CHAPTER TWO

Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Subatomic Particles
• Atoms composed of smaller subatomic particles
• charged (+ or –)
• uncharged (neutral)
• electrical nature of the atom was crucial to discovering its subatomic
structure
• Law of electrostatic attraction
• like charges repel
• unlike charges attract

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Atomic Composition
• Protons
• positive electrical charge
• mass = 1.672623 x 10-24 g
• mass = 1.007 atomic mass units (u)
• Electrons
• negative electrical charge
• relative mass = 0.0005 u
• Neutrons
• no electrical charge
• mass = 1.009 u

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Atomic structure
• Atoms are neutral
• numbers of protons and electrons must be equal
• Atomic mass = p + n
• don’t have to worry about mass of e since they have such a small mass
(negligible)
• numbers of neutrons are determined from atomic mass

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Atomic Number, Mass Number and
Isotopes
• The chemical identity of an atom can be determined solely from its
atomic number
• Atomic number (Z) - number of protons in the nucleus of each atom
of an element
• Also indicates number of electrons in the atom—since
atoms are neutral

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• Mass number (A) - total number of neutrons and
protons present in the nucleus

• Standard notation:

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Isotopes
• Definition: Atoms that have the same atomic number (same # of
protons) but a different mass number (different # of neutrons)

Isotopic Symbols
 Must write isotopic symbol to show mass
2 Isotopes will have the same atomic # (bottom) and a different mass #
(top)

X
Mass #

Atomic #

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Isotopes
Isotopes
• are atoms of the same element.
• have different mass numbers.
• have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
• can be distinguished by their atomic symbols.

Core Chemistry Skill Writing Atomic Symbols for Isotopes

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• Isotopes
• All atoms are not identical
(as had been proposed by Dalton)
• Same atomic number (Z) but different
mass numbers (A)
• Isotopes of Hydrogen
• Hydrogen (protium)
• Deuterium
• Tritium

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 Atomic Symbols: Subatomic Particles
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that we use to indicate an
element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for
mercury is Hg.
Given the atomic symbols, determine the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.

16 31 65
8 O 15 P 30 Zn

ANALYZE Atomic Mass Number of

THE PROBLEM Number Number Protons
number in number in equal to
lower left upper left atomic
corner corner number

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Atomic Symbols: Subatomic Particles

Determine the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Isotope Atomic Mass Number of Number of

16

Number Number Protons Neutrons

O 8

16
O 8 16 8 8 (16–8)
8
31
P 15 31 15 16 (31–16)
15
65
30 Zn 30 65 30 35 (65–30)

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Isotopes of Magnesium

Magnesium, with three

naturally occurring
isotopes, has an atomic
mass of 24.31 amu.

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Isotopes of Magnesium

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Study Check
Write the atomic symbols for atoms with the following subatomic
particles:

A. 8 protons 8 neutrons 8 electrons

B. 17 protons 20 neutrons 17 electrons
C. 47 protons 60 neutrons 47 electrons

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Study Check
1. Which of the pairs below are isotopes of the same element?
2. In which of the pairs below do both atoms have eight
neutrons?

A.
15 15
8 X 7 X
B.
12 14
6 X 6 X
C.
15 16
7 X 8 X

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Calculating Atomic Mass

Atomic mass is the

• weighted average of all
naturally occurring isotopes
of that element.
• number on the periodic
table below the chemical
symbol.

Chlorine, with two naturally occurring

isotopes, has an atomic mass of 35.45
amu.

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Calculating Atomic Mass

To calculate atomic mass,

• use the experimental percent abundance of each isotope of the
element.
• multiply the percent abundance by the atomic mass of that
isotope.
• sum the total mass of all isotopes.

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Calculating Atomic Mass
To calculate atomic mass of chlorine, use experimental data for
both isotopes.

Atomic mass of Mg = 18.88 amu + 2.531 amu + 2.902 amu

= 24.31 amu (weighted average mass)
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Atomic Mass of Some Elements

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 Study Check
Lithium consists of two naturally occurring isotopes, 6Li and 7Li. Use
the periodic table to predict which isotope is the more prevalent
one. (According to the periodic table, the atomic mass of lithium is
6.941 amu.)

