FIRST TERM

1. Concept of position, distance and displacement in relation to X-Y

plane
2. Scalar and vector quantities, addition of scalars and vectors.
Resolution of vectors and resultant
3. Derivation of equations of linear motion. Motion under gravity,
calculations using these equations.
4. Projectile and its application
5. Newton’s law of motion: conservation of linear momentum and
conservation of energy collisions
6. Equilibrium forces: Principles of moment conditions for
equilibrium of rigid bodies under the action of parallel and non-
parallel forces
7. Equilibrium of force: Centre of gravity and stability, couple
8. Simple harmonic motion: Definition explanation of simple
harmonic motion displacement, acceleration, period, frequency.
9. Simple harmonic motion: energy of simple harmonic motion of
force vibration and resources.
10. Machines: Types and examples
11. Machines: Calculations on machines
12. Revision/examination
13. examination
 WEEK 1
POSITION
Position is referred to as the point in which an object can be located or
the place An object is found. The position of an object on a plane can be
given by its co-ordinates, i.e., the signed distances of the point from two
perpendicular axes, OX and OY
Y

X
0

Fig. 1.0 Cartesian co-ordinates

The – co-ordinates is called abscissa while the – co-ordinate is called
ordinate. The co-ordinate is written first, before the – co-ordinates,
i.e. (X,Y)

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance: This is the gap between any two positions in space. It is
denoted by S and measured in metre(m) it is a scalar quantity and is
calculated as the product of average speed and time.
Thus, distance = average speed X time.
Displacement: This is the distance covered in a specific direction. it is a
vector quantity measured in metre(m). the direction of motion of bodies
can be found by using the compass.
Displacement = average velocity X time. It is denoted by X

The Use Of Bearing To Indicate Direction And Displacement

The bearing of an object from the origin is the angle which it makes with
the north pole in the clockwise sense. It is specified in two ways:
a. The use of cardinal points: N – North, S – South, W – West, and E
– East
b. The use of three digit notation. Students should note that bearing
which are located by cardinal points are with respect or reference
to the North and South.

WE N NE

W E

SE S SE

Fig. 6.1 cardinal points and their directions

EXERCISE
1.What is the distance between point A(5,3) and point B(9,6)
2.A boy cycles 3km east and then 4km north. Calculate : (i).The total
distance covered (ii) The displacement of the boy
 WEEK 2

SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalar quantities are those which have only magnitude or numerical
value but no direction. For example: speed, distance, temperature,
energy, density, mass, volume etc.
Vector quantities are those which have both magnitude (or size) and
direction. For example: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force,
momentum, electric field, magnetic field, weight etc.

REPRESENTATION OF VECTOR
A vector is represented in magnitude by a given length of line. Its
direction is represented with an arrow at the end of the line drawn.
Sometimes it is indicated by an angle measured anti-clockwise from a
horizontal reference line.

O θ X

Fig. 10.1 Representation of a Vector

The magnitude of a given force vector, say 70N can be represented on

paper by taking any convenient length to represent that magnitude. For
example it 1cm represents 10N, it implies that a length OA of 8cm is
required in order to reflect the force magnitude of 70N. The direction θ
to which OA can be located is measured from the positive side of the
reference line OX.
 ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS
The sum of two or more vectors acting on a body in a given direction
results into a single vector that produces the same effect. This single
vector is called resultant vector. The individual vectors which are added
together (or compounded to produce a single vector) are called
components of the resultants.

Resultant of two vectors acting in the same direction

Example 10.1: If two force vectors of magnitude; F 1 = 3N and F2 = 4N
act on a body as shown in fig. 10.2.
Fig. 10.2
F2 = 4N

F1 = 3N

O X

The resultant force vector along OX = F1 + F 2

= 3N + 4N
= 7N
Resultant of two vectors acting in opposite direction in a straight line.

Example: 10.2
 Fig. 10.3
If two force vectors of magnitude 4N and 3N act in opposite direction as
shown above.
The resultants, R= F2 – F1
= (4 – 3) N
= 1N
In the direction of the 4N force.

Resultant of two vectors F1 and F2 inclined at θo to each other.

The resultant vector is that single vector which would have the same
effect in magnitude and direction as the original vectors acting together.

There are in general two methods of adding or compounding vectors to

find the resultant. These are:
i. The parallelogram method and
ii. The triangle method

Law of Parallelogram of Vectors

The parallelogram law of vectors states that if two vectors are
represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point of
intersection of the vectors represents the resultant vector in magnitude
and direction.

Example 10.1
If two forces of magnitude 2N and 3N acting at a point O are inclined at
an angle of 60o to each other, find the magnitude and direction of the
resultant force.

Solution:
Let F1 = 3N
F2 = 2N

Angle of inclination θ = 60o

Fig. 10.4
Step 1: Form a parallelogram from diagram above in accordance with
the law and label OABC

α = direction of the resultant R

Fig. 10.5

Step 2: Consider ∆OBC and apply the cosine rule

B
R2 = F12 + F22 – 2 (F1) (F2) Cos
(180 – θ) R F1

180 – 𝜃 = 32+ 22 – 2(3)(2) Cos (180 –

∝
60)
O C
F2
= 9 + 4 – 12 Cos (-60)
= 13 + 12 Cos60
= 13 + 6
R2 = 19N
 R =
= 4.36N

To find the direction α of the resultant

Apply the sine rule

=
∝ = 36.6o

Resultant of two perpendicular vectors acting at a point.

To determine the magnitude and direction of two vectors acting at 90 o to

each other apply
i) Pythagoras theorem and
ii) Trigonometric ratio

Example 10.2:
Find the resultant of the forces acting on a body as shown below.

F1 = 3N

O
F2 = 4N
 Fig. 10.7

Steps
i) Form a parallelogram of forces
ii) Consider the right angle triangle OAB
iii) Apply Pythagoras theorem in determining the magnitude of the
resultant force.
iv) Use the trigonometric ration in determining the direction of the
resultant force.
A

R
F1

∝
B
O
F2

Fig. 10.8

From ∆OAB
R2 = F12 + F22
 = 32 + 42
= 25

R =
= 5N.

To find its direction ∝, apply trigonometric ratio

¾ = tan∝
∴ ∝ = tan-1 ( ¾ )
= 36.9o

Triangle of Forces
If three forces keep, a body at equilibrium and the direction of all the
forces are known. The triangle of forces is used to determine the
unknown magnitude of the forces; if only one of the force magnitude is
known.

Example 10.2
Consider a metal weight of mass 5N suspended from a hook in the
ceiling and pulled aside by a string attached horizontally to it until
suspending string is 60o to the vertical.

T2
 Weight(w)

Fig. 10.9

Solution
If the three forces in fig 10.9 are T 1, T2, and W, then the triangle of the
three forces according to the law would be as shown below.

T1
60
o

W T2

Fig. 10.10
To determine the tensions in the string acting on the metal weight, W.
If the weight, W = 50N.
From fig. 10.10 and by applying the trigonometric ratio.

∴ Tension, T2 = W tan 60o

= 50 tan 60
= 86.6nN

Also

∴ T1 =

RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
When a vector R acts at an angle θ to the positive OX – direction.

Y R

θ
X
 Fig. 10.11

It can be resolved into the horizontal (O ) and vertical (O ) directions by

applying trigonometric ratio. The resolved parts in the direction are
known as component vectors

Ry

O Rx X
Fig. 10.12: Resolution of vector R

The vertical component, R = R sin θ

While the horizontal component, R = R cos θ

Resultant of more than two vectors

For two or more inclined vectors acting at a point.
i) Ensure they are resolved individually along the two
perpendicular directions i.e. O and O directions.
ii) Resolve the component vectors along these directions.
iii) Find the resultant vector by applying the Pythagoras theorem.

Example 10.3
Determine the resultant of the forces acting at a point as shown below
and its direction.

10N 20N

30
o

8N
60
o

5N 3N

Fig. 10.13

Solution:
By resolving the 20N and 5N forces along the horizontal and vertical
direction as shown below:

10N

20 sin30o

20 sin30o

5 sin60o

8N
 5 sin60o

3N

Fig. 10.14: Resolved Components

Then, resultant vertical component, R

= (10 + 20 sin30) – (3 + 5 + sin60)N
= 12.67N

Resultant horizontal component, R

= (20 cos30 + 8) – 5 cos60
= 22.82N

Ry = 12.67N R

∝
Rx = 22.82N
Fig. 10.15: Resultant Components at Right Angles

∴ resultant of the force R =

=
= 26N

The direction of, (∝) = tan–1

= tan–1

= tan–1
= 20o.

RELATIVE VELOCITY
Relative velocity is a comparative velocity between two moving bodies
with reference to a point. If the velocity of a body A is V A and that of the
second body, B is VB then,
i) The relative velocity of A to B, it both bodies are moving in the
same direction = VA – VB
ii) If the two bodies are moving in opposite direction the relative
velocity of A to B = VA + VB
iii) Suppose A moves at a velocity along a direction of 060 while B
moves at a velocity due east, the relative velocity of B to A can
only be obtained by drawing a vector polygon which will
consider the magnitude and direction of the velocities.
Examples
A car, A, moving at a velocity of 15m/s travels in opposite direction to
another car B at a velocity of 30m/s. Determine the relative velocity of B
to A.
Velocity of A, VA = 15m/s; velocity of B, VB = 30m/s
∴ Relative velocity of B to A, = VA + VB
= (15 + 30)m/s
= 45m/s.

EXERCISE
1. The velocity of a car A relative to a car B is 15.0km/h in a
direction of N45oE. If the velocity of car B is 30km/h in the
direction N60oW. Determine the actual velocity of car A and its
direction.
2. Find the resultant of the forces shown in each of the diagrams
below

80N
10N 100N

45o
30o
60o
20N
60o

100N

60N
 WEEK 3
DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS OF LINEAR MOTION
Consider a body moving along a straight line with uniform acceleration,
a .Let the initial velocity be u, and its final velocity be v ,let the time of
motion be t, and the distance covered be S. The acceleration a is defined
by:
a= =
at = v – u
then, v = u + at ............................... equ (i)
Also the average velocity of the body is given by:

V=
Therefore s = vt

S=[ ]t
Substitute v = u + at in equ above

s =[ ]t = [ ]t

s= +

then, s = ut + at2………………….equ(ii)
If we square both sides of equation( i)
 V2 = (u + at)2
V2 = (u + at)( u + at)
V2 = u2 + 2uat+ a2 t2

V 2 = u2 + 2a(ut + at2 )
V2 = u2 + 2as…………………… equ (iii)
In summary

1. S = [ ]t …….s, u, v, t
2. V = U ± at ..…. V, U, a, t
3. V2 = U2 ± aS ………v, u a, s
4. S =ut at2 ...... S, u, a, t

NOTE:When body starts from rest, u = 0;

When body comes to rest, v = 0.

Worked Example
1. A car travelling at 108km/hr accelerates uniformly at
3m/s2 .Calculate its velocity after 2minutes.

Solution
N.B : It is important to convert all unit to S.I unit
U = 108km/hr = 30m/s
T = 2min = 2x60 = 120 seconds
Using the equation : V = u + at
 V = 30 + 3 x120
V = 30 + 360
V = 390m/s
2. A body moving with an initial velocity of 30m/s accelerates
uniformly at a rate of 10m/s2 until it attains a velocity of
50m/s.What is the distance covered during this period .
Solution
U = 30m/s , v = 50m/s, a = 10m/s2
Using : V2 = u2 + 2as
S=
= =

= 80m

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

This is the motion of object ( i e free falling bodies) moving freely under
the influence of gravity only regardless of its initial motion. Objects
thrown upwards or downwards and those released from rest are all
falling freely once they are released. Though the acceleration due to
gravity in both cases are the same, they are in opposite direction
VERTICAL MOTION
UPWARD DOWNWARD
a= -g a = +g
s=h s=h
v = 0 …. At maximum height v =?
U =? U=0
V2 = u2- 2gh ……. V, u, h …….. V2 = u2+2gh

h = ut - gt2 ....... h, u, t …….. h =ut + gt2

v = u – gt …….. v, u, t ……… v = u + gt

3. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of

50m/s .Calculate (i) Its velocity after 4 seconds (ii) The maximum
height attained and time to reach it (iii) The total time taken for the
ball to reach the ground again(neglect air resistance).
Solution
U = 50m/s ,v = ? ,t = 4secs
(i) Since the body is thrown upwards
V = u – gt
V = 50 - 40 x 10
50 – 40
So therefore, v = 10m/s
(ii) At maximum height:
V = 0, u =50m/s, g = 10m/s2
Using : v2 = u2 -2gh
02 = 502 - 2 x 10 x h
2500 = 20h
h = 125m
 Time taken to reach maximum height :
t= = =
t = 5seconds
(iii) Total time taken = time taken to reach maximum height x 2
i.e T= t x2
5x2
10seconds

EXERCISE

1. A train with an initial velocity of 20m/s is subjected to a

uniform deceleration of 2m/s .The time required to bring the
train to a complete halt is ?
2. A ball is released from a height above the ground. Find its
velocity after 1 minutes (Take g = 10m/s2 )
3. A body accelerates uniformly from rest at 3m/s. Calculate its
velocity after travelling a distance of 24m
4. (i) A fruit drops from the top of a tree 20m tall. Calculate the
time taken for the fruit to fall to the ground
(ii) Calculate the velocity of the fruit before it hits the ground
 WEEK 4

PROJECTILE AND ITS APPLICATION

A projectile is a solid object that is thrown or released into the air or
space,moving on its own and which falls freely under gravity. The
curved path (parabolic) which the projectile describes is known as
projectile trajectory or the trajectory of the projectile.

