Mechanics – I

AS - Lecture Notes

Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Mashrek International School
 Mechanics

Introduction

Mechanics

Kinematics Dynamics

Dynamics deals with

force and why objects
move as they do.

Displacement (s)
Displacement is defined as:
The change in position of the object.
i.e.,
Displacement is how far the object is from its
starting point.
or
The shortest distance moved in a particular
direction.

Displacement = change in position

Distance = length of path followed

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A person walks 70 m east, then 30 m west.

The total distance travelled is (70 + 30 = 100 m).

The displacement is 40 m to the east.

• Distance is a scalar quantity (has magnitude only)

• Displacement is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction).

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Speed and Velocity:
Average Speed: The total distance travelled divided by the time taken.

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒆 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅

In symbols

𝒔
̅=
𝒗
𝒕
❖ Speed has magnitude only and is a scalar quantity.
❖ The SI unit of speed is meter per second (m/s or m.s-1).

Average Velocity: is the displacement divided by the time interval during which that displacement
occurred. (or the rate of change of position)

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅

In symbols

𝒔
̅=
𝒗
𝒕
where v stands for velocity and the ( - ) over the v is a standard symbol meaning “average.”

❖ Velocity has both magnitude and direction and is a vector quantity.

❖ The SI unit of velocity is meter per second (m/s or m.s-1).
❖ A body which covers equal distance in the same straight line in equal time intervals, is said to
be moving constant or uniform velocity.

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Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity at any moment is defined as:
the average velocity during an infinitesimally short time interval.
or
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instant in time/point in space.

Notes

• For instantaneous velocity we use the symbol v, whereas for average velocity we use
𝑣̅ .
• If an object moves at uniform (constant) velocity, then its instantaneous velocity
always equals its average velocity.

Example:

The diagram shows the position of the sprinter at different times after the start of the race.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
100
=
11.3
= 8.8 𝑚. 𝑠 −1

But during the 1st two seconds, the average speed was 5.02 m.s-1, from t = 2 s to t = 4 s, the average
speed was 9.08 m.s-1, …etc. It is clear that the sprinter has different speeds at different moments.

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Acceleration (a)

Average Acceleration:
the rate of change of velocity
or
the change in velocity divided by the time it takes to make this change.

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅
In symbols
𝒗 − 𝒖 ∆𝒗
𝒂= =
𝒕 𝒕

• The unit of acceleration in the SI system is m.s-2.

• Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Instantaneous acceleration:
The instantaneous acceleration at any moment is defined as:

the average acceleration during an infinitesimally short time interval.

or
Instantaneous acceleration is the acceleration at a particular instant in time/point in
space.

Deceleration
It means slowing down.

NOTE
Usually if the object is decelerating then this means the acceleration is negative, BUT this
is not always the case since Acceleration is a vector quantity.

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Motion at constant Acceleration
If a is constant (UNIFORM ACCELERATION), and

if we assumed that

v (at t = 0) = u

t is the elapsed time.

then
𝒗−𝒖 1
𝒂=
𝒕

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 2

𝟏 3
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂𝒕𝟐

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 4

𝒗+𝒖 5
̅=
𝒗
𝟐
and
𝒗+𝒖
𝒔=( )𝒕
𝟐
where

v  Final velocity measured in m.s-1.

u  Initial velocity measured in m.s-1.

t  Time in second.

a  acceleration in m.s-2.

s  displacement in meters.

Notes:

1) Knowing any three of u, v, t, a and s and the others can be found.

2) The equation of motion can be used for a body moving in a straight line with a uniform
acceleration.
3) Starting from rest means u = 0.

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Velocity–Time Graphs

Acceleration = slope (Gradient) of the velocity- time graph.

Displacement = The area under the velocity–time graph.
Curve 1: 25

20

Velocity / m.s-1
Horizontal Straight Line has zero slopes. 15
Acceleration = Slope = 0.
10
uniform velocity
5

0
0 5 10 15
Time /s

Curve 2: 30

25
Velocity /m.s-1

Straight line of constant slope 20

15
(Straight Line has ONE Slope only).
10
(uniform acceleration).
5

0
0 5 10 15
Time /s

Curve 3: 30
25
Velocity/ m.s-1

20
Straight line of constant
15
Negative slope. 10
5
0
(uniform deceleration). 0 5 10 15
Time /s

Curve 4: 18
16
14
Velocity /m.s-1

12
The slope varies, 10
(Variable acceleration). 8
6
4
2
The acceleration at specific time 0
0 5 10 15
(Instantaneous Acceleration) is the
Time /s
gradient of the tangent at that time.

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Displacement - time graph:
Velocity = Slope of the displacement – time graph.
Curve 1: 25

20

Displacement/ m
Horizontal Straight Line has zero slopes. 15

Velocity = Slope = 0. 10

Object is at REST. 5

0
0 5 10 15
Time /s

Curve 2: 30
25

Displacement/m
20
Straight line of constant slope 15
(Straight Line has ONE Slope only). 10
5
(Uniform Positive Velocity). 0
0 5 10 15

Time /s

Curve 3: 30

25
Displacement/ m

Straight line of constant 20

15
Negative slope.
10

5
(Uniform Negative Velocity, i.e., Velocity
0
in the opposite direction). 0 5 10 15

Time /s

Curve 4: (a) Curve 4: (b)

300 300
Displacement/ m

Displacement /m

250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
Time /s
0 5 10 15 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time /s

The slope decreases with time. The slope Increases with time.
(Uniform Deceleration) (Uniform Acceleration)
Instantaneous Velocity = Slope of tangent. Instantaneous Velocity = Slope of tangent.

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The table below summarizes the graphs for an object moving with constant velocity, constant
acceleration and constant deceleration.

