by effort to the distance
moved by load.

Fig. 108.8: Gear system of a bicycle

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 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
VR = Efficiency =  100
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐

Or
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 Or
VR = Efficiency is the percentage ratio of work
𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
output to work input of a machine.
Example
An effort of 180N is applied 2m away from 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency =  100
a load of 260N to move it onto a truck 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

1.3m high. Determine the

(a) velocity ratio Since work and energy are relative,
(b) mechanical avantage. 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency =  100
(c) efficiency 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

Solution NB: The efficiency of a machine is always

𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 less than 100%. This is because part of the
(a) VR =
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 work input or effort is used to overcome
Effort distance = 2m some other forces such friction, gravity,
Load distance = 1.3m drag and viscosity.
2
VR = = 1.54 Examples
1.3
1. A simple machine is provided with
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 2000J of work. If it produces a total
(b) MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 work of 1500J of work, calculate its
Load = 260N, effort = 180N efficiency.
260
MA = = 1.44
180
Solution
𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
(c) Efficiency = x 100% Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
1.44
MA = x 100% Work output = 1500J
1.54
MA = 93.5% Work input = 2000J
1500
Efficience Efficiency = x 100%
2000
Efficiency is the ratio of mechanical
Efficiency = 75%
advantage to velocity ratio expressed in
percentage.

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2. The efficiency of an earth-moving 𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
(b) Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
device is 82%. If its velocity ratio is
2.8, determine its mechanical VR = 6
advantage. 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
MA =
𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
Solution Load = 5000N
𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Efficiency = x 100
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 Effort = 3000N
Efficiency = 82% 5000
MA = = 1.67
3000
VR = 2.8
1.67
MA = ? Efficiency = x 100%
6
𝑀𝐴 = 27.8%
82 = 2.8
x 100

82 x 2.8 = 100 MA
229.6 FRICTION
MA = 100
= 2.3
Friction is the force that resists the
3. (a) Draw a pulley system with a relative motion of two bodies in contact.
velocity ratio of 6.
(b) If the pulley system is used to raise In other words, the force which prevents
a load of 5000 N with the two objects in contact from sliding against
application of a force of 3000 N. each other is called friction.
What is the efficiency of the pulley
system. Causes of friction
Friction occurs in part because rough
Solution surfaces tend to catch on one another as
(a) they slide past each other. Even surfaces
that are apparently smooth can be rough at
the microscopic level. They have many
ridges and grooves. The ridges of each
surface can get stuck in the grooves of the
other, effectively creating a type of
mechanical bond, or glue, between the
surfaces.

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 Methods of reducing friction
Reducing the amount of friction in a
machine increases the machine‘s
efficiency. Less friction means less energy
lost to heat, less noise, and less wearing
down of material.
Advantages or uses of friction
1. It prevents humans from slipping There are two main methods of reducing
when walking or running. friction. The first method involves
2. It enables nails and screws to fasten reducing the roughness of the surfaces in
pieces of objects together. contact. For example, sanding two pieces
3. It prevents car and bicycle tyres from of wood lessens the amount of friction that
sliding on the road. occurs between them when they slide
4. It enables automobiles to stop when against one another.
the breaks are applied.
5. It causes the hand to grip firmly to Applying a lubricant to a surface can also
objects. reduce friction. Common examples of
6. It helps to light match. lubricants are oil and grease. They reduce
7. It helps grind food into required friction by minimizing the contact between
pieces. rough surfaces. The lubricant‘s particles
8. It enables sharpening of tools. slide easily against each other and cause far
9. It helps humans to write or produce less friction than would occur between the
desired marks with pens and pencils surfaces.
Lubricants such as machine oil reduce the
Effects or disadvantages of friction amount of energy lost to frictional heating
1. It slows down motion. and reduce the wear damage to the
2. It causes unnecessary heat, especially machine surfaces caused by friction.
in machines.
3. It causes vehicle tires to wear. The use of ball bearings is also an ideal
4. It shrinks and tears the sole of shoes. method of reducing friction.
5. It reduces efficiency of a machine.
6. It leads to melting, warbling and In summary, friction can be reduced by:
breaking of machine parts as a result 1. polishing
of overheating. 2. oiling
3. greasing

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4. ball-bearing simple machines:
5. powdering (i) lever;
6. streamlining (reduces fluid friction or (ii) pulley;
viscosity) (iii) inclined plane;
(iv) wheel and axle.

6. Explain the following classes of lever

and give two examples each:
(a) first-class lever;
(b) second-class lever;
(c) third-class lever.

Fig. 108.9: Ball bearing 7. Explain why the efficiency of a

machine is always less than 100%.

TEST QUESTIONS
8. (a) Define the term friction.
(b) Explain the causes of friction.
1. Explain the following terms:
(a) work; 9. (a) Mention five advantages and four
(b) energy; disadvantages of friction.
(c) power. (b) Describe the three methods used to
reduce friction in machines.
4. (a) Differentiate between potential
energy and kinetic energy. 10. A boy who weighs 120 N carries a load
(b) An orange falls to the ground from of 50 N up a fright of stair which is 5 m
a branch which is 4 m above the high in 2 minutes. Calculate:
ground. If the mass of the orange (a) the work he does;
is 20 g and rolls on the ground at (b) his power
12 ms-1, calculate the:
(i) potential energy of the 11. Define the following terms:
Orange; (a) mechanical advantage
(ii) kinetic energy of the orange. (b) velocity ration
[take g = 10 ms-2] (c) efficiency

5. (a) What are simple machines?

(b) Discuss the following types of

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