Gallium is an element found in lasers used in compact disc players.

In a sample of gallium, there is
60.10% of 69Ga (atomic mass 68.926) atoms
39.90% of 71Ga (atomic mass 70.925) atoms
What is the atomic mass of gallium?

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 Average Atomic Mass

What is average atomic mass?

Average atomic mass is the weighted average of the

atomic masses of the naturally occurring isotopes of
an element

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• Average atomic mass
• Masses on the periodic table are not
whole numbers.
• Mass spectrometer provides information
about percentages of different isotopes
of each element.
• Periodic table mass is the weighted
average of all of the isotopes of each
element

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 Calculating a Weighted Average

Example
A box contains two size of marbles. If
25.0% have masses of 2.00 g and 75.0%
have masses of 3.00 g what is the weighted
average?
(.250) (2.00) + (.750) (3.00) = .500 + 2.25 =
2.75g

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Calculating Average Atomic Mass
EXAMPLE
Boron has two isotopes:
B-10 (mass 10.013 amu) 19.8% abundance
B-11 (mass 11.009 amu) 80.2% abundance
Calculate the average atomic mass.

(.198) (10.013) + (.802) ( 11.009) =

1.98 amu + 8.83 amu = 10.81 amu

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Calculating Average Atomic Mass
Calculate the average atomic mass of Mg.
Isotope 1 - 23.985 amu (78.99%)
Isotope 2 - 24.986 amu (10.00%)
Isotope 3 – 25.982 amu (11.01%)

(23.985)(.7899)+(24.986)(.1000)+(25.982)(.1101)
18.95 amu + 2.499 amu + 2.861 amu = 24.31 amu

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Average Atomic Mass
Helium has two naturally occurring isotopes, He-3 and
He-4. The atomic mass of helium is 4.003 amu.
Which isotope is more abundant in nature?

He-4 is more abundant in nature because the atomic

mass is closer to the mass of He-4 than to the mass of
He-3.

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Isotopic Pennies – number of pre and post 1982
a. Let X be the number of pre-1982 pennies
b. Let 10-X be the number of post-1982 pennies
c. (X)(3.1g) + (10-X)(2.5g) = mass of 10 pennies
pre-82 post-82

EXAMPLE (Mass of a sample of pennies is 31.0g)

(X)(3.1g) + [(10-X)(2.5g)] = 31.0 g
3.1X + 25 - 2.5X = 31.0g
.6X + 25 = 31.0g
.6X = 6.0g X = 6.0g/.6
X = 10 pre-82 pennies
10-X = 0 pre-82 pennies

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Isotopic Penny Lab- Average Atomic Mass

Calculate percent of pre-82 and post-82 pennies

# of pre-82 pennies x 100% # post-82 pennies x 100%

10 10

Calculate the average atomic mass of coinium

(% pre-82)(3.1g) + (% post-82)(2.5) = average atomic mass

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Concept check
• Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.53 percent 35Cl, which has an atomic
mass of 34.96885 u, and 24.47 percent 37Cl, which has an atomic
mass of 36.96590 u. Calculate the average atomic mass (that is, the
atomic weight) of chlorine.

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 Periodic Properties
 Periods - horizontal rows
 Families (Groups) - vertical columns
 Elements in the same family have similar chemical and physical
properties
 Arranged in order of increasing atomic number
 Periodic table was arranged before e– configurations of elements was
known.

• Dimitri Mendeleev in Russia (1869) and Lothar Meyer in Germany (1870)

independently recognized that there was a periodic relationship among
the properties of the elements known at that time.

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The Periodic Table
• Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-
1907) developed the
modern periodic table.

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Periodic Table Essentials
• Periods
• Rows
• Metals
• Nonmetals
• Metalloids
• Halogens
• Noble Gases
• Alkali metals
• s,p,d, and f
• Lanthanide and Actinide series

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Classification of elements in the periodic table

Figure : The periodic table organizes

elements with similar properties into groups.