A projectile motion is a two –dimensional motion of a particle or an

object thrown obliquely into the air .
Examples are : Motion of a base ball, motion of an object fired from a
catapult, motion of a thrown shot put, motion of a launched missile.
The fig below shows the path of a projectile

uy
u

ux
A projectile motion is an example of motion in a plane without constant
acceleration g directed downwards. There is no horizontal component of
acceleration, hence ax = 0
It hs two independent motion: vertical and horizontal motion.
The vertical component of velocity is given by : Uy = U sinθ,
The horizontal component of velocity is given by: Ux = U cos θ
TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE PROJECTILE MOTION
 1. Time of Flight(T) : This is the time taken for a projectile body
to return to the same level from which it was projected. It is
denoted T and measured in seconds. It is given by : T=

OR

T=
OR

T=
2. Maximum Height (H):Is the highest vertical distance obtained
as measured from the horizontal projectile plane .It is denoted H
measured in meters.It is given by : H=

OR
H=
3. Range(R) : This is the horizontaldistance from the point of
projection to the point where the projectile hit the projection
plane again. It is denoted R and measured in meters(m). It is
given by :

R=
To attain maximum range,the angle of projection must be 450.

Thus :Rmax : =

WORKED EXAMPLE
 1. A stone is shut out from a catapult with and initial velocity of
30m/s and at an angle of 600 to the horizontal. Calculate the
I. time of flight;
II. time to reach the maximum height;
III. maximum height;
IV. range of projection.

(Take g= 10m/s2)
Solution
Ɵ = 600, U = 30m/s

i. usingT =

T= = 5.2s
ii. using T=
T= = 2.6s

iii. using H=
H= = = 33.75m

iv. using R = = = 77.94m

APPLICATION OF PROJECTILE
1. Sport
2. Warfare

EXERCISE
 1. A ball projected with a speed of 40m/s attains a height of
100m.Calculate :
i. The angle of projection
ii. The time of flight
iii. The range attained
2. If a ball is projected at an angle of 300 with an initial velocity of
40m/s.Determine the time of flight..
3. A ball is projected horizontally from the top of a hill with a
velocity of 20m/s.If it reaches the ground 5 seconds later.
Calculate : (i) The height of the hill (ii)The range

WEEK 5
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION
The first law states that every object will continue in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless an external force acts on it.
The first law of motion introduces the concept of INERTIA which is
defined as the reluctance of a body to change the state of rest or uniform
motion. Hence the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is
directly proportional to the applied force taking place in the direction in
which the force is applied i.e

Force α

i.e F α

then F= (where K = 1)
then , F =
then Ft = mv-mu
where, m= mass of object in kg
v= velocity of object in m/s
F= force in Newton
T= time in seconds
Ft = Impulse
mv - mu = change in momentum
IMPULSE
The change of momentum of a body is called impulse. Itis defined as the
change in momentum of a body or the product of force and time.It is
measured in Newton Seconds(Ns)

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

The third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction
Suppose, the forces FA and FB are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction, since force is a vector, we can write, FA = -FB, FA is the action
force, FB is the reaction force
 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
The principle states that the total momentum of two colliding bodies
remain constant if no external force act on them,that is momentum
before collision is equal to the momentum after collision
The principle of conservation of linear momentum follows from
Newton’s third and second law of motion.

APPLICATION OF MOMENTUM
i. Recoil of a gun
ii. Jet engine
iii. Rocket propulsion

COLLISION

This is the coming together of two objects with force. It arises when two
objects come in touch with each other forcefully
TYPES OF COLLISION
i. Elastic collision
ii. Inelastic collision
Elastic collision: In elastic collision, both momentum and energy are
conserved, that is they are the same before and after collision. Examples
of such collision are:
i. Collision with atoms of gas(atomic collision)
ii. Collision between two smooth billard balls

u1 u2 v1
v2

m1 m2 = m1 m2
In this case : mu1 + mu2 = mv1 + mv2
Where , m1= mass of object 1, m2 = mass of object 2
U1 = initial velocity of object 1, u2 = initial velocity of object 2
V1 = Final velocity of object 1 v2 =final velocity of object 2

Inelastic collision: In inelastic collision momentum and energy is not

conserved

U1 u2 v1 v2

m1 m2 = m1
m2

In this case: m1u1 + m1u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v

Where , m1= mass of object 1, m2 = mass of object 2
U1 = initial velocity of object 1, u2 = initial velocity of object 2
V = Final velocity

WORKED EXAMPLE
1.When taking a penalty kick by messi, he applied a force of 30N for a
period of 0.05seconds.If the mass of the ball is 0.075kg.Calculate the
speed with which the ball moves off.
Solution
 F =30N, m = 0.075kg, t=0.05seconds, u = 0

Using : F =

30 ==

v=
V= 20m/s
2. A body of mass 500g initially at rest is subjected to a force of 2N for
1 second. Calculate the change in momentum of the body.
Solution
m = 500g = 0.5kg, U= 0 , F= 2N, t= 1second
Using : I = Ft
2 X 1 = 2N
3.Two bodies of masses 8kg and 5kg respectively travelling in the same
direction with speed x m/s and 2m/s and collide. After collision they
move together with a common speed of 3.85m/s. Find the value of x in
m/s
Solution
m1 = 8kg , m2 =5kg, u1= xm/s, u2 =2m/s
using : m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+m)v
8 X x + 5 X 2 = 3.85 (8+5)
8x + 10 = 50.05

X= = 5.01 m/s
EXERCISE
1. A ball of mass 6.0kg moving with a velocity of 10m/s collides with
a 2.0kg ball moving in opposite direction with a velocity of 5.0m/s.
After the collision the two balls move with a common velocity.
calculate the velocity of the composite body
2. A body of mass 2kg moving with a velocity of 5m/s collides with a
stationary body of mass 500g.If the two bodies move together after
collision. Calculate the magnitude of the common velocity
 CHAPTER 6
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

Equilibrium is a state of an object with respect to a given observable

quantity. For example, a body acted on by several forces is said to be in
equilibrium if it does not change. There are three types of equilibrium –
Dynamic or Kinetic equilibrium, static equilibrium and thermal
equilibrium.

A body may either be at rest or may be moving with constant velocity.

Such bodies at rest are said to be in static equilibrium. When the body is
moving with a constant velocity in a straight line, or when it is rotating
with a constant angular velocity about a fixed axis through its centre of
mass, the equilibrium is said to be kinetic or dynamic equilibrium.
Equilibrium of three forces acting at a point.

E
Q

O A
P
 Fig. 1: Triangle of Forces

The principle of triangle of forces states that if three forces are in

equilibrium, they can be represented in both magnitude and direction by
the three sides of a triangle taken in order.

Moment of a Force
The moment of a force about a point (or axis) is the turning effect of the
force about that point. It is equal to the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action from the point C.

Moment = force × perpendicular distance of pivot to the line of action of

the force. Since force is in Newton (N) and distance is in metres, the S.I.
unit of moment is Cexpressed in Newton-metre(Nm). It is a vector
quantity. d

Fig. 2
 1. A metre rule is pivoted at its midpoint C with a vertical force of
10N hanging from the distance 30cm from C. At what distance
must a 15N force hang to balance the ruler horizontally?
C

30cm y

10N 15N

For the ruler to balance horizontally we have

10 × 30 = 15 × y

∴ y =
Couples
A couple is a system of two parallel and equal but opposite forces not
acting along the same line. The resultant force is zero but the resultant
moment is not zero. It is equal to Fh (see diagram below) where h is the
perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the two forces.
Examples of couples can be seen in the action of a corkscrew, or turning
a water tap on or off.

F
 Fig 3: A Couple

Equilibrium and the principle of moments

A body acted on by several forces is said to be in equilibrium it if does
not accelerate or rotate. This means that the forces acting on the body
along any direction cancel each other out, i.e. the resultant force is zero.
For example, when a body is in equilibrium, the total forces acting
downwards, or the body would move vertically. Equilibrium also means
that the resultant moment about any point is zero, and this can be
expressed as forces.
O
x1 x2
x1 x2

F1 F2
ACW = anticlockwise
CW = clockwise
ACW CW
 Fig 4: Moments

The principle of moments states that if a body is in equilibrium then the

sum of the clockwise turning moments acting upon it about any point
equals the sum of the anticlockwise turning moments about the same
point.

When there are several forces acting on a body the resultant moment on
the body about any point O can be found by finding the algebraic sum of
the various moments. If we take the clockwise turning effect (CW) as
positive, and the anticlockwise effect (ACW) as negative, then the
principle of moments says that the algebraic sum of the moments is zero.

For example in Fig. 4 clockwise moment about O, CW = F 2X2.

Anticlockwise moment about O. ACW = F1X1. Sum of moments =
F2X2– F1X1. If the bar is in equilibrium, F2X2 – F1X1 = 0, or F1X1 = F2X2.

F1 F2

x1 x2

x4 x3
 4 3

ACW CW

Fig. 5 – Moments of a body in equilibrium

Fig. 5

In Fig. 5, the resultant clockwise moments of the system about O is:

F1 1 – F2 2 + F3 3 + F4 4

If the bar is in equilibrium,

F1 1 – F2 2 + F3 3 - F4 4

2. A light (weightless) bar is pivoted at its centre and weights of 5N

and 10N, 3m and 2m from the pivot on one side, are balanced by a
weight of 20N on the other side. How far is the 20N weight from
the pivot?

3m
2m x

5N 10N 20N
Solution

Let the distance be

Cw = 20
ACW = (5 × 3) + (10 × 2) = 15 + 20 = 35m
The bar is in equilibrium, so by the principle of moments

∴
EXERCISE
1. A uniform beam 15m long is balanced on a pivot placed at its mid
point .a boy of mass 55kg seats on one arm of the bar at appoint
5m long from the pivot. what mass can be placed 2m away at the
other end of the bar to keep the bar horizontal.
2. A uniform meter rule AB is balanced on a knife edge which is
55cm from B.If a mass of log 5g is hung at P, Which is 10cm from
A, calculate the mass of the meter rule
3. A force of 250N is applied at the free end of a 25cm long spanner
to remove a nut. Calculate the moment of the force.
4. Two forces forming a couple are separated by a distance of 25cm.if
one of the forces equals 40N.What is the moment of the couple.
 CHAPTER 7
EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES CONTINUED
CENTRE OF GRAVICTY
The centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point through which its
resultant weight acts.

mg mg mg
mg

mg

Any object such as stone maybe regarded as made up of a very large

number of tiny equal particles of mass m, each of which is pulled
towards the Earth with a force mg. Thus the earth’s pull on the object
consists of a large number of equal parallel forces.

Stability of a body: types of equilibrium

Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in a position of stable equilibrium when, on
receiving a slight displacement, it tends to return to its original position.
A body with large base and low centre of gravity is usually stable, e.g., a
cone resting on its base, fig. 6, a pendulum, the beam of an ordinary
balance, a racing ar.

Y W
W

W
Unstable
Stable (a)
(a)

Fig 6 W
Neutral

A necessary condition for stability is that the centre of gravity is at its

lowest position. A body is said to be in a position of unstable
equilibrium when, on receiving a slight displacement, it tends to move
on, farther away from its original position.
A body with a small base and high centre of gravity is usually unstable,
e.g. a cone resting on its vertex or an egg standing on its pointed end.

