GENETICS:

DNA–RNA–Chromosomes–Protein Synthesis:
● Our bodies consist of trillions of tiny cells.
● Each cell contains a nucleus with our genetic material in.
● This genetic material is split into 46 parts called chromosomes.
● The chromosomes are made of long coiled and tangled up chains of DNA.
● A gene is a smaller section of the DNA.
● An allele is a specific version of a gene.
● The gene contains information on how to build proteins.
● Proteins are the building blocks of life.

DNA RNA

● Deoxyribonucleic acid ● Ribonucleic acid

● DNA is a long double strand of nucleobases ● RNA is a long single strand of nucleobases
called Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine called Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine
● Adenine always match with Thymine ● Adenine always matches with Uracil.
● Guanine always match with Cytosine ● Guanine always match with Cytosine
● This allows the DNA to be copied. (see DNA ● This allows it to use one strand of DNA to
replication) make an RNA duplicate of the other strand
of DNA (See protein synthesis)
DNA replication - Making a copy of itself
● The DNA splits up into two strands like a zipper.
● New base pairs form along the two strands, Forming two new DNA molecules.
● Since the base pairs can only match with one specific base, both the two new
DNA is an exact copy of the original DNA.

Protein Synthesis - How DNA codes for proteins

● In the Nucleus, a section of the DNA (a gene) is transcribed
into messenger RNA (mRNA).
● mRNA exits the Nucleus into the cytoplasm and goes to the
Ribosome.
● The Ribosome is reading the mRNA and sends it for
matching transfer RNA (tRNA).
● Connected to the tRNA is an amino acid and in the ribosome,
long chains of amino acids in the same sequence as the mRNA
are built.
● The chain of amino acids is called a protein.

Heredity and genes

● Each cell in your body is Diploid and has 46 chromosomes (except sex cells like the sperm and the
egg that are Haploid and have half of that, 23)
● This means that 23 of your chromosomes come from your biological mom with the egg and 23 of
them come from your biological dad with the sperm.
● This means that you have two sets of chromosomes that are coding for the same genes (small
section of DNA). The two chromosomes that are matching are called homologous pairs.
● As we know there are many different eye colours. This is because genes for eye colour come in
different forms (alleles).
● If the two chromosomes carry
the same allele for eye colour,
that gene will be expressed and
proteins will be made to match
that allele.
● If the two chromosomes carry
different alleles for eye colour, it
gets more tricky.

Dominant and Recessive alleles

● When we have two alleles for the same gene, some alleles can be
dominant and some recessive. This means that only the dominant will be
expressed.
● In some cases, both of the alleles are dominant. This can leads to either:
○ Both will be expressed but in patches, this is called codominance.
 ○ Both will be expressed as a blend, this is called incomplete dominance.
Heredity and Punnett Squares
● We can use a punnett square to calculate the probability of traits
(phenotype) of the offspring if we know the genetic composition
(genotype) of the parents.

Karyotype
A Karyotype is the collection of chromosomes in a cell. The term is most
often used when you are studying the chromosomes of a person to detect
chromosomal disorders. Then the chromosomes are paired up in the
homologous pairs so you can spot any abnormalities. The Karyotype to the
right has an extra chromosome for the 21st homologous pair. This leads to
a condition called Down’s Syndrome.

Cell Division - Comparison

Mitosis Meiosis
- Mitosis is a form of cell division where it - Meiosis can make siblings (for example) look
makes more cells for a person to grow. different but have the same parents (eg).

- Good for repairing damage like cuts. - Meiosis is a process that contributes to
genetic variety.
- It is not a process that makes sperm or egg
cells. - Meiosis doesn’t make body cells, it makes
sperm and egg cells, also known as gametes.
- Mitosis makes identical cells.
- EG: Cut skin so it can replace the - Human sperm cells and egg cells have 23
thing that was lost. chromosomes.
- They add up to 46 chromosomes.
- Mitosis is a very small part of the cell cycle
but it is a very important part. - Meiosis is what we call a reduction division
- Most of the cell cycle is INTERPHASE, because you have a starting cell that has 46
where the cells grow, replicates its chromosomes and your ending cells – the
DNA and carries out its daily cell sperm and egg cells– have only 23
functions. chromosomes each.