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Periodic Table Features

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• Metals - good conductors of heat and electricity (majority of
elements on the table, located to the left of the stair step)

• Nonmetals - nonconductors (located in upper right-hand corner)

• Metalloids - in between metals and nonmetals (those that lie along
the separation line)

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Groups (Families) on the Periodic Table

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Compounds and Molecules
• COMPOUNDS are a combination of 2 or more elements in definite
ratios by mass.
• The character of each element is lost when forming a compound.
• MOLECULES are the smallest unit of a compound that retains the
characteristics of the compound. (non-metal combined with a non-
metal)

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Molecular Formulas

• Molecular Formula: #’s & types of each atom.

• Condensed Formula: indicates how certain atoms are grouped together
• Structural Formula: Shows the connections (bonds)
• Molecular Model: Give 3-D perspective
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Molecular Models
• Various ways to represent a molecule
Methane CH4

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 Chemical equations
• Word description
• methane reacts with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water
• Symbolic representation of a chemical reaction

yields

CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O

Reactants Products
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Chemical Equations
More detail - includes states
CH4(g) + O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
s - solid
l - liquid
g - gas
aq - aqueous

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What is the chemical equation for the
following process?
• A solution of sodium chloride and a solution of silver nitrate react to
form aqueous sodium nitrate and a precipitate (PPT) of silver
chloride.

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Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds (metals &
non-metals) constitute another
major class of compounds.
• They consist of ions, atoms or
groups of atoms that bear a
positive or negative electric
charge.
• Many familiar compounds are
composed of ions. Table salt,
or sodium chloride (NaCl) is
one example.
• These are generically referred
to as salts. NaCl
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Ions & Ionic Compounds

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Ions & Ionic Compounds
• IONS are atoms or groups of atoms with a formal positive or negative
charge.
• Removing electrons from an atom produces a CATION with a positive
charge.
• Adding a electrons to an atom gives an ANION with a negative
charge.

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Forming Cations & Anions
A CATION forms when an An ANION forms when an
atom loses one or more atom gains one or more
electrons. electrons

Mg  Mg2+ + 2 e- F + e-  F-

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Predicting Ion Charges

In general
• metals (Mg) lose electrons forming cations
• nonmetals (F) gain electrons forming anions
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Charges on Common Ions
-4 -3 -2 -1
+1
+2
+3

By losing or gaining electrons, an atom has same number of electrons as the

nearest Noble gas atom.
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Naming MONATOMIC ions:
• Cation
• name of the element followed by ion
• Na+ sodium ion
• Anion
• name of the element with an ide ending
• Cl– chloride ion

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Metal Ions Names

Main group elements

All metal cations are named after there representative element followed by the
word “ion”.

sodium Na Na+ sodium ion

barium Ba Ba2+ barium ion

aluminum Al Al3+ aluminum ion

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Metal Ions Names

Transition elements
Since the transition elements have multiple charge states, each must be identified
uniquely.

Cu Cu+ copper (I) ion

Cu Cu2+ copper (II) ion

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Nonmetal Ions Names

• Name derived by adding “ide”

suffix.

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 Polyatomic Ions

• A special class of ions

where a group of
atoms tend to stay
together - an ion that Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its
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contains atoms
covalently bound
together.
• Polyatomic anions
are groups of atoms
(molecules) that have
acquired a net
(overall) charge. Note: many O
containing anions have
names ending in –ate
(or -ite).
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Formulas of ionic compounds
• Ionic compounds are neutral
• amount of + charge = amount of – charge
• Ion charge of main group (1A - 7A) elements (representative
elements) is predictable
• 1A - 3A lose e– cations
• 5A - 7A gain e– anions

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Writing ionic formulas
• Metal cation combining with nonmetal anion
• net charge is zero
• total “+” charge = total “–” charge
• Ion charge predicted by using periodic table

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Transition Metal Cations
• These elements may have more than one charge states.
• Oxidation Number (charge) found from the formula.