Neutral Equilibrium
A body is in neutral equilibrium when on receiving a slight displacement
it tends to come to rest in its new position, e.g. a cone resting on its
curved surface, a ball or an orange rolling on a horizontal surface.
 CHAPTER 8
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is the periodic motion (or vibration or

oscillation) of a body or particle along a straight line such that the
acceleration of the body is directed towards a fixed point (or centre of
motion) and is also proportional to its displacement from that point.

Examples of such motions are the motion of a body in a circular path

with uniform speed, the oscillation of a clock pendulum, the vibrations
of the balance wheel of a watch, the vibrations of a violin or guitar string
and the rotation of the earth about its axis.

WA
B
P

S W

Y Z
Fig 1 C x Q
Thread
Fig 2 Reference
circle

D
Motion of a simple pendulum Simple harmonic motion from
circular motion
Consider the motion of a particle, P, moving round a reference circle
with centre C and diameters BD and YZ as shown in fig 2.

Amplitude (A) of a simple harmonic motion is the maximum

displacement of the body performing simple harmonic motion from its
equilibrium or central position C.

Period (T) is defined as the total time taken by a vibrating body to make
one complete revolution (or cycle) about a reference point.
If a body makes a given number of revolutions (n) in a given time t, then
the number of revolutions per unit time (second) is known as the
frequency (f) of the SHM.

Frequency (f) is the number of complete revolutions per second made

by a vibrating body.

Since the time for one complete revolution is the period T and the
number of revolution per unit time is f, it is easy to see that:
i.e. the frequency is the reciprocal of the period.
The S.I. unit of frequency is the Hertz.
 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 cycle per second.

Speed and Acceleration of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

We note from fig. 2 that as the particle P moves round the circle once, it
sweeps through an angle of θ = 360 o (or 2π radians) in the time T, the
period of motion. The rate of change of the angle θ with time (t) is
known as the angular velocity w.

This is similar to the relation:

distance = uniform velocity × time

S =vt or v =
The angle θ is measured in radians (rad) and since 2π rad = 360 o, we
have from that the angular velocity is measured in radians per
second (rad/s).
As the angle θ in fig. 2 is changing with time so is the arc length S = ZP
changing with time.

By definition, θ in radians = and hence s = rθ

Where r = A = radius of the circle. The angular velocity (w) is given by
 =

But , the linear velocity or particle. Hence

Hence the linear speed equals the product of the angular speed and the
radius or amplitude of motion.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A boy ties a stone to the end of a string which he then whirls above
his head round a circular path of radius 15cm. If the stone makes
20 oscillations in 10seconds, calculate the angular and linear speed
of the stone.
Solution
1 complete oscillation = 360o = 2πrad.
20 complete oscillation = (360 × 20)o
= 2π × 20rad

Angular speed,
= 4π rad/sec.
Linear speed v = wA = 4π × 15cm/s
= 60πcms–1

2. A spring makes 60 revolutions in 15secs. Find the period and the

frequency of the vibration.
Solution
 =

The linear velocity v at any point Q whose distance from C the central
point is , is given by

Linear acceleration a equals the product of the square of the angular

speed and the displacement, , of the particle from the centre of motion.

Acceleration,

The negative sign indicates that acceleration is always directed inwards

C while the displacement is measured outwards from C.

When t = T, the period of SHM or the time for one cycle, θ = 360 o or 2π
radians.

Hence: w = or

Similarly the frequency; f is given by f =

3. A body vibrates in simple harmonic motion with a frequency of

50Hz and amplitude of 4cm. Find
(a) the period;
(b) the acceleration at the middle and at the end of the path of
oscillation;
(c) the velocities at the middle and at end of path of oscillation;
(d) the velocity and acceleration at a distance of 2cm from the
centre of oscillation.

Solution

(a)

(b) Acceleration,

(i) at midpoint of vibration, i.e. at C,

(ii) at end of path,

But

(c)

At

At

(d)

= 2

= 2
 =

Angular Acceleration (a) of a body is the time rate of change of its

angular velocity (w). It is expressed in radians per second (rads-2)

∝ =

Hence ∝ = =
Where a is the linear acceleration of the body ∴ a = ∝r

Liner acceleration (a) equals the product of angular acceleration ( ∝) and

the radius r (or the displacement of the particle from its central position).

Activity:
To use the principle of SHM to determine the value of g, the
acceleration due to gravity experimentally, The period (T) of a simple

pendulum is given by , where L = length of pendulum, g =

acceleration due to gravity.
EXERCISE
1. A body of mass 0.3kg executes SHM with a period of 2.5 seconds
and an amplitude of 4 x 10-2m. Determine :
i. The maximum velocity
ii. The maximum acceleration
 iii. The energy associated with the motion

2. The amplitude of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is

5cmwhile its angular frequency is 10rad/secs .Calculate the
maximum acceleration of the particle.

CHAPTER 9
Energy of Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
When the motion of an object is SHM there is always a restoring force
tending to return the body to its central or equilibrium position. Since
force and displacements are involved it follows that work and energy are
involved in SH.

h
P.E
P.E = mgh
(P.E. is max.) h = 0 P.E. = 0
K.E = ½mv2

Note: T =
Example:
A body of mass 20g is suspended from the end of a spiral spring whose
force constant is 0.4 Nm−1. The body is set into a simple harmonic
motion with amplitude 0.2m. Calculate:
(a)the period of the motion;
(b) the frequency of the motion;
(c)the angular speed;
(d) the total energy;
(e)the maximum velocity of the motion;
(f) the maximum acceleration.

Solution

(a) T =

=
= 1.41secs.

(b) =

(c)
(d) total energy, t = ½kA2

=
(e) Let maximum velocity of motion be Vm, then
½mV2m = ½kA2 = 0.008

V2m =
 Vm = 0.89m/s.
Or from V = wa = 4.46 × 0.2 = 0.89m/s
The maximum velocity occurs at the midpoint of motion
(f) Maximum acceleration a is given by
a = −w2A = (4.46)2 × 0.2
= 3.98m/s
 EXERCISE
1. A body of mass 0.6kg executes SHM with a period of 2.5 seconds
and an amplitude of 0.2 x 10-2m. Determine :
iv. The maximum velocity
v. The maximum acceleration
vi. The energy associated with the motion

.
 CHAPTER 10
MACHINE
A machine is a device by means of which force is being applied at a
point to overcome force at some other points.
Examples are: Screw driver, pair of scissors, wheel barrow, sea saw,
fore-arm, laboratory tong.
The force applied is called the effort, E while the force overcome is the
load (L). Thus in machine, effort (E) is applied to overcome load
(L).Note that effort (E) moves a distance x and load (L) moves a
distance y.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
The mechanical advantage is otherwise known as the force ratio and it is
defined as the ratio of load to effort that is :

M.A = , it has no unit

Suppose a load of 20N is raised by an effort of 40N , then:

M.A =
So therefore, M.A = 5
The M.A of a machine is not 100%, because of friction
A machine that has no friction is called an ideal machine or a perfect
machine
 VELOCITY RATIO

The velocity ratio is defined using the distance moved by effort,x and
the distance moved by the load y. Thus :

V.R = , it has no unit.

EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a mchine is defined as follows :

Efficiency E = x 100%
OR

E= x 100%
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A machine uses a force of 20N to overcome a force of 100N
through a distance of 6m.If the distance the effort moved is
60m.Determine : (i)Mechanical advantage (ii) Velocity Ratio (iii)
Efficiency

Solution

(i) Mechanical Advantage =

M.A = =5

(ii) VelocityRatio =

V.R = =10
 (iii) E = x 100%

x 100%
TYPES OF MACHINES
1. Lever
2. The pulley system
3. The inclined plane
4. The wedge
5. The screw and screw jack
6. The wheel and axle
7. Gear wheels

EXERCISE
1. A machine has an efficiency of 60%.If the is required to
overcome a load of 30N with a force of 20N.Calculte its
Velocity ratio
2. A machine which has a V.R of 50 raises a load of 825N when a
force of 66N is applied. Calculate its efficiency
3. A block and tackle of 10 pulleys is used to raise a load if 200N
through a vertical distance of 20m.If the work done against
friction is 1500J,calculate : (i)The workdone by the effort
(ii)The efficiency of the machine
(iii) The force applied
 SECOND TERM
1. Revision/heat energy: Temperature and its measurement.
2. Heat capacity and specific heat capacity, methods of determine
specific heat capacity.
3. Calculations on specific heat capacity
4. Evaporation, boiling and melting points and their determination.
Effects of impurities and pressure on boiling and melting.
5. Latent heat: Fusion and vaporizations and verifications
6. Vapor pressure: Saturated and unsaturated vapor pressure and its
relation to boiling. Demonstration of vapor pressure using simple
experiments humidity, relative humidity, Dew points and its relationship
with weather.
7. Gas laws: Boyles, Charles, pressure law and general gas law
8. Production and propagation of waves: ripple tank, types of waves,
general wave equation
9. Properties of waves: reflection refraction, diffraction, interference and
polarization and application where necessary.
10. Light waves: sources, reflection, reflection in the plane and curved
mirrors.
11. Refraction of light: refractive index its determination total internal
reflection and critical angle
12. Revision
13. Examination.

THIRD TERM.
1. Revision/triangular prism, rectangular glass prism, angle of
deviation and calculations, real depth and apparent depth.
2. Lenses: Convex and concave, ray diagrams, lens formula and
calculation.
 3. Optical instruments: Camera, projector, telescope, microscope and
periscope
4. Optical instruments binoculars, human eyes and its defects.
5. Dispersion of white light: pure and impure spectrum,
recombination of combination of combination of component of
spectrum using color filter, Newton disk.
6. Dispersion of white light: Colors and paints, mixing, determination
of refractive index.
7. Sound waves: Production, transmission, speed of sound in solid,
liquid, air, noise and music.
8. Sound waves: Effect of temperature and pressure on velocity of
sound, functions of hearing aids.
9. Resonance: Vibration in pipes and strings: musical instruments,
harmonics and over tones.
10. Project/excursion
11. Practical
12. Revision/examination
13. Examination

.
 CHAPTER 1
TEMPERATURE AND ITS MEASUREMENT
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body and is
related to the energy of movement
The instrument used to obtain objective, reliable and numerical
measurement of temperature is the thermometer
The substance whose physical property is used in a thermometer is
known as thermometric substance and the measureable properties of the
substance are called thermometric property
The measurable properties of material which makes them suitable as
thermometric substance are:
i. Expansion of the liquid
ii. Increase in pressure at constant volume
iii. Iii. Increase in volume at constant pressure
iv.Electrical resistance of the substance
v.The E.M.F (electric current) generated in a thermocouple
vi.The kind of light emitted from a body at high temperature
PROPERTIES OF A GOOD THERMOELECTRIC SUBSTANCE
1. It must be a good conductor of heat
2. It must be opaque (as a liquid)
 3. It must have high coefficient of expansion
4. It must have high boiling and low freezing point
5. It must expand uniformly
6. It must be sensitive to small temperature change
THERMOMETERS AND THEIR THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE
Types Of Thermometric Physical Properties
Thermometers Substance
Liquid in glass Mercury or Alcohol Change in volume with
Thermometer temperature
Gas Thermometer Gas Change of gas pressure at
constant volume
Resistance Resistance wire Change in the electrical
Thermometer resistance of wire with
temperature

Thermocouple Two dissimilar Change in electric p.d(or

metals(cu and current) btw two metal
constantan junction at different
temperature

TEMPERATURE SCALE
The Celsius scale has been recommended for general use as well as for
scientific use. the Fahrenheit scale was an earlier scale. The temperature
scale used in the S.I system of unit is the absolute or thermodynamic
scale.
Recall that the following conversion scale are usually used:
K = 00 + 273
0
C = K – 273
 0
F = 9/5(0F – 32)
0
C =5/9C + 32
DETERMINATION OF TRUE TEMPERATURE ON A
THERMOMETER
An un-graduated Celsius thermometer reads 2.0cm and 12.0cm at the ice
and steam point respectively. Determine the true temperature when the
thermometer reads 5cm
12cm 1000C
steam point

