RESISTIVITY METHOD OF
EXPLORATION
Resistivity of Earth material
Generally speaking:
- Hard rocks are bad conductors
However, many geological processes can alter a rock
and significantly lower it’s resistivity (weathering,
fracturing, shearing, dissolution and hydrothermal
alteration)
Precipitation of calcium carbonates or silica reduces
porosity and hence increase resistivity
Earth Resistivity
Electric current I in short, thin, linear conductor is
given by Ohm’s law:
dV dV
I =-
R I =-
R
dV is potential difference between ends of
conductor
R is resistance of conductor
Electrode configurations
Wenner array
Four electrodes are collinear and separations
between adjacent electrodes is equal (a).
Collecting electrodes in between current electr.
VMN
r a = 2pa
I
DV
r = 2p
I
l Schlumberger sounding
M,N are placed in between A,B and
symmetrically in the centre
MN fixed, AB moves outwards, symmetrically
Resistivity Meter / Aquameter
•The two current electrodes are connected to C1 and C2 of
the resistivity equipment.
•Similarly the potential electrodes are connected to P1 and P2.
the D.C. battery pack is connected to the respective terminals.
•The electrodes are kept 1m apart from each other (a = 1m) and
the battery source is switched on (current is passed into
the ground). The potential difference ∆ V induced with the
current I is recorded.
.
•The spacing, a in the profile is changed to the next
value (say 2 m).
•The electrodes are spread symmetrical
to the centre of the profile. With current passed into
The ground, the values of 1 and ∆V are recorded for
this electrode spacing.
•The procedure is reported for different electrode
spacing and corresponding values of ‘I’ and ‘∆V’ are
recorded every time.
Resistivity
Depth
m
Resistivity Logs
Resistivity profiling
In profiling, observations are made at regular intervals along a survey line.
The observation points are at regular intervals.
The electrode separations are fixed.
This example shows the effect of resistive dyke intrusions in Botswana
(Pala Road Project)
Resistivity mapping
This procedure consists of a series of more or less parallel
profile lines, generating a grid of stations.
Formation resistivity
Sand with saline water <5
Sand with fresh water 80-200
Clay 1-50
Sand stone 100-200
Limestone 100 -1000
Shale 20-200
Massive igneous rock >3000
Jointed igneous rock 200-1500
SEISMIC METHOD OF
GEOPHYSICAL
EXPLORATION
Seismic refraction method
This method deals with the propagation of seismic waves. The
seismic waves generated due to a shock can be grouped under
two types:
- Body waves: P (Primary or longitudinal) and S ( transverse
or secondary)
- Surface waves : R (Rayleigh)
P and S waves propagate from the shock source in all
directions in a spherical wave front. They penetrate the
subsurface to greater depths depending on their energy.
Rayleigh waves are surface with their propagation confined to
near surface depths. The energy of a Rayleigh wave decreases
very rapidly with depth.
procedure
ü Geophones planted at regular intervals form
shock source.
ü Shock generated by heavy hammer.
ü Hammer and the geophones connected to the
refraction unit(records travel time).
ü Wave propagating near the surface will first
reach the 1st geophone
l Wave propagating in the downward
direction will refract and will arrive at farther
geophones.
In the field, the shock is generated at the shock source and the
time of arrival of the wave at geophone 1 is noted in the
seismic unit.
The same procedure is repeated for measurement with
geophone 2 and so on. If there is only geophone available,
measurements of time arrival of the wave are to be made with
the geophone shifted to different locations (1, 2, 3 and so on as
in the fig.)
•The measurements thus obtained from all these
geophone locations are plotted against their distances
of separation from the shock source.
•The resulting graph is known as the travel-time curve
since it indicates the time of travel of the wave energy
from the shock source to the respective geophones.
•It may be noted that the graph is linear with a break in
its trend at some distance. The first segment starts
right from the origin.
•The break in the curve is due to the wave arriving
faster at the geophones located at distances beyond the
break.
applications
Estimation of velocity and identification
of formation/ rock types
Estimation of thickness of various
formations
Estimation of dip formations and their
angle
Estimation of thickness of different formations
: From the travel time curve the velocities and the
critical distance “ Xc” of the break on the graph,
the thickness of the layer is estimated as:
D= Xc/2. √ { ( V2 – V1) / (V2 + V1)}
Identification of dipping formations and estimation of dip
angle
For formations without any dip (horizontal formations), the
travel time curves obtained from profiles in the forward
direction ( from X to Y shot point at X in fig) and in the
reverse direction ( in the direction Y to X with shot point at Y)
will be identical in terms of the slopes of the first segments ,
slopes of second segments and the Xc values of both the travel
time curves.
If the travel time curves for the forward (X to Y) and reverse
(Y to X) profiles are not identical the formations are not
horizontal but are dipping.
The dip angle (Ø) is estimated from the velocity (V1) and the
slopes of the second segments (sd and su in fig.) as
Ø = ½ (sin -[Link] – sin-1 [Link])
Ranges of seismic wave velocities
Formation P-wave velocity S-wave velocity
(m/s) (m/s)
Massive granite 5000 - 7000 2500 - 4000
Weathered 800- 2500 450 - 1500
granite
Sandstone 1500 – 4000 1000 - 2500
Limestone 2500 - 6000 1600 – 4000
Sand 300 – 800 200 - 450
Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)Vertical seismic profiles are the most
cost-effective and easiest borehole seismic technique. An external
seismic energy source, such as a hammer striking a plate, is applied at a
fixed distance from the borehole. An array of special geophones is
inserted into the borehole and the one-way travel time of the initial
arrival of the generated seismic energy is measured.
