GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The Cell is the most basic unit of life.

CELL THEORY 3. All cell arise only from pre-existing cells.
Not all cells are alike. There are 2 primary types of cells: eukaryotic and
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be prokaryotic cells. Examples of eukaryotic cells are animal cells, plant
found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 cells, and fungal cells. Prokaryotic cells include bacteria and archeans.
observations I detail of various objects under a coarse, compound Cells contains organelles, or tiny cellular structures, that carry out specific
microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. functions necessary for normal cellular operation. Cell also contain DNA
Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named “cells”. This (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), the genetic
came from the Latin word cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like where monks information necessary for directing cellular activities. Eukaryotic cells
lived in and also cellulae, which means the six-sided cell of a honeycomb. grow and reproduce through complex sequence of events called the cell
Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon cycle. At the end of the cycle, cells will divide either through the processes
after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses of mitosis or meiosis. Prokaryotic cells reproduce commonly through
that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x. Under these binary fission.
microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal
Society on October 9, 1676, he stated that motility is a quality named these CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
“animalcules”, which included protozoa and other unicellular organism,
like bacteria.
The Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of Biology. Credit for
developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann
and Matthias Jakob Schleiden. While Rudolf Virchow contributed to
the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions. In 1838, Schleiden
suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the
result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization
process either within other cells or from the outside.
However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this Figure 1 Plant cell
theory as his own, although Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years
before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern
cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann stated that along with plants,
animals are composed of cells or the product of cells of their structures.
This was major advancement in the field of biology since little was known
about animal structure up to this point compare to plants. From these
conclusions about palnts and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory
were postulated:
 Figure 2 Animal cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – is found near the nucleus and is made up
Organisms are composed of cells, and these have specific structures within of a number of flattened sacs called cisternae, which are continuous with
them that allow them to carry out their functions. These structures within the nuclear envelope. The Rough ER is named such because it has a lot of
them to carry their functions. These structures are called organelles. The ribosomes on its outer surface. The Smooth ER however, does not have
fine detail of the cell (which may be revealed by an electron microscope) ribosomes. The rough ER transports proteins that are synthesized in the
is called the cell’s ultrastructure. ribosomes while the Smooth ER synthesizes Lipids.