5cm θ0C

2cm 00C ice

point
SOLUTION

By taking proportion : =

=
300 =10θ
Θ = 300 c
(b) What is the true temperature in Kelvin
T = θ + 273K
 30 +273 = 303K
EXERCISE
1. A faulty thermometer reads 0.70C at the melting point of pure ice
and 99.50 at the boiling point of water at normal pressure (a) What
is the correct temperature when it reads 300 C (b) At what
temperature will its reading be exactly correct

WEEK 2
TYPES OF THERMOMETER
1. LIQUID IN GLASS THERMONETER :It could be Mercury in
glass or Alcohol in glass depending on the liquid used.
Special types of liquid in glass thermometer are the clinical (for
reading the human temperature) and the Six’s maximum and minimum
thermometer(for measuring minmum and maximum temperature for the
day by weather men)
For high sensitivity liquid in glass thermometer should have the
following the following :
i. A bulb made of thin bulb
ii. A narrow capillary tube with uniform bore
iii. A liquid with a high expansivity

ADVANTAGE OF MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC

SUBSTANCE
i. It is a good conductor of heat
ii. It is opaque and therefore easily seen in a glass tube
iii. Does not wet the walls of the tube
iv. Has a fairly high boiling point 3570C
v. Has a low specific heat capacity
DISADVANTAGE OF MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC
SUBSTANCE
i. Mercury has high density
ii. It has a relatively high freezing point

ADVANTAGE OF ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC

SUBSTANCE
i.It has high temperature coefficient of expansion
ii.It has low density
iii. It has low freezing point of -1150C(for ethylacohol)

DISADVANTAGES OF ACOHOL AS ATHERMOMETRIC

SUBSTANCE
I.It has low boiling point
ii.It is a poor conductor of heat
iii.It has a high specific heat capacity
iv.It is transparent and need to be coloured

GAS THERMOMETER
This is a very sensitive thermometer. It is also known as standard
thermometers because the temperature of other thermometers are
compared to it .Different gas thermometer give measurement which are
good agreement with one another.They are used in research laboratories
TYPES OF GAS THERMOMETER
1.Constant volume thermometer : In which the pressure varies with the
temperature
2.Constant pressure thermometer: In which the volume varies with the
temperature

ADVANTAGES OF THE GAS THERMOMETER

i.It gives accurate,reliable and numerical measurement of temperature
ii.It can be used over a wide range of temperature

DISADVANTAGE
i.They are usually bulky
ii.They are sloe in coming to thermal equilibrium

The temperature of gas thermometer can be calculated as :

⍬ = x 100 For constant volume,

⍬= X 100 For constant pressure

RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
Platinium is the most commonest material used for the resistance
thermometer because it has a high melting point and does not take part
easily in chemical reaction.
The temperature can be obtained by the formular :

⍬= X 100
ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
It gives accurate measurement of very low or very high temperature.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
i. It has a large size, and so cannot be used in very small enclosure
ii. It is not able to respond quickly to varying temperatures

THERMOCOUPLE
These are thermometers that work on the seebeck effect;that is if the
ends of two wire of different metals are joined together a small electric
current flow when one junction is heated or cool.The magnitude of the
current depends on temperature difference between the two junctions.
The temperature can be obtained by the formula :

⍬= X 100
ADVANTAGES OF THE THERMOCOUPLE
i. It can be used to measure a wide range of temperature
ii. It is very sensitive to temperature change

PYROMETER
A pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to measure high temperature
by observing radiation from hot bodies. It is a non conducting device
that intercept and measure thermal radiation, a process known as
Pyrometry. The thermal radiation can be used to determine the
temperature of an objects surface.
TYPES OF PYROMETER
1. Optical pyrometer:which responds to visible light
2. Total radiation Pyrometer :which respond to heat light from hot
bodies.
ABSOLUTE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
The kelvin scale is called the absolute or thermodynamic temperature
scale.The Kelvin scale of temperature T(K) is related to the Celsius (⍬0)
by :
T(K) = 273 +⍬

WEEK 3
HEAT AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity of a substance is defined as the heat energy required to
raise the temperature of the substance by 10 C or 1K.

Q=C
 C=
Where C= Heat or thermal capacity
Q = Quantity of heat

Temperature change
The S.I unit of heat capacity isJoules per Kelvin (JK-1)
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of unit mass of the substance by 10C or 1K. i.e

Q = mc

C=
Where c=specific heat capacity,
Q =Quantity of heat
M= mass of substance

Temperature change
Specific heat capacity depends on the nature of the substance
The S.I unit of specific heat capacity is Joule per kilogram per
Kelvin(JKg-1K-1)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC
HEAT CAPACITY
C =mc
1. A copper rod withheat capacity 585JK-1is heated until its
temperature changes from 250C to 750C.Calculate the quantity of
 heat supplied to the rod.If the specific heat capacity is 390JKg-1K-
1
.Find the mass of the rod.
SOLUTION
Heat capacity C =585JK-1
Temperature change = 750 - 250 = 500
Specific heat capacity c = 390JKg-1K-1
But Q = C
585 X 50
= 29250J
Let the mass of the rod be m(Kg)
C = mc
M= = = 1.5Kg

VERIFICATION/DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT

CAPACITY
The specific heat capacity of a substance can be
determined/verified by :
i. Method of mixture
ii. Electrical method

Method of Mixture

Apparatus: Calorimeter, thermometer, solid(metal ball), stirrer, water

and beaker
Procedure
i. Take the calorimeter out of the lagging jacket, clean, dry and
weigh empty
ii. Fill the calorimeter up to half or two-third full of water and
reweigh
iii. Take the temperature of water and calorimeter and record
 iv. Weigh and record the mass of the solid
v. Hang the solid with thread and suspend in a beaker of boiling
water for about 10-15 minutes
vi. Record the temperature of boiling water
vii. Transfer the hot solid quickly into the calorimeter shaking to
ensure no hot water is transferred into the calorimeter.
viii. Stir the calorimeter well until a steady final temperature is
attained
The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated from the reading
taken as follows: mass of calorimeter = m1
mass of calorimeter + water = m2
mass of solid = m3
Initial temperature of water in calorimeter = θ1
Final temperature of water = θ2 Temperature of hot solid = θ3
Specific heat capacity of calorimeter = c1Specific heat capacity of water
= c2 Specific heat
capacity of solid = c3
Applying the law of exchange of heat, and assuming that no heat is loss
to the surrounding:
Heat loss by hot body = Heat gained by calorimeter + water

Thus from Q = mc
Heat loss by solid Qs = m3c3(θ3- θ2)Heat gained by calorimeter Qc = m1c1
(θ2- θ1 )Heat gained by water Qw = (m2 –m1)c2(θ2- θ1)m3c3 (θ3- θ2)= m1
c1(θ2- θ1)+ (m2 –m1)c2(θ2- θ1)
C3 = m1 c1 θ2- θ1 +(m2 –m1)c2(θ2- θ1)/ m3(θ3- θ2)
Precaution
i. The calorimeter should be lagged to prevent heat exchange with
the surrounding
ii. The hot metal solid should be quickly transferred to the
calorimeter
iii. The mixture should be gently stirred to obtain an even temperature

WEEK FOUR
LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the amount of heat that is needed to change a body from
one state to another without change in temperature.
Latent heat can be latent heat of fusion or latent heat of vaporization
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF
FUSION
The latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat required to convert a
substance from its solid state to its liquid state without a change in
temperature.It depends on the mass and nature of substance
Specific latent heat of fusion Lf of a substance is the quantity of heat
required to convert the unit mass of the solid at the melting point to its
liquid form without change in temperature.
The S.I unit of specific latent heat of fusion is joules per kilogram (JKg-
1
).The heat involved(H),the mass (m) and the specific latent heat of
fusion Lf are related by the formula:
H = mLf
The spat of fusion of ice is 336000JKg-1 or 336Jg-1
WORKED EXAMPLE
1. What quantity of heat is required to change 10kg of ice at 00C to
water at the same temperature.Take Specific latent heat of fusion
of ice to be 336000Jkg-1
SOLUTION
Q=H=?
m = 10kg
Q = ml
= 10 x 336000 = 3360000J

VERIFICATION/DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC LATENT

HEAT OF FUSION
Apparatus : Ice,blotting paper,calorimeter,water
From the law of calorimetric :
Heat gained by ice = Heat loss by calorimeter and water .
Assuming no heat is loss to the surrounding then:
(m3-m2)Lf + m3 – m2c2 (ϴ3-ϴ2) = m1 c1 ϴ1 -ϴ2 + m2 –m1x c2(ϴ1 -ϴ2 )
Where m1= mass of calorimeter
 m2 = mass of calorimeter + water
m3 = mass of calorimeter + water + ice
ϴ1 = initial temperature of water
ϴ2 =inal temperature
ϴ3 = temperature of ice
C1 = specific heat capacity of calorimeter
C2 = specific heat capacity of water
PRECAUTIONS
1. Only dry ice pieces should be used
2. Ice should be added in small quantities at a time
3. Stir the mixture gently and continuously to obtain an even
temperature of the mixture
4. The final temperature should be about the same amount below
room temperature as the initial temperature as the initial
temperature is above fro room temperature
5. The calorimeter should be lagged

LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION AND SPECIFIC LATENT

HEAT OF
Latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat required to change a
substance from its liquid state to gaseous state without a change in
temperature.This temperature is known as the boiling point.
The specific latent heat of vaporization Lvof a substance is the quantity
of heat required to change unit mass of the substance from its liquid state
at the boiling point to vapor without a change in temperature.
The unit of specific latent heat of vaporization is JKg-1.In general the
quantity of heat H,required for evaporation of mass m is given by :
H = mLv
The specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2200000JKg-1 or
226Jg-1

DETERMINATION/VERIFICATION OF LATENT HEAT OF

VAPORIZATION
The specific latent heat of vaporization can be found by passing steam
into water in a calorimeter where it condenses and gives out latent.
From the law of calorimetry:
Heat loss by steam = Heat gained by calorimeter and water
(m3 - m2)Lv + m3 – m2 c2 (ϴ3 - ϴ2) = m1 c1 ϴ1 - ϴ2 + m2 –m1 x c2 (ϴ1 -ϴ2 )
Θ1 Initial temperature of water
ϴ2 =initial temperature
ϴ3 = temperature of steam

C1 = specific heat capacity of calorimeter

C2 = specific heat capacity of water
PRECAUTION
1. Only dry steam should be used.
2. The calorimeter should be lagged and should be further prevented
from receiving extra heat directly from the boiler
3.The water in the calorimeter should be cooled to about 100C below
room temperature before seam is passed and the passing of steam
 should be continued until the temperature of mixture is about 100C an
room temperature
4.The mixture should be gently and continuously stirred to ensure an
even final temperature.
WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 0.01kg of ice at
00C to water at 100c (take SLHF =336000Jkg-1, cw=4200Jkg-1K-1
SOLUTION

Q = mL + mc
1.01 x 336000 + 0.01 x4200 x10
3780J

EXERCISE
1.Calculate the amount of heat required to convert 2kg of ice at -20C
to water at 00C ( take SHCice = 2090Jkg-1K-1, SLHFice= 333KJg-1)
2. Calculate the quantity of heat required to convert 1kg of ice at -
100C to steam at 1000C.(SHCice= 2100Jkg-1K-1,SHCwater =4200Jkg-
-1 -1 -1
1K , SLHFice =336000Jkg ,SLHv = 226000Jkg )

WEEK 5
EFFECTS OF IMPURITY AND PRESSURE ON BOILING AND
MELTING POINT
The presence of impurities or of dissolved substance may raise or lower
the temperature of a liquid
EFFECT OF IMPURITY ON BOILING AND FREEZING POINT
Impurity will raise the boiling point of a pure liquid e.g the boiling point
of salt solution is higher than that of pure water
Impurities will lower the freezing/melting poin of pure solid
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON BOILING AND FREEZING POINT
Usually an increase in pressure lowers the freezing/melting point of any
liquid which expands on solidification and while reduction in pressure
raises the melting/melting san increase in pressure results in higher
freezing point
An increase in pressure at the surface a liquid raises the boiling point of
the liquid and conversely a decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point
of the solid
THE PRSSURE COOKER
The pressure cooker is a practical application of the effect of pressure on
the boiling point of a liquid.
In a pressure cooker used by the house wife for rapid cooking and by the
bacteriology for sterilizing culture media water is boiled under an
increased pressure