Example: FeCl2
chlorine forms a -1 charge so Fe = +2
+2 + 2  (-1) = 0
Example: FeCl3
chlorine forms a -1 charge so Fe = +3
+3 + 3  (-1) = 0

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Ionic compound:
A compound that results when a metal reacts with
a nonmetal to form ions called cations and anions.
Ion: Atoms that have gained or lost one or more electrons
to acquire a net positive or negative electric charge

Na Lose 1 e- Na+1
11 p+ 11 p+
11 e- 10 e-

Cations – Positive ions formed when metal atoms lose electrons

Ca+2 Na+1 Al+3

Cation name = name of metal atom
Anions – Negative ions formed when nonmetal atoms gain electrons

Cl-1 S-2 N-3

Anion names end
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Why do elements gain or lose electrons?
(2)
1 outer e 8
2 outer e 3 4 5 6 7

Various #’s of outer e

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 How do we know the charges?
• Group 1 elements – lose 1e = +1 charge
• Group 2 elements – lose 2e = +2 charge
• Group 13 elements – lose 3e = +3 charge
• Group 14 elements – gain/lose 4 = +4/-4
• Group 15 elements – gain 3e = -3 charge
• Group 16 elements – gain 2e = -2 charge
• Group 17 elements – gain 1e = -1 charge
• Group 18 elements do not gain or lose
electrons!
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Charges on monoatomic ions
+4/-4
+1 0
Transition metals can
+2 have a variety of +3 -3 -2 -1
charges

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Transition Metal Ions Stock System –
use roman numerals to denote charge
• Fe2+ Iron (II)
• Fe3+ Iron (III)
• Cu+ Copper (I)
• Cu2+ Copper (II)
• Au+ Gold (I)
• Au3+ Gold (III)

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 Special exceptions
Regular (non-transition) metals with multiple charges

• Sn2+ Tin (II)

• Sn4+ Tin (IV)
• Pb2+ Lead (II)
• Pb4+ Lead (IV)
You MUST write roman numerals for these
elements
Memory aide- Roman soldiers carry tin(Sn)
and lead (Pb) shields.
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 Chemical Nomenclature
Nomenclature, a collection of rules for naming things, is important in science and in
many other situations.

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds

Type I

1. Name the metal ion (same as metal

atom)

2. Name the nonmetal ion (by

changing the ending and adding
-ide)
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 For cations (metal ions) simply
name the metal as usual:
• Na+1
• Al+3

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 For anions (nonmetal ions) –
change the ending to -ide
(may need to drop part of element name)
• N -3

• O -2

• P-3

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Naming Type II Compounds

•Stock system (Roman Numerals)

for Transition metals

1. Determine if 1st element is a

transition metal
2. If yes, use roman numerals when
naming
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Don’t Forget the Exceptions!

• Silver (Ag) and Zinc (Zn) do not

get a roman numeral

• Lead (Pb) and Tin (Sn) must

have roman numerals

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 Stock System
(for transition metals)

• Copper (II) chloride =

• Copper (I) chloride =
• Iron (III) chloride =
• Iron (II) chloride =
• Tin (IV) chloride =
• Tin (II) chloride =

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 Ternary Compounds:
(w/ polyatomic ions)
(Type I or II)
• Formed from a metal cation
and a polyatomic anion
• Contain 3 or more different
elements in the formula
• Use ( ) around polyatomic ions if
there is more than 1. Al(NO3)3
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Na 1+ OH 1 NaOH
Not Na(OH)

Mg 2+ OH 1 Mg(OH)2
Not MgOH2
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Naming Ternary compounds:

1. Name the metal cation

2. Name the polyatomic ion
Example: a) KNO3 b) Ca3(PO4)2 c) (NH4)2SO3 d) CuSO4

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 Reviewing Ionic Formulas
• In an ionic formula the net charge is zero
• An –ide ending usually indicates a binary
compound (two elements – metal and nonmetal)
• Exceptions: cyanide, peroxide, hydroxide
• An –ate or – ite ending indicates a polyatomic ion
that has oxygen in the formula
• ate = more oxygens ite = fewer oxygens

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 Reviewing Ionic Formulas
• A roman numeral after the name of a cation
shows the ionic charge on the transition
metal cation
• Ions in the same group have similar formulas
(due to the same number of valence
electrons)
• Use ( ) around polyatomic ions if there is
more than one* Ca3(PO4)2
* if there is only one, do not use ( )
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•Naming Molecular
Compounds
(Covalent)
•Type III

•Nonmetal + Nonmetal
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 The Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons

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Properties of Molecular or Covalent
Compounds
• Made from 2 or more nonmetals
• Consist of molecules not ions

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Molecular Formulas
Show the kinds and numbers of
atoms present in a molecule of a
compound.