Cell wall – helps in protecting the plasma membrane and plays a vital role Golgi apparatus – is a stack of membrane-bound flatted sacs and are
in supporting and protecting the cells. It is a thick outer layer made of responsible for the modification of proteins received from the ER. These
cellulose that gives the cell its shape. proteins are the transported in vesicles around the cell. Also, its enzymes
Cell membrane – is a double layered. Thin barrier surrounding the cell to manufacture and attach carbohydrates to proteins or lipids.
control the entry and the exit of certain substances. Lysosomes – are membrane bound spherical sacs which contain digestive
Cytoplasm – is a membrane, which protects the cell by keeping the cell enzymes used to break down materials, such as non-self-microorganisms
organelles separate from each other. This helps to keep the stability of the engulfed by the phagocytes, to recycle food particles and to capture
cell. Cytoplasm contains semi-fluid translucent substance known as bacteria. The white blood cells have many lysosomes that dispose bacteria.
cytosol. Cytoplasm is the site where many vital biochemical reactions take
place. Mitochondria – are round double membrane-bound organelles
responsible for Aerobic respiration. Their inner membrane is folded inside
MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES to form cristae, which are folded in the matrix – the central part of
mitochondrion. During aerobic respiration, ATP is produced in the
Nucleus – is the largest organelle in a cell. It contains a dense structure mitochondria.
called the Nucleolus and is surrounded by the nuclear envelope, s structure
composed of 2 membranes, separated by fluid, which contain a number of Chromosomes – is made up of DNA and stored in the nucleus, which
nuclear pores that can allow relatively large molecules through. The contains the instructions for traits and characteristics.
nucleus contains nearly all the cell’s genetic material. The nucleolus
creates RNA and ribosomes, which then travel out of the nucleus, through Chloroplasts – (Found only in plants and some protoctists, are responsible
the nuclear pores, to the cytoplasm where they are involved in protein for photosynthesis. Chloroplasts contain 2 fluid separated membranes and
synthesis. the inner membrane is folded into a network of flattened sacs called
thylakoids that are stacked into grana (1 granum, 2 grana).
Nuclear membrane – is a bilayer membrane, which protects the nucleus
by surrounding and acts as a barrier between the cell nucleus and other Vesicles – are membrane-bound sacs used to store or transport substances
organs of the cell. around the cell. Lysosomes are actually vesicles.
Nucleolus – is an important membrane found inside the nucleus. It plays a
vital role in the production of cell’s ribosome.
Vacuoles – are essentially larger vesicles, and they are formed by the present. absent.
joining together of many vesicles. They are membrane-bound organelles 11 Researved food in form of Researved food in the form of
that have no specific shape and contain water with a number of different glycogen. starch.
compounds within it. Their functions vary greatly depending on the type 12 Cannot synthesize all the Synthesize all amino acids, co-
of cell they are part of. In plant cells they are important in maintaining amino acids, co-enzymes and enzymes and vitamins required
turgor pressure. vitamins required by them. by them.
13 Spindle formed during cell Spindles formed during cell
NON MEMBRANE BOUND-ORGANELLES division is aphiastral (has an divisions in anastral (without
ester in each pole)> asters on the opposite side).
Ribosomes – are small spherical organelles, composed of 2 sub-units, 14 Cytokinesis occurs by Cytokinesis occurs by cell plate
which can be found on the Rough ER (and also in the cytoplasm and in construction of furrowing. method.
mitochondria, and other places). Ribosomes translate genetic information 15 Animal cell lacking contractile Plant cell does not burst if
in the form of mRNA into proteins. vacuole usually bust if placed placed in hypotonic solution due
in hypotonic solution. to the presence of cell wall.
Centrioles – are microtubules found next to the nucleus of animal cells
and some protoctists (protists). They move chromosomes around by EUKARYOTIC CELLS AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS
forming fibers called spindle, during cell division.
There are 2 primary types of cells: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS Eukaryotic cells are called so because they have a true nucleus. The
Animal Cell Plant Cell nucleus, which houses DNA, is contained within a membrane and
1 Comparatively smaller in size. Usually larger in size. separated from other cellular structures. Prokaryotic cells however have no
2 Enclosed by a thin plasma Enclosed by a rigid cell wall in true nucleus. DNA in a prokaryotic cell is not separated from the rest of
membrane. addition to plasma membrane. the cell but coiled up in a region called nucleoid (nucleus-like).
3 Often changes its shape. Cannot change its shape.
4 Plastids are usually absent. Plastids are present.
5 Often contains many small Mature plant cell contains large
vacuoles. central vacuole.
6 Nucleus usually lies in the Nucleus lies on one side of the
center. cytoplasm.
7 Centrioles are practically Centrioles are normally absent
present. except for lower plant forms.
8 Lysosomes are always present. Lysosomes are rare.
9 Gyoxysomes are absent. Glyoxysomes are present.
10 Plasmodesmata is absent/Tight Plasmodesmata is present/Tight
junctions and desmosomes are junctions and desmosomes are
As organized in the 3 domain system, prokaryotes include archeans and Ribosomes Yes Yes
bacteria. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists.

Typically, eukaryotic cells are more complex and much larger than CELL FACTS
prokaryotic cells.
1. Cells are too small to be seen without magnification.
Eukaryotes grow and reproduce through a process called mitosis. In There are 2 primary types of cells.
organisms that also reproduce sexually, the reproductive cells are 3. Prokaryotic single-celled organisms are the earliest and most primitive
produced by a type of cell division called meiosis. Most prokaryotes forms of life on earth.
reproduce through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, 4. There are more bacterial cells in the body than human cells.
the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided. During 5. Cells contain genetic material.
the binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell 6. Cells contain structures called organelles which carry out specific
is divided into 2 identical daughter cells. functions.
Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms get the energy they need to 7. Different types of cells reproduce through different methods.
grow and maintain normal cellular respiration. Cellular Respiration has 3 8. Groups of similar cells form tissues.
main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport. In 9. Cells have varying life spans.
eukaryotes, most cellular respiration reactions take place within the 10. Cells commit suicide.
mitochondria. In prokaryotes, they occur in the cytoplasm and/or within
the cell membrane. CELL CYCLE