EVAPORATION
Evaporation is a process where a liquid turns spontaneously into vapor
below its boiling point when exposed in an open dish. It takes place at
the surface of the liquid. Since the more energetic molecules escapes
through the surface,the average kinetic energy of the liquid decreases
and hence the temperature reduces.
Evaporation leads to cooling.The human body uses perspiration to
control its temperature.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS RATE OF EVAPORATION
 i. Temperature
ii. pressure
iii. Wind and dryness of the air
iv. Nature of the liquid
v. Area of liquid exposed
vi. Boiling point of liquid
MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF EVAPORATION
According to the kinetic molecular theory of matter, a liquid consist of
molecules that are in constant motion. When the temperature increases,
the average kinetic energy of the molecules increase and the molecules
gain more kinetic energy.
BOILING
Boiling is the change from liquid to vapor at the boiling point. Boiling
point is the point at which the saturated vapor pressure equals to the
external atmospheric pressure
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING
EVAPORATION BOILING
Yequilibrium with its liquid.The number of molecules living the liquid
per seconds is not equal to the number per seconds returning to it. Its
pressure is less than the saturated vapor pressure.
MOLECULAR EXPLANATION OF SATURATED VAPOR
PRESSURE
We explain vapor pressure and saturated vapor pressure from the
movement of molecules of the liquid. As the temperature of the liquid
rises,the speed of the molecules increases and hence the number of
molecules escaping the surface increases,that is the vapor pressure
becomes greater.
BIOLING AND SATURATED VAPOR PRESSURE
A liquid boils at the temperature at which its saturated vapor pressure is
equal to the external atmospheric pressure.At standard atmospheric
pressure 760mmHg,water boils at 1000C.
HUMIDITY AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY
The water vapor content of the atmosphere or the amount of water vapor
present in the atmosphere is known as Humidity.
If there is a high percentage of water in the air, we say that the air is
humid.
Relative humidity is a term used to describe how humid or moist the air
is. Relative humidity is the ratio of mass of water vapor present in
a certain volume of air to the mass of watervapor required to saturate the
same volume of air at the same temperature.i.e

R.H = x

R.H = x
Relative humidity values are used by metereologist in weather
forecast .An instrument known as hygrometer is used to measure the
relative humidity of the air.
DEW POINT
Dew point is the temperature at which the water vapor present in the air
is just sufficient to saturate it.
FACTORS AFFECTING DEW POINT
i. Temperature
ii. Wind
iii. Atmospheric pressure
 WEEK 7 :
GAS
MEASUREMENT OF GAS PRESSURE
Gas pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a gas. The manometer
is an instrument for measuring gas pressure.
It consist of a U tube containing water or mercury. Domestically, gas
pressure can be measured using a water manometer.
It consist of a water in a U-tube open on one side to the atmosphere with
the other side.joined to the gas supply.
THE BAROMETER
The Barometer is an instrument used for measuring atmospheric
pressure. The simple barometer is not an accurate instrument since it
contains air of water vapor instead of vacuum. It is also bulky and not
convenient for carrying about.
BAROMETER IN PRACTICAL USE
There are two types of barometer in practical use:
i. The fortin barometer: This type of barometer is used for
measuring atmospheric pressure in the laboratory
ii. The aneroid Barometer: This type of barometer contains no
liquid and is therefore more convenient to carry about .since
atmospheric pressure decreases with height, the aneroid
barometer can be used as an altimeter to measure the height of a
place. it is used in aeroplane by pilot.

A simple barometer has a thin layer of water on top of the mercury

column. When the temperature is 200C, the height of the mercury
column is 74.1cm of mercury.
i. Determine the atmospheric pressure
 ii. What will the barometer read if the temperature falls to 100C
assuming the atmospheric pressure remains constant (values of
S.V.P of water at 100C and 200C are 0.95cm and 1.7 cm of
mercury respectively.
Solution
i. If s.v.p of water at 200C is 1.7cm, then atmospheric pressure =
height of mercury column + s.v.p of water.
= (74.1 +1.7) cm of Hg
=75.8cm of Hg
0
ii. At 10 C s.v.p. of H2O is 0.9cm of Hg
Height of mercury column = atmospheric pressure – s.v.p. of
water
= (75.8 – 0.9) cm
= 74.9cm

GAS LAW
In studying the behavior of gas, the three parameters/properties that are
used to describe the state of the gas are: Pressure, Volume and
Temperature
The gas law are used to explain the relationship between
volume,temperature and pressure of a gas.
BOYLE’S LAW
The relationship between the pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas
is given by Boyle’s law.
Boyle’s law states that the pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume, provided that the temperature is kept constant
.Symbolically : P
P=
So therefore PV = K
Where P is the pressure, v is the volume of a fixed mass of gas, K is a
constant
For two cases :
P1V1 = P2V2
2. 500cm3 of a gas is collected at a pressure 72.0cm of mercury. What
is the volume of the gas at the same temperature and at a pressure
of 76.0cm of mercury
Solution
V1= 500cm3, P1 = 72cm,V2 = ?,P2 =76cm
From Boyle’s law :P1V1 = P2V2
500 x 72 = 76 x V2

V2 =
So therefore, V2= 473 .68 cm3

CHARLE’S LAW
The relationship between the Temperature and volume of a fixed mass
of gas is given by Boyle’s law. Charle’slaw state
that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature in Kelvin provided that the pressure remains
constant. OR
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas increases by of its
volume at 00C per degree Celsius rise in temperature provied its
temperature remains constant. Symbolically :

V T
V =KT

Then, K =
Where V is the volume of a fixed mass of gas,T is the temperature and K
is constant

For two case : : =

A baloon containing 546cm3 of air is heated from 00C to 100C.If the
pressure is kept constant.What is the volume at 100C.
Solution
V1 = 546cm3, V2 = ? , T1 = 00C = 273K ,T2= 100 C = 283K

From charle’slaw : : =

Then, V2 =
So therefore, V2 = 566cm3

PRESSURE LAW
This relates the pressure to the temperature of a gas when the volume of
the gas is kept constant.It is also known as Gay –Lussac’slaw : It states
that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.That is :

P T
 P = KT

K=

=
OR
It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume
increases by

of its pressure at 00 for every degree Celsius (or Kelvin) rise in

temperature.
Symbolically:

Pt = P o ( 1 + )
Where Po is the pressure at 00 and Pt pressure at temperature t0C
3. The pressure of air in a tyre is 22.5Nm2 at 270C.If the air in the tyre
heats up to 470C, calculate the new pressure of the air assuming
that no air leaks out and that the change in volume of the air can be
neglected.

Solution
P1 = 22.5Nm2 , T1 = 27 + 273 = 300k , P2 = ? , T2 = 47 + 273 = 320K

From pressure law : =

=
P2 = = 24.0Nm2

GENERAL GAS LAW

It is possible to combine the three stated gas laws to form one that is
referred to as the general gas law. The law is stated as below :

Where, = constant

Gases which obey this equation are referred to as ideal gases. The
equation is also referred to as the equation of state of gases. The law
does not hold good when a gas is near its liquefying temperature. It also
assumes that the attraction between the gas molecules and the volume
they occupy are both negligible, this is not true for real gases.
If the amount of gas is expressed in moles, the equation becomes :

= nR
PV = nR T
Where n is the number of moles and R is the molar gas constant.
4. 500cm3 of gas is collected is collected at 00C and at pressure of
72cm of mercury. What volume of the gas at the same temperature
and at pressure of 76cm of mercury.
Solution
V1 = 500cm3 ,T = 00C + 273K , P1= 72 cmHg , V2 = ? , T2 = = 00C +
273K, P2 = 76cmHg

From the general gas law : =

V2=
Therefore, V2 = 474cm3
5. The pressure of two moles of an ideal gas at temperature of 270C
and volume 10-2m-3 ( take R = 8.313 Jmol-1K-1)
Solution
From PV = nRT

P= =
P= 4.99 x 105Nm2

EXERCISE
1. A fixed mass of gas occupies a volume of 20cm3 at a pressure of
700mmHg.Assuming that the temperature remains constant.what
will be the volume of the gas at 750mmHg.
2. A gas occupied a certain volume at 270C .At what temperature will
its volume be
3. Dry hydrogen is trapped by a pellet of mercury in a uniform
capillary tube closed at one end.If the length of the column of
hydrogen at 270C is 1.0m at what temperature will the length be
1.20m
4. A given mass of gas at a temperature of 300C istrapped in a tube of
volume,V.Calculate the temperature of the gas when the volume is
reduced to two-third of its original value by applying a pressure
twice the original volume.
 WEEK 8
PRODUCTION AND PROPAGATION OF WAVES
WAVE MOTION
A wave motion is a process of transferring a disturbance in form of
kinetic energy from one point to another in a medium without causing
any transfer of particles of the medium.
WAVE
A wave is a disturbance which travels through a medium and transfer
energy without causing any permanent displacement of the medium.
Examples of waves are : Light waves, water waves, waves in string,
sound waves etc
PRODUCTION OF WAVES
All waves are due to vibrations :
1. Water waves: Can be produced by disturbing the water surface
simultaneously e. g by throwing stones at regular interval. In the
laboratory water waves can be produced and studied in a ripple
tank.
2. Waves in string: Is generated by moving up and down of one end
of the string.
3. Light waves : Is produced due to electric and magnetic vibration.
4. Sound waves: Is produced by the vibration of air particles.
PROPAGATION OF WAVES
1. Mechanical waves : Are those waves that require a material
medium for their propagation e. g water waves, sound waves,
waves on a rope.
 2. Electromagnetic waves : Are waves that do not require a material
medium for propagation e. g light waves, radio waves, X- ray,
gamma rays etc

TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL WAVES Transverse waves

are the waves which propagate in such a way that their direction of
vibration are perpendicular to the direction of travel of waves e. g water
waves, light waves, waves in string.
Longitudinal waves: Are waves that propagate in such a way that their
direction of propagation are parallel or the same as the direction of
vibration e. g sound waves.
TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING WAVES
i. Amplitude (A) : This is the maximum vertical displacement of
the particles of the wave from their mean or rest position. It is
measured in meters.
ii. Crest : This is the maximum point on a wave motion
iii. Trough : This is the minimum point on a wave motion
iv. Wavelength : This is the distance between two consecutive or
successive crest or trough on a wave motion. For a longitudinal
waves, it is the distance between two successive compression or
rarefaction.It is measured in meters(m).
v. Period (T) :This is the time taken by a wave to complete One
oscillation or cycle,or time to travel one wavelength.It is
measured in seconds.

That is, Period = =

vi. FREQUENCY : This is the no of oscillation or cycles
completed by wave in one second. The S.I unit of frequency is
the Hertz (Hz) . That is :
 Frequency = =
Relationship between frequency and period

F= or T=
vii. Wave speed(v) : This is the distance travelled by the waves in
one second. That is :
Speed = =
V=f٨
viii. Wave constant/number : This is related to the distance of the
wave as :
K=
ix. Angular frequency(w) : This is defined as the angle turned
through the period of motion of the wave. That is :

W= =

For a complete cycle, = 2 , t = T

W= ,T=

Also w = 2 f
x. Phase difference : This is the product of the wave constant and
the distance covered . That is :
= Kx = x
xi. Wavefront :This a line or section through an advancing wave in
which all particles are in the same phase.

WAVE EQUATION
Since a wave is described by a sinusoidal curve :
Y = A sin
Y = A sinwt
 Y = A sin(Kx+ wt )
The general equation for a wave is thus :
Y = ( vt + x)

WEEK 9

PROPERTIES OF WAVES
1. Reflection : This is the sending back or turning back of
waves they are incident or encounter a surface
2. Refraction : This is the bending i.e change in the direction of
a wave when it travels through different media of different
densities e.g air to glass, air to water, glass to air to water to
glass. This is due to change in speed, velocity and
wavelength of the waves while the frequency remains
constant.
3. Diffraction : this is the spreading out of a wave round corners
. If the wave incidents on a barrier with hole, the aperture
must be narrow. If the aperture becomes wider the wave
travels in a straight line
4. Interference : this is the effect produced when two waves of
the same frequency , amplitude ,and wavelength travelling in
the same direction in a medium are combined ( superposed)
(as they simultaneously pass through a given point ) yielding
a single resultant wave .