Molecular Formula = H2O

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 Structural formula

H N H
H
Molecular formula NH3
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Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• Molecule - combination of at least two atoms in a specific
arrangement held together by chemical bonds
• May be an element or a compound
• H2, hydrogen gas, is an element
• H2O, water, is a compound

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• Diatomic molecules:
• Homonuclear (2 of the same atoms)
• Examples: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, and I2

Heteronuclear (2 different atoms)

• Examples: CO and HCl

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• Polyatomic molecules:
• Contain more than 2 atoms
• Most molecules
• May contain more than one element
• Examples: ozone, O3; white phosphorus, P4; water, H2O,
and methane (CH4)

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• Molecular formula - shows exact number of atoms
of each element in a molecule
• Subscripts indicate number of atoms of
each element present in the formula.
• Example: C12H22O11
• Empirical formulas reveal the elements present
and in what whole-number ratio they are
combined.
Molecular(explicit) Empirical(simplest)
H2O2 HO
N2H4 NH2
H2O H2O
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Empirical vs Molecular Formula
• Empirical formulas show only the simplest ratio of atoms in the
formula
• ionic compounds are represented by their empirical formula
• Molecular formulas show the actual composition of a molecule

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• Allotrope - one of two or more distinct forms of an
element
• Examples: oxygen, O2 and ozone, O3;
diamond and graphite (allotropic forms
of carbon)
• Structural formula - shows the general
arrangement of atoms within the molecule.

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Molecular Formulas
• Examples

• CO2

• SO3

• N2O5

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 Rules for Naming
Molecular compounds
• The most “metallic” nonmetal
element is written first (the one that
is furthest left)
• The most nonmetallic of the two
nonmetals is written last in the
formula
• NO2 not O2N
• All molecular compounds end in
-ide

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 Molecular compounds
• Ionic compounds use charges to
determine the chemical formula
• The name of the molecular compound
indicates the chemical formula.
• Uses prefixes to tell you the quantity of
each element.
• You need to memorize the prefixes !

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Prefixes
• 1 mono
• 2 di
• 3 tri
• 4 tetra
• 5 penta Memorize!
• 6 hexa
• 7 hepta
• 8 octa
• 9 nona
• 10 deca

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 More Molecular Compound
Rules
• If there is only one of the first element do
not put mono
• Example: carbon monoxide (not monocarbon monoxide)

• If the nonmetal starts with a vowel, drop

the vowel ending from all prefixes except
di and tri
• monoxide not monooxide
• tetroxide not tetraoxide

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• Hydrates - compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules within their solid
structure
• Hydrated compounds may be heated to remove the
water forming an anhydrous compound
• Name the compound and add the word hydrate.
Indicate the number of water molecules with a prefix
on hydrate.
• Example: CuSO4 · 5 H2O
• Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate

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 Binary Acids
 Some compounds containing hydrogen are members of an important class
of substances known as acids.
 If a compound comprised of hydrogen and one other nonmetallic element

1. The word “hydrogen” is changed to the prefix hydro-

2. The other nonmetallic element name is modified by adding the suffix -ic
3. The word “acid” is added as a second word

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Oxyacids
Compounds that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and at least one other element,
and are bonded in such a way as to impart acidic properties to the compound.

 Typical oxyacids consist of hydrogen combined with a polyatomic, oxygen-

containing ion. To name oxyacids:
1. Omit “hydrogen”
2. Start with the root name of the anion
3. Replace –ate with –ic, or –ite with –ous
4. Add “acid”

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