Cell Structure Prokaryotic Cell Typical Animal

Eukaryotic Cell
Cell membrane Yes Yes
Cell wall Yes No
Centrioles No Yes
Chromosomes One long DNA strand Many
Cilia or Flagella Yes, simple Yes, complex
Endoplasmic No Yes (some
Reticulum exceptions)
Golgi Apparatus/body No Yes
Lysosomes No Common
Mitochondria No Yes
Cell Cycle - is the complex sequence of events by which cells grow and
Nucleus No Yes
divide. In eukaryotic cells, this process includes a series of four distinct
Peroxisomes No Common
phases. These phases consist of the Mitosis phase (M), Gap 1 phase (G 1), G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the
Synthesis phase (S), and Gap 2 phase (G 2). The G 1, S, and G 2 Phases of start of mitosis. The cell synthesizes additional proteins and continues to
the cell cycle are collectively referred to as interphase. The dividing cell increase in size.
spends most of its time in interphase as it grows in preparation for cell STAGES OF MITOSIS
division.
The mitosis phase of the cell division process involves the separations of In mitosis and cytokinesis, the contents of the diving cell are equally
nuclear chromosomes, followed by cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm distributed between 2 daughter cells. Mitosis has 4 phases: Prophase,
forming 2 distinct cells). Mitosis, in which one cell divides to produce 2 Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
new cells (daughter cells) that are identically identical to itself. At the
end of the mitotic cell cycle, 2 distinct daughter cells are produced. Each Prophase: In this stage, changes occur in both the cytoplasm and nucleus
cell contains identical genetic material. of the dividing cell. The chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes.
The time it takes for a cell to complete one cell cycle varies depending on The chromosomes begin to migrate toward the cell center. The nuclear
the type of cell. Some cells, such as blood cells in bone marrow, skin cells, envelop breaks down and spindle fibers form at opposite poles of the cell.
and cells lining the stomach and intestines, divide rapidly and constantly.
Other cells divide when needed to replace damaged or dead cells. These Metaphase: In this stage, the nuclear membrane disappears completely.
cell types include cells of the kidneys, liver, and lungs. Still other cell The spindle fully develops and the chromosomes align at the metaphase
types, including nerve cells, stop dividing once mature. plate (a plane that is equally distant from the 2 poles).

PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE Anaphase: In this phase, paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate
and begin moving to opposite ends (poles) of the cell. Spindle fibers not
2 MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE CELL CYCLE ARE INTERPHASE AND connected to chromatids lengthen and elongated the cell.
MITOSIS
Interphase. During this segment of the cell cycle, a cell doubles its Telophase: In this stage, the chromosomes are cordoned off into distinct
cytoplasm and synthesizes DNA. It is estimated that a dividing cell spends new nuclei and the genetic content of the cell is divided equally into 2
about 90-95 percent of its time in this phase. parts. Cytokinesis begins prior to the end of mitosis and completes shortly
after telophase.
G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell
increases in mass and organelle number in preparation for cell division. Once a cell has completed the cell cycle, it goes back into the G 1 phase
Animal cells in this phase are diploid, meaning that they gave 2 sets of and repeats the cycle again. Cells in the body can also be placed in a non-
chromosomes. dividing state called the Gap 0 phase (G 0) at any point in their life. Cells
may remain in this stage for very long periods of time until they are
S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most cells, there signaled to progress through the cell cycle as initiated by the presence of
is a narrow window of the time during which DNA is synthesized. The certain growth factors or other signals. Cell that contain genetic mutations
chromosome content is doubled in this phase. are permanently placed in the G 0 phase to ensure that they are not
replicated. When the cell cycle goes wrong, normal cell growth is lost.
Cancer cells may develop, which gain control of their own growth signals
and continue to multiply unchecked.

CELL CYCLE AND MEIOSIS

Not all cells divide through the process of mitosis. Organisms that
reproduce sexually also undergo a type of cell division called meiosis.
Meiosis occurs in sex cells and is similar in process to mitosis . After a
complete cell cycle in meiosis however, 4 daughter cells are produced.
Each cell contains one half the number of chromosomes as the original
parent cell. This means that sex cells are haploid cells. When haploid male
and female gametes unite in a process called fertilization, they form 1
diploid cell called a zygote.
- Prepared by ma’am Rox