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE
The two major types of interference are :
1. Constructive interference : in this type of interference , the
crest of one wave is on top of the second wave , but the
trough is under trough of the other wave ,they are in phase
with the crest arriving at the same time i.e this results in
increased disturbance i.e they reinforce each other ;
thereby leading to the formation of a single wave of larger
amplitude and it is the wavelength of another wave .
2. Destructive interference : in this type of interference , the
crest of one wave is on top of the trough of the other wave
the waves are out of phase leading to the waves cancelling
out themselves completely . (zero or minimum disturbance
)
NOTE: For maximum interference to occur the phase
difference must be 180 degrees i.e x/2 which corresponds
to half of a circle.
The color given in oil films on the road is due to
interference
effect .

5. Polarization : This is a distinguished property of transverse

waves . a wave is said to be polarized when its vibration
occur at a plane
intensity of wave ; this is the energy transferred per unit area normal to
the direction of the travel of the wave .
I.e intensity = energy transferred / surface area.
For a spherical surface ; I = Q/ 4Πr^2.
Super position of progressive waves producing standing stationery
waves.
Progressive waves are waves which continueto spread out transferring
energy from the source of disturbance. A standing or stationary wave is
set up when two equal progressive of equal amplitude and frequency,
and travelling in opposite direction are more to overlap or combine
together. The resultant effect of the superposition of two waves of the
same frequency depends on whether the waves arrive at a point in phase
most stationery wave are obtained as a result of the stationery waves are
as a result of the combination or superpositions of an incident and its
reflected waves.
A NODE : is a point on a stationary wave where there is no movement
of the medium the nodes are ٨/2 apart .
AN ANTINODE : is a point on a stationary wave where there is
maximum displacement of the medium. Antinodes are ٨/2 apart .
Both longitudinal and transverse waves can produce stationery waves

EXERCISE
1. A wave travels at velocity of 330 m/s at a frequency of 50hz .
what is the wavelength .
2. A progressive wave has wavelength of 100 cm .calculate the phase
difference between the two points at a distance between anode and
an antinode for a transverse wave.
 3. A radio station broadcast at a frequency of 600khz .if the speed of
light in air is 3 x10^8 m/s. calculate the wavelength of the
radiowave.

WEEK 10
LIGHT WAVES
Light waves is a luminous energy which causes the sensation of vision.
SOURCES OF LIGHT
1. NATURAL SOURCES : Sun, Star, Glow worm, Fire-Fly, Deep
sea fishes
2. ARTIFICIAL SOURCES : Electric lamp,Candle,Stone e.t.c
LUMINUOUS AND NON –LUMINUOUS BODIES/SOURCES
i. Luminuous Bodies/Sources : are those that generate and emit
light by themselves e.g Sun, Star, Fire-Fly, and the artificial
light sources
ii. Non –Luminuous Bodies/Sources: are those sources/bodies that
do not produce and emit light by themselves but depends on the
natural or artificial light sources to illuminate them. They are
seen only when they reflect light from luminous body. E.g Road
signs, pages of a book, Bill board, moon, Earth, Stone e.t.c .
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
 i. Transparent Material : This are materials that allow light to pass
through them e.g glass, water
ii. Translucent : This are material that partially allow light to pass
through them eg Paper stained with oil
iii. Opaque :This are material that does not allow light to pass
through them e.g wood, stone e.t.c
RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
The phenomenon of light travelling on a straight line is known as
rectilinear propagation of light.
The path along which light passes is known as light ray
Collection of light ray is known as beam of light. It could be parallel,
divergent, or convergent
APPLICATION OF RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
1. Formation of shadow
2. Eclipse
3. Pin–Hole Camera

REFLECTION OF LIGHT ON PLANE SURFACES

Reflection can be uniform (regular) or diffused (scattered).
In regular reflection parallel rays of light incident on a smooth or
polished surface are reflected as parallel rays in one direction,
In diffused or irregular reflection, parallel rays of light incident on
a rough irregular surface are reflected in various directions.
Mirrors produce regular reflection but a page of a book or the
surface of a cloth give rise to scattered or diffused reflection.
Reflection Is best explained by considering it through a plane
mirror.
A plane mirror is made up of a piece of glass with silver deposited
on one of its two sides such that what is obtained as a reflecting
and a non-reflecting surface as shown below.

For reflection through plane mirrors the laws of reflection is

obeyed.

LAWS OF REFLECTION.
1. The incident ray the reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lies in the same plane.
2. For light incidenting on a smooth polished surface the reflection
is such that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR

Consider an object placed in front of a plane mirror. The following
diagram illustrates the image formation in plane formation.
Going by the diagram, the image is
1. Virtual
2. Laterally inverted
3. Image is the same size as the object
4. Image is for behind the mirror as the object is I front of the
mirror i.e image distance is the same as the object
5. It is upright
Suppose that a man stands 3m in front of a mirror, what is the
distance of the man from his image.
REAL AND VITUAL IMAGES.
A virtual image is one that cannot be caught on a screen. Rays of light
do not actually pass through it but appears to come from the image.
A real image is one that can be caught on a screen. Light rays actually
tarred form all points of the image to the eye.
IMAGES FORMED BY INCLINED MIRRORS
When two mirrors are placed at an angle inclined to each other, an
observer sees several images of an image placed in front of the mirrors.
The number of images formed depends on the angle between the two
mirrors according to the formula

-1
Where n is the number of images
ϴ is the angle between the two mirrors. If two mirrors are inclined at an
angle of 90º to each other.
Two plane mirrors are inclined at an angle of 60º to each other
determine the number of images produced by the mirror.
Solution

n=6-1
=5
Application of reflection on plane mirrors
1. Periscope
2. Kaleidoscope

Effect of mirror rotation on a reflected ray.

If the direction of an incident ray on a ray on a mirror is kept constant
and the mirror is rotated through an angle it will be found that the
reflected ray will be rotated through twice the angle of rotation of mirror
i.e. angle of reflection is twice angle of rotation of mirror thus its angle
of rotation is ϴ angle of reflection will be 2ϴ.
Solved exercise
When a mirror is rotated, the spot of light moves a distance of 4m across
the screen. Calculate the angle of rotation of the mirror if the distance
between the mirror and the screen is 3m.
Solution

2θ=
2θ=53º
Θ=
Solved exercise 2
A plane mirror gives a spot of light on a screen which is 1 meter from
the mirror and the screen is perpendicular to the direction of the beam of
light. When the mirror is rotated the spot of light moves a distance of
20cm across the screen determine the angle through which the mirror
has been rotated.
Solution

2θ=
Θ=

Solved exercise 3
 Kate looked into a plane mirror which is 3.5m away from her and
observed the image of her photograph which is 1.5m behind her
hand. What is the distance of the image from Kate’s eye

Solution
=3.5+3.5+1.5
=8.5

Solved exercise 4
Two plane mirrors are inclined as shown in the diagram below .A
ray of light R takes the arrangement at O and emerges along PQ.
Calculate the angle of deviation of the emergent ray.
Solution
From m d=180-2i from m d=180
=180-2(30)
=180-60
=120º

REFLECTION ON CURVED MIRRORS(SPHERICAL MIRRORS)

A curved mirror is one formed as if it were to be part of a sphere, or
mirrors which forms part of the surface of spheres.
TYPES OF CURVED MIRRORS
1. Concave mirror :The outside surface is silvered and the inside
surface is the reflecting part i.e the reflecting surface is curved
inward. A ray of light that strikes a concave mirror usually
converges at a standard point. Hence the concave mirror is known
as a converging mirror
 2. Convex mirror :The inside surface is silvered and the outside
surface is the reflecting part i.e the reflecting surface is curved
outwards. parallel beam of light usually diverge from a standard
point. Hence the convex mirror is known as a diverging mirror.
TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING CURVED MIRRORS
i. Aperture : This is the width of the curved mirror
ii. Pole (P) : The is the centre of the reflecting surface of the
curved mirror
iii. Centre of curvature : This the centre of the sphere which the
mirror forms a part.
iv. Radius of curvature :This is the horizontal distance between the
centre of curvature and the pole on the principal axis
v. Principal axis: this is the line joining the centre of curvature to
the pole of the mirror.
vi. Principal focus : This is the point on the principal axis where
incident ray parallel and close to the principal axis converges for
concave mirror or appear to diverge from for convex mirror
after reflection. The principal focus of a concave mirror is real
while the principal focus for a convex mirror is virtual.
NATURE OF IMAGES FORMED ON CURVED MIRRORS
CONCAVE MIRROR
Case 1 : Object placed beyond Centre of curvature: The image is Real,
inverted, smaller than the object, formed between Centre of curvature
and Focus.
Case 2: Object placed at Centre of curvature : The image is real,
inverted, the same size as the object.
Case 3 : Object between Centre of curvature and Focus : the image is
real, inverted, bigger than the object and formed beyond C
Case 4: Object placed on the focus : The image is at infinity
Case 5: Object placed between the focus and the pole: The image is
virtual, erect, magnified and formed behind the mirror.
Case 6: object at infinity: the image is formed on the focus.
CONVEX MIRROR
In convex mirror the image is always formed behind the mirror
irrespective of the position of the object. The image formed is always
virtual, erect and diminished.for object at infinity the image is formed at
the focus.For all other positions the image lie between the pole and the
focus. If the object is moved way from the mirror, the image becomes
smaller and closer to the focus.
USES OF CURVED MIRRORS
CONCAVE MIRROR
i. Shaving mirror
ii. Reflecting telescope
iii. Dentist mirror

CONVEX MIRROR
I. Driving mirror

ADVANTAGE OF CONVEX MIRROR AS A DRIVING

MIRROR
i. It gives an erect image of the object behind the mirror
ii. It provides a wide field of view

DISADVANTAGE OF CON VEX MIRROR AS A DRIVING

MIRROR
i. The image is always smaller than the object
ii. It gives a false impression of the distance as the image seem
further away.
 MIRROR FORMULAE . SIGN CONVENTION
If an object is at a distance u from a cureved mirror of focal length,f and
radius of curvature,r and the image is formed at a distance,v from the
mirror,experiment and theory shows that the distances are related by a
general formula :

+ = =
SIGN CONVENTION
REAL IS POSITIVE (R.P) NEW CARTESIAN (NC)
Real object and real images are Distances measured to the right of
considered to be at positive the mirror are positive
distances from the mirror.
Virtual images are considered to be Distances to the left are
at negative distances from the negative,and the object is always
mirror placed to the left of the mirror
A concave mirror has a real focus, A concave mirror has a real focus
the focal length is therefore which is to the left of the mirror.Its
positive focal length is thus negative
A convex mirror has a virtual focus A convex mirror has a virtual focus
,its focal length is therefore which is right of the mirror,its
negative focal length is therefore positive

Magnification m produced by a mirror is given by :

Magnification, m = =
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. An object is placed 15cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 20cm.Calculate the position, nature and magnification of
the image.
 Solution
Using the real is positive (RP) convention :
Focal length f = = 10cm, object distance u = 15cm

Using : + = =

+ =

= -

= =

= =
V = 30cm
The image is 30cm from the mirror,since v is +ve the image is real

Also magnification m = = =2
2. An object is placed 5cm in front of a concave mirror of radius of
curvature 20cm.Calculate the position, nature and magnification of
the image
Solution
Using the real is positive (RP) convention :
Focal length f = = 10cm, object distance u =5cm

Using : + = =

+ =

= -

= =
 =
I.5 V =15
V = = - 10cm
The image is 10cm from the mirror, and since the sign is –ve
the image is a virtual one behind the mirror.
3. An object is placed 15cm in front of a convex mirror and an image
is produced 5cm behind the mirror. Calculate the focal length of
the mirror.
Solution
Using the real is positive (RP) convention :
Focal length f = ?, object distance u = 15cm ,V = -5cm.

Using : + =

+ =

= =
-2F = 15
F=- = -7.5cm

MISCELLENOUS FORMULAR
U = f( 1+= )
V = f(1 + m)
m= -1

EXERCISE
1. An object is 10cm away from a convex mirror whose focal length
is 15cm.If the height of the object is 2.5cm.Determime :
 i. Distance of the image to the mirror
ii. Nature of the image
iii.Magnification of the image
iv.Height of the image

CHAPTER 11

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
This is the bending i.e change in the direction of a waves when it travels
through different media of different densities e.g air to glass, air to
water, glass to air to water to glass. This is due to change in speed,
velocity and wavelength of the waves while the frequency remains
constant.