- DNA is organised in condensed units called - Before meiosis can start, interphase
chromosomes. happens.

- 46 chromosomes organise the DNA into - In Meiosis you do PMAT 2 times and have
condensed chromosomes. numbers after the steps.
 - Makes it easier to move over when
you are making new cells. - PROPHASE l
- Chromosomes are condensing and
- DNA duplicates before the cells divide so lining up in homologous pairs.
that there is identical DNA. Meaning they match up with another
one which has the same size and the
- When the chromosomes duplicate, there are same type of genes.
still 46 chromosomes but 92 chromatids.
- The process called crossing over is
- PMAT: happening which is when they
- P= Prophase exchange their genetic information
- M= Metaphase with each other.
- A= Anaphase
- T= Telophase - METAPHASE l
- They line up in pairs in the middle.
- PROPHASE:
- The nucleus is still there - ANAPHASE l
- Chromosomes are condensing - They get pulled away by the spindles.

- METAPHASE: - TELOPHASE l
- Chromosomes line up in the middle - You have two new nuclei and you end
of the cell, and the nucleus is no Meiosis one with two different cells.
longer there.
- PROPHASE ll
- ANAPHASE: - The spindles are forming
- They are moving away, they are
moving to opposite sides of the cell, - METAPHASE ll
so they are moving towards the poles - They line up in the middle
of the cells.
- ANAPHASE ll
- Spindles (fibres) help move the - They get pulled by the chromatids
chromosomes to the ends. and become 4 cells.

- TELOPHASE: - TELOPHASE ll
- New nuclei are forming on each side - The cytoplasm splits.
to make new cells.

- CYTOKINESIS:
- It is responsible for the final
separation into two cells by
cytoplasm which completes after the
PMAT mitosis stages.

- Growth and repair require Mitosis.

- Cancer for example is caused by

uncontrolled cell growth.

NATURAL SELECTION and EVOLUTION:

Artificial Selection:
When humans select certain traits of a species that is desirable and lets animals with these traits
reproduce with each other to strengthen these traits.

Natural Selection:
Nature, by being a dangerous place with competition between and within species, allows a higher
probability for species with more favourable traits to survive and reproduce, thus strengthening the traits.
There are 4 factors needed for Natural selection to occur.

Variation:
All individuals of a species are slightly different. There are small differences in the genetic material
between the individuals of a species.

Inheritance:
The genetic material is transferred from one generation to the next.

Overproduction of offspring
More offspring are produced than what will survive to be able to reproduce. Most offspring will die before
they have a chance to reproduce so the Individuals with favourable traits have a bigger chance to survive
and reproduce.

Competition
The offspring that have more favourable traits will have a higher chance of survival and a higher chance to
reproduce and spread their genetic material to the next generation and the favourable traits will be
accumulating over time and the species have adapted to the environment.

Antibiotic Resistance
Some bacteria have evolved a resistance to antibiotics as a result of natural selection. This is why overuse
of antibiotics is so important to avoid. This video shows the process taking place in a very short period of
time.

Virus mutations
Natural selection is also responsible for the new mutations of the corona virus that are spreading in our
population now.

EVOLUTION VIDEOS NOTES:

1. What is Evolution:
- Evolution helps us in understanding how modern creatures are evolving and adapt and
change today.

- When DNA is being copied, errors can occur which modify the DNA code. This is called DNA
mutation. These mutations can produce variation in the body shape and function of the
creature who inherits the modified DNA.

- DEFINITION OF EVOLUTION: Any change in the heritable traits within a population across
generations.