EFFECTS OF REFRACTION
i. The bottom of a clear river or pond appear shallower than it
really is
ii. A rod or straw or spoon appears bent or broken when it is
partially immersed in water or liquid
iii. Letters in print seem to be nearer when we place a thick block
of glass over them.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
i. The incident ray,the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie on the same plane
ii. The ratio of the sine of angle in the first medium to the ratio of
the sine of angle of refraction in the second medium is always
constant for a given pair of media.
The second law of refraction is known as snell’s law i.e

= , a constant for a given pair of media

The constant ɳ is known as the refractive index of the second
medium with respect to the first medium. It is a measure of how bent
a ray of light is

For glass to air :gɳa = =

Refractive index can also be stated as :

= = =
but = Fa =Fg = F

so therefore =
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. Suppose a ray of light in air incident at 300C on the boundary with
ɳ for glass is 1.5. What is the angle of refraction.
 Solution
From : =
Angle of incidence, i = 300 ,ɳ = 1.5 ,angle of refraction ,r = ?
1.5 = ==
Sin r = = 0.3333
Sin-1r = 0.3333
R = 19.50
2. Light of wavelength 5000 x 10-8cm travel in free space with a
velocity of 3 x 108 m/s.What is the wavelength in glass of
refractive index 1.5
Solution
Wavelength in vacuum = 5 x 103 x 10-8m = 5 x10-5cm
Refractive index of glass =1.5

But :

ɳ= = = 5 x10-5m/٨g

1.5 = = 5 x10-5m/٨g

= 3.33 x 10-5cm

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is the reflection of an incident ray of light at the
interface between the medium of incidence and another medium of
lower refractive index when the angle of incidence in the denser medium
exceeds the critical angle.

Conditions for Total Internal Reflection

For total internal reflection to occur, two conditions must be fulfilled:
1. Light must be travelling from an optically more dense (like glass)
to an optically less dense medium (like air).
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than
the critical angle.

Critical Angle (c)

The critical angle is the incident angle obtained when the angle of
refraction in the less dense medium is 90o.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REFRACTIVE INDEX AND

CRITICAL ANGLE
If the refracted angle = 90o
Then by applying Snell’s law
The refractive index for glass – air boundary

Similarly

∴
Example 1.2
What is the critical angle for light travelling from water to air?
Refractive index of water =
Solution

APPLICATION OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Prism Periscope and Prismatic Binoculars

The advantage of the use of prisms in prismatic binoculars:
i) helps give better impression of the solidity of the object being
viewed due to its ability to correct lateral inversion and
ii) ensures that the final image produced is well magnified and
erect.

In prism periscope, it helps to see round corners.

Optical Fibre
The optical fibre makes use of total internal reflection to guide light
along transparent fibres no matter how it might be curved. They are used
to convey information in TV channels or telephone conversion line.
They are also used in medium for seeing deep down the throat of a
patient.

Fig. 1.8: Optical Fibre

MIRAGE
Mirage is the bending of light rays as they pass through heated air
medium close to hot ground.

THIRD TERM.
1. Revision/triangular prism, rectangular glass prism, angle of
deviation and calculations, real depth and apparent depth.
2. Lenses: Convex and concave, ray diagrams, lens formula and
calculation.
3. Optical instruments: Camera, projector, telescope, microscope and
periscope
4. Optical instruments binoculars, human eyes and its defects.
5. Dispersion of white light: pure and impure spectrum,
recombination of combination of combination of component of
spectrum using color filter, Newton disk.
 6. Dispersion of white light: Colors and paints, mixing, determination
of refractive index.
7. Sound waves: Production, transmission, speed of sound in solid,
liquid, air, noise and music.
8. Sound waves: Effect of temperature and pressure on velocity of
sound, functions of hearing aids.
9. Resonance: Vibration in pipes and strings: musical instruments,
harmonics and over tones.
10. Project/excursion
11. Practical
12. Revision/examination
13. Examination

CHAPTER 1
REFRACTION THROUGH PRISM
RECTANGULAR PRISM
By means of a single ray PA from a ray- box, incident on a rectangular
block of glass at A, the following can be observed using the normal line
NAM to the boundary as a reference line fig below:
 P
N

M MMMMM

Fig 1.1

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

Case 1: For any incident at an angle (i) to the normal

A
i D
Incident
ray Emergent
Ao ray
B Fig 1.2 C

Generally,
 i) Ray passes symmetrically through the prism
ii) Refracted ray in glass is parallel to the base BC
iii) Emergent ray bends towards the base

iv) Angle of deviation

v) Refractive angle of the prism from (iv) and (v)
D = 2i – Ao

i.e.: i=
By Snell’s law

Case 2: For incident ray parallel to base of prism

i
 Fig. 1.3

i) Ray also passes symmetrically through the prism

ii) Refracted ray in glass not parallel to base of prism

REFLECTION BY PRISM
Case 1: Turning rays of light through 90o when ray is incident at 90o.

Type of Prism
- Right angle isosceles prism

Fig. 1.4

Case 2: Turning rays of light through 180o

Incident rays
Fig. 1.5

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION BY PRISM

Case 1: Refracted Case 2:

rays

Incident rays
o
at 90
Refracted
emergent rays

Refractive Index of a Liquid

The refractive index of a liquid like water can be determined by real and
apparent depth method. The depth of a river or a swimming pool always
appears shallower than it actually is. When a glass block is placed on top
of an object, e.g. a pin or a mark on a piece of paper, the object when
viewed from directly above, appears nearer the top. This apparent depth
is caused by refraction.

Theory shows that the real depth, the apparent depth, and the refractive
index are related by the formula.
 Retort
stand
Water

Apparent
Search depth
Real
pin
depth

Cork

Object pin

Fig. 1.1: Find the refractive index of a liquid

Example 1.1
What is the real depth of a swimming pool which appears to be 10m
deep when viewed directly from above its surface? (Refractive index of
water = )
Solution
 EXERCISE
1.A trough 12cm deep is filled with water of refractive index of
1.33.How much would a part of the bottom of the through appear to be
displaced when viewed vertically
2. A ray of light is incident at an angle of 30 0 on a glass prism of
refractive index 1.5.Calculate the angle through which the ray of light is
minimally deviated.

WEEK 2
LENSES
A lens is a piece of glass which is curved on both sides.
 Types of Lens
1. Convex (or converging) lens and
2. Concave (or diverging) lens

Convex Lens: A convex lens is a type of lens that has the centre thicker
than the ends. The thickness at the centre makes the lens surface to curve
outward. Convex lens causes close parallel rays of light to converge at a
point after refraction.

Parallel rays

Fig. 1.9: Convex Lens

Concave Lens: - A concave lens has the centre thinner than the ends.
This makes the lens surface to curve inwards. This type of lens causes
close parallel rays of light to diverge after refraction.
 Fig. 1.10: Concave Lens

Basic Terms and Definitions

1) Optical centre of a lens:- Is the centre of the glass of the lens
2) Principal axis: - The principal axis is a line drawn through the
optical centre and perpendicular to the lens.
3) Principal focus: - The principal focus is the point on either side of
the lens on the principal axis to which parallel rays of light close to
the principal axis converge or appear to diverge after refraction.
4) Focal length (f): - The focal length of a lens is the distance
between the principal focus and the centre of the lens.
5) Aperture: - The aperture of a lens is the width of the lens from one
edge to the other.

LENS FORMULA
The object distance u,the image distance v, and the radius of curvature
of a lens are related by :

= + =

MAGNIFICATION
Since the size of image formed depends on the object position, then its

Magnification (m) =
 Power of a Lens
The power of a lens = reciprocal of its focal length

=
It is measured in dioptres ,when f is in meters

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. If an object 12cm high is placed 18cm from a convex lens of focal
length 10cm, calculate:
(a)The image distance
(b) The size, state the nature of the image formed
Solution
Given;
Object distance, u = 18cm
Focal lengths, f = 10cm
Height of object = 12cm
Let image distance = v

Applying lens formula

=
 v =
= 22.5cm
But,

Magnification,

i.e.:

size of image =
= 15cm
EXERCISE
1. The image in a converging lens is erect and magnified four
times.(i) Calculate the object distance if the focal length is 20cm
2. An object is placed 4cm from a diverging lens of focal length
12cm.What is the nature of images produced.

WEEK 3
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Lens is mostly used in optical instrument than mirrors, because of

certain factors. Lens has various applications, some of which are
(i) Camera (ii) film projector (iii) telescope
(iv)microscope and periscope
Uses of the Lens
 1) It helps to correct eye sights when the eye starts suffering from
poor vision.
2) It helps in taking pictures as is the case in cameras
3) It also helps to magnify microscopic objects
4) It helps in bringing into focus image of objects when used in
projection lantern or to see distant objects as in the case of
telescope.

The Simple Camera

A photographic camera consists of
i) A converging lens; a sensitive film in a light tight box.
ii) A diaphragm which controls the amount of light which is
admitted through the lens and
iii) A shutter of variable speed which opens to take the photograph.

The photographic lens is moveable so that the distance between the lens
and the film can be varied.
THE PROJECTOR
Film projector is a projection lantern used in cinema or theatre for
showing slides on a screen. The apparatus used in a condenser which
consists of two plano convex lens. There is powerful source of light slide
and a projection lens which is positioned at the front of the slide, to
produce a large and inverted image of the film on the slide.

Microscopes and Telescopes

The Simple Microscope or Magnifying Glass: - The magnifying glass or
simple microscope is a convex lens which is used to produce magnified
images of small object. It is used for reading small print and for studying
biological specimens.

The Compound Microscope

To produce a higher magnification than that obtained from a simple
microscope, a combination of two convex lenses is used in an
arrangement called the compound microscope.
The Astronomical Telescope
The telescope is used in viewing distance objects, such as the stars and
the planets. The simplest telescope is the astronomical telescope.

The astronomical telescope uses two converging lenses, the objective

lens and the eyepieces respectively. The objective lens has a long focal
length whereas the eyepieces has a short focal length

WEEK 4
OPTICAL INSTRUMENT CONTINUED
THE HUMAN EYE
The human eye is similar to the photographic camera. It consists of a
crystalline lens, a light retina on which an image is formed.
FEATURES OF THE HUMAN EYE
The Cornea: - The thick transparent bulge in the front part of eye. It
serves as a protective covering in front of the lens and allows light into
the eye. It also partly focuses the light entering the eyes.
The Iris: - Is behind the cornea. The iris is the part which gives the
colour of the eye. It acts as a stop or diaphragm of variable size. It has a
tiny opening at its centre called the pupil which regulates the quantity of
light entering the eye. The pupil looks black because the inner layer of
the eye, the choroid, is black.
Optical Nerve: - This is a vital centre responsible for transmitting the
image on the retina to the brain.
The Sclerotic Layer – Is the outer covering of the eye.
Ciliary Muscle – responsible for adjusting the thickness and curvature of
the lens so that the lens can focus on the retina.
The aqueous and vitreous humour maintain the shape of the eyeball.
Accommodation : is the ability of the eye lens to alter or adjust its focal
length and bring into focus the image of an object on the retina. This
adjustment is brought about through the action of the ciliary muscle.

Persistence of Vision
When brain retains the impression of an image formed on the retina for a
time after which the light energy source is removed, the type of vision is
called persistence of vision.
Binocular Vision
Is the ability of the two eyes to form images on their respective retina
and letting this images be combined and interpreted by the brain with
sense of depth and solidity.
 Comparison of the Human Eye and the Camera Similarities

The Camera The Human Eye

1. The lens
Has a convex lens which forms a Has a convex lens with same
real, inverted and diminished function as the camera
image
2. Nature of the Interior
The interior is made light proof to The interior of the eye is covered
prevent reflection of stray rays of with black pigment called the
light by painting its interior black choroid
3. Screen
Images are formed on a light The images in the case of the eye is
sensitive film formed on a light sensitive retina
4. Light control ability
Has a diaphragm that controls the The iris controls the size of the
size of the aperture of the lens, pupils and so controls the amount
thereby controlling the amount of of light entering the eye.
light energy entering the camera

Differences
The Camera The Human Eye
1. Types of Lens
The camera lens is made of glass The human eye is crystalline in
nature
2. Focal length
Has fixed focal length Has variable focal length effected
 by the ciliary muscle
3. Image distance
The image distance can be varied The image distance between the
by moving its lens so as to focus lens and the retina is fixed (i.e. not
the image on the film adjustable)
4. Shutter
The shutter of the camera opens to The eye lid which is similar, stays
allow a photograph to be taken at open throughout, thereby enabling
a time the retina to form series of constant
changing pictures with a
continuous motion.

EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between a long sighted and a shorted
sighted perso
2. Differentiate between simple microscope and compound
microscope and make a list of the uses of compound microscope
3. Two converging lenses of focal length 5cm and 20cm are used to
form an astronomical telescope. draw a ray diagram approximately
to scale showing how the final image formed is seen by the eye
when the telescope is in normal adjustment.
 WEEK 5
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT
In an experiment, first performed by Isaac Newton, it was observed that
when white light is passed through a prism, an elongated coloured patch
A
of light is obtained on a screen placed behind the prism.
- Red

- Orange
- Yellow
- Green

- Blue
- Indigo
B C - Violet

Fig. 5.1
The coloured pattern is known as the spectrum of white light. The
spectrum consists of the Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo,
Violet (ROYGBIV), in that order from the apex side A of the prism.

Dispersion
This is the separation of white light into its component colours of Red,
Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. Dispersion is due to the
fact that the different colours of white light travel at different speeds
through the glass.

Monochromatic Light
This is light of one to wavelength. When such light of one colour or
wavelength is passed through a prism, refraction occurs without
dispersion.

Monochromatic light of a yellow colour is conveniently obtained from a

sodium lamp, a special lamp containing sodium vapour.

Production of a Pure Spectrum

The spectrum produced by a prism is an impure spectrum because the
different colours overlap. A pure spectrum is that in which the colours
are clearly separated or distinct from each other. To produce such a pure
spectrum we use two converging lenses and a prism
EXERCISE
1. What are the constituent colour of white light
2. What leads to the dispersion of white light
3. What are the differences between pure and impure spectrum
 WEEK 6
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT CONTINUED
Additive Mixing of Colours
We can obtain a variety of colour by mixing the different colours of the
spectrum. We cannot however, obtain Red, Green and Blue colours by
mixing other colours. These three colours are therefore called the
primary colours.
Secondary colours are the colours we obtain by mixing any two of the
primary colours.
Examples of such mixing are:
Red + Green = Yellow
Yellow, cyan and magenta are the secondary colours. All the three
primary colours combine to produce white.
Red + Green + Blue = White
Colours which produce white light when mixed together in suitable
proportions are called complementary colours. Thus Green and Magenta
are complementary colours.

WEEK 7
SOUND WAVES
Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies. For example,
when we strike a turning fork, its prongs vibrate. These vibrations give
rise to sound waves.
For sound to be heard by a listener, a material medium is necessary.
Generally, sound is a longitudinal wave which sets up a train of
refraction and compression when it travels through an air medium.
Production of Sound
Sound is produced by vibrating systems. If a vibrating tuning fork is
placed over a column of air, the fork sets the air into vibration and a
sound wave is produced and propagated in the form of a longitudinal
wave.If a rod is stroked at one end, the vibrating particle of the rod
propagates sound waves along the rod. A material medium is required to
propagate sound waves. That is, sound can only travel through solids,
liquids and gases; but cannot travel through a vacuum.

Speed of Sound Waves in various Media

Sound waves travel through solid, liquid and gases. The speed of sound
in a given medium is determined by the density and elastic properties of
the medium. In general, the velocity of sound is proportional to young’s
modulus (E) of elasticity, and the density, d, according to the equation.

. Thus, the speed of sound varies from medium to medium. It

least in air, being about 332m/s at 0 oc. It has a value of about 1500m/s in
water and 5,000m/s in a steel rod.

In gas, the speed of sound is independent of pressure and it can be

shown that it is proportional to the square root of the absolute
temperature of the gas, .
Velocity of Sound Waves
The velocity, the frequency and the wavelength of sound waves are
related by the formula.

Where v = velocity of sound waves

f = frequency of sound waves
λ = wavelength of sound waves

1. A source of sound produces waves in air of wavelength 1.65m. If

the speed of sound in air is 330ms–1, find the period of vibration in
seconds.
Solution

= 0.005secs
 ECHOES
An echo is a sound heard after the reflection of sound waves from a
plane surface. Like other waves, sound waves can be reflected when
they strike a plane surface.

Applications of Echoes
i) Determination of velocity of sound in air. We can use an echo to
determine the velocity of sound in air. This is done by directing a
sound signal to a wall and then measuring the echo time.
∴ velocity of sound =

ii) Echo Sounding

Echo sounding method is used to determine the depth of a sea-bed
from a ship. The principle involves sending a sound impulse down
into the sea-bed and detecting with a receiver the impulse reflected
back after striking the sea bed.

iii) Exploration for gas and oil

Echoes are also used in the exploration for gas and oil. For such
explorations, the geophysicists set off a small explosion on or just
below the earth’s surface.

iv) Detecting of submarine

Underwater sound systems or devices called sonar use sound
waves to detect underwater objects. Warships can use sonar to
locate enemy submarine, and fishing boats can also use sonar
system to locate schools of fish.
 2. A hunter metres from a cliff fires a gun. He hears the echo
from the cliff after 2.4s. If the speed of sound in air is 340m/s,
calculate the distance of the hunter from the cliff.
Solution

The velocity of sun,

Reverberation
Reverberation occurs as multiple echoes which are not heard as separate
sound due to the closeness of the reflecting surface, but as a persistence
and continuous sound which gives an idea of a long-drawn sound.

Ultrasonic Sound
Ultrasonic sound is one of high frequency which is much higher than
that of the audible frequency - frequency within human hearing range
(20Hz to 18,000Hz).

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
A musical note possesses three characteristics pitch; loudness and
quality.
Pitch: - Pitch of a note is its position on the musical scale. It is the
degree of highness or lowness of sound as perceived by a listener. Pitch
depends on frequency.
Loudness - Is the magnitude of the sensation resulting from a sound
reaching the ear. It depends on the amplitude of vibration of the body.
Quality Or Timbre - Is a characteristics note of a musical instrument
which distinguishes it from another note of the same pitch and loudness
produced by another instrument.
Noise - is due to vibration of irregular frequency, but music is due to
vibrations of regular frequency.
Forced Vibrations - are those vibrations that result from an external
periodic force acting on a system and setting the system vibrating at the
same frequency as the external periodic force. Examples are the
vibrating body of a violin caused by the vibrations of the strings of the
instrument, when a vibrating turning fork is placed in contact with a
table top e.t.c

Resonance is
a phenomenon which occurs in many branches of physics. Resonance is
an affect caused by a vibrating body setting another body vibrating, both
having the same natural frequency.

CHAPTER 8
SOUND WAVES CONTINUED
Velocity of sound in air increases with temperature. It is also affected by
wind direction. It is independent of pressure of the surrounding air, and
the pitch and loudness of the sound.

It can be shown that the velocity of sound in air is related to the absolute
temperature by: V T
Velocity of sound isleast in air and it is greatest in solid

The velocity of sound in solid e.g a steel is rod is given by : V = ,

Where E is the young modulus and is the density

The velocity of sound in fluid (liquid) is given by :V ,

Where B is the bulk modulus, and is the density

Where Bulk modulus, B =

The velocity of sound in gas is also given by :V = ,

Where P is the gas pressure, is the ratio of molar heat capacities of the
gas at constant pressure and constant volume
HEARING AIDS
Hearing is the sense concerned with the perception of sound.
Hearing aid is a device used by a person with impaired or defective
hearing ability to improve his or her ability to hear clearly or
distinctively.
TYPES OF HEARING AIDS

1. Air – conduction aids

2. Bone conducting aids

FUNCTIONS OF HEARING AIDS

Hearing aid is an amplifier of sound to the patient’s ears
EXERCISE
1. Explain sound waves
 2. What is the factor on which the following characteristics note
depends on :
i. Pitch
ii. Quality
iii. Loudness
3. A ship’s echo sounder ends out a supersonic wave which is
received back at the ship 4secs after. if the velocity of sound
through water is 1500m/s. What is the dept of the sea bed

CHAPTER 9
RESONANCE
Stationary waves are produced when two waves with same frequency
and amplitude traveling in opposite directions are superposed. Nodes are
points on a stationary wave which are not rest.
Antinodes are point where the amplitude of vibration is maximum.

L
 Fig 9.0 fundamental mode of vibration

The distance between the two consecutive nodes is the and this is
equal to the length of the string,

For any wave we have that V = F where V is the velocity, f, the

frequency and λ the wave length. Putting this in the equation above, we
have that

Harmonics and overtones in a stretched string. The lowest frequency

obtained from a plucked string when the string vibrates in one loop is
called the fundamental frequency, fo. Higher frequencies which are
integral or whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency can
also be produced in the string. These are called the Harmonics or
overtones of the fundamental, e.g. “2fo 3fo 4fo, e.t.c. f0 is the first
harmonic.

When the wire vibrates in two loops or segments as shown below. First
overtone or second harmonic is obtained and the frequency f1 and this
overtone is then given by

L
 Fig. 9.1 First overtone

When the wire is made to vibrate in three loops or segments second

overtone or 3rd harmonic is obtained and the frequency f 2 of this second
overtone is given by

Fig. 9.2 second overtone

Thus ; fundamental frequency cr 1st harmonic

; 2nd harmonic or 1st overtone

; 3rd harmonic or 2nd overtone

Experiment to verify the variation of frequency with the length of a wire
and also the variation of frequency with tension in a wire is performed
with the used of a sonometer.
Thus, the frequency of a vibrating stretched string or wire depends on
three factors;
a) Length of string L, (b) tension T and (c) mass per unit
length, M. the three important relations combine to:

Where K is a constant dependent on the mode of the vibration. For the

fundamental mode of vibration, and the above equation becomes:

where T is in Newtons and M in kilogrammes per metre and L

is in metres, f is in Hertz.

Since Similarly the second overtone

3. A metal wire of mass 1g and length 50cm is under a tension of

80N. compute (a) the fundamental frequency (b) the first and
second overtones (c) the speed of a transverse wave in the string.
Solution :

From we have L = 0.5m, T = 80N,

M=
 a)
b) 1st overtone = 2 X 200 = 400Hz
c) 2nd overtone = 3 x 200 = 600Hz
d) From V = fλ;
V = 200 x 2 x 0.5 = 200ms-1

VIBRATION OF AIR COLUMNS

An air column is air contained in a tube or pipe when both ends of the
pipe are open, it is called an open pipe, but when one end is closed and
one end is open, it is called a close pipe.

A A A
A
N
N
N A
A A
N
A A
N N

(a) Fundamental (b) First overtone (a) Fundamental (b)

First overtone
 Fig. 9.3 Modes of Vibration in a Closed Pipe Fig. 9.4
– Modes of Vibration in an open pipe

VIBRATION PRODUCED IN CLOSED PIPES

From the diagram in Fig 9.3 above, there is a node (N) at the closed end
and an antinode (A) at the open end. Since the distance between a node
and a consecutive antinode in a waveform is , we have from the
diagram that the length of the tube
Therefore, the fundamental frequency fO is given by

Fig. 9.3b shows that L =

Hence the frequency (f1) of the first overtone is given by

VIBRATIONS IN OPEN PIPES

Stationary waves set up in an open pipe have antinodes at both ends. The
fundamental or simplest mode of vibration is that in which the midpoint
is a node (fig 9.4)

Therefore

WORKED EXAMPLES
An organ pipe open at both ends has a fundamental frequency of 400Hz.
The frequency of the second overtone is (JME)
Solution
From an open pipe the frequencies of overtones are 2f O, 3fO, 4fO,…, the
frequency of the second overtone is thus 3f = 3 X 400 = 1200Hz

APPLICATION OF SOUND WAVES IN MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

In musical instruments the source is set into vibration by striking,
pucking, bowing or blowing.
Musical instruments are classified into
(i) wind instruments
(ii) stringed instruments
(iii) percussion instruments
i. Wind Instruments: These make sound through a vibrating column
of air. e.g. flutes, trumpets, pipe organ, clarinets and saxophones.

ii. Stringed Instrument: In stringed instruments, use is made of the

fact that the frequency of a vibrating string depends on its length,
mass and tension in the string.
Examples of stringed instruments are guitars, sonometer, piano,
violin

iii. Percussion Instrument:A percussion produces sound when it is hit

or struck. Examples of such instruments are talking drums, bells,
gongs, xylophones, turning forks.
 EXERCISE
1. What is meant by resonance? Illustrate your answer with two
examples of resonance
2. Describe a laboratory experiment to determine the velocity of
sound in air, stating one precaution taken in performing the
experiment.
3. State three characteristics of a musical note and the factor on
which each depends. (SSCE)