Uniform velocity Uniform Acceleration Uniform Deceleration

2500
300 2500

Displacement /m

Displacement /m
Displacement /m

2000
2000
200 1500
1500
1000 1000
100
500 500
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time /s Time /s Time /s

20 250 250
Velocity /m.s-1

15 200 200
Velocity /m.s-1

Velocity /m.s-1
150 150
10
100 100
5 50 50
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time /s Time /s Time /s

10 20 20
Acceleration /m.s-2
Acceleration /m.s-2

Acceleration /m.s-2

5 10 10

0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 10 20 30
-5 -10 -10

-10 -20 -20

Time /s Time /s Time /s

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1) a) One car travel east at 40 km/hr, and a second car travels north at 40 km/hr. Are their
velocities equal?

b) Can you conclude that a car is not accelerating if its speedometer indicates a steady 60 km/hr?

c) A car decelerates from a speed of 25 m/s to rest in a distance of 120 m. What

was its acceleration, assumed constant?

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 4) A ball is dropped from a high window onto a concrete floor. The velocity-time graph for part
of its motion is shown.

v/m s–1
A
30

20

10

0
0 2 4 6 t/s
–10

–20

–30

Calculate the gradient from the origin to A.

Comment on the significance of your answer.

What happened to the ball at point A?

Calculate the height of the window above the ground.

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Falling Objects
At a given location on the Earth and the absence of air resistance, all objects fall with the
same constant acceleration irrespective of their masses.

Figure: A rock and a feather are dropped simultaneously in

(a) air, (b) in a vacuum.

We call this acceleration the acceleration due to gravity on the Earth and we give it the
symbol g.

Notes
• The value of g varies slightly from place to place on earth’s surface and is
approximately equals 9.81 m/s2. In other words, the velocity of freely falling body
increases by 9.81 m/s every second.
• One can use the equation of motion to describe the motion of the freely falling body
where g replaces a.

Equations for Uniform Equations for freely

Acceleration falling objects

𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕

𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝟐𝒈𝒕𝟐

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒚

𝒗+𝒖 𝒗+𝒖
𝒗= ̅=
𝒗
𝟐 𝟐

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Vertical projection:

The velocity of an object projected vertically upwards from the ground decreases by 9.81
m/s every second.

At the maximum height, the velocity of the object equals zero (v = 0 BUT a ≠ 0), otherwise,
the object will keep moving upwards more and more.

NOTE
Any object moving under the effect of gravity (free fall or vertical projection) experiences
acceleration directed downward and equals to g. In the free fall, the velocity and acceleration
are both downwards, so the object accelerates, but in the vertical projection, the velocity is
upwards and the acceleration is downwards, so the object decelerates.

Upward velocity Downward velocity

Downward Acceleration Downward Acceleration
→ Deceleration → Acceleration

The diagrams below show the displacement-time graph, the velocity-time graph and the
acceleration-time graph for an object moving under the effect of gravity alone.

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 Practice Problems

1. (a) Estimate
(I) How long it took King Kong to fall straight down from the top of the
Empire State Building (380 m high),

(II) His velocity just before “landing”?

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Force could be described as “the cause of a deformation or a velocity change”, previously
we used to describe force as “Push or Pull”.

General Effects and properties of forces:

• Forces can change size and shape of an object.

• Forces can stretch, squash, bend or twist object.
• Forces can change the motion of a body.
• The SI unit for the measurement of forces is the newton (N).
• Force is a vector quantity.
• Forces can act at a distance so that there is no contact between objects or between
a system that produces a force and the object on which it acts.

Types of Forces
There are many types of forces such as:

Gravitational force Electrostatic force Magnetic force

Normal reaction Friction Tension

Compression Upthrust Lift

The origin of all these everyday forces is either gravitational or electromagnetic. The vast
majority of everyday effects that we observe are due to electromagnetic forces

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 Newton’s Laws of Motion
First Law
Every object continues in its state of rest, or uniform velocity in
straight line, as long as no net force acts on it.
or

An object continues to remain stationary or to move at a constant velocity

unless an external force acts on it.

Inertia

The tendency of an object to maintain its state of rest or of uniform motion

in a straight line.

Newton’s first law expresses the idea of inertia. Inertia of a body is its reluctance to start
moving, and its reluctance to stop once it has begun moving. Thus an object at rest begins to
move only when it is pushed or pulled (i.e. when a force acts on it). And an object moving in
a straight line with constant velocity will change its direction or moves faster only if a new
force acts on it.

Example

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 Mass and Weight

This definition is NOT precise

Mass is a quantity of matter. since the concept “quantity of
matter” is not very well defined.

More precisely,

Mass is a measure of the

inertia of an object.

• The unit of mass in SI system is kilogram (kg).

• Mass is a scalar quantity.

• The weight W of a body is the force of gravity acting on it towards the centre of the
earth.
𝑾 = 𝒎𝒈
• The gravitational field strength (g) has a value of 9.81 N kg-1 (on Earth) and is
defined as the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on a mass of one kilogram,
i.e.
𝑭
𝒈=
𝒎
• The mass m of a body is constant but its weight mg varies with position on the
earth’s surface since g varies from place to place.

Q) Distinguish between the mass of an object and the object’s weight.

A)

Mass Weight
Scalar Quantity. Vector Quantity.
Measured in kg. Measured in N.
A measure of an object’s inertia OR Is a FORCE (the pull of gravity)
its quantity of matter. (Gravitational Force).
CONSTANT/always the same NOT constant/ varies with
wherever the object/ a property of the location/depends on g.
object itself.

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 Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s 2nd Law states that:

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force

acting on it, and is inversely proportional to its mass. The direction
of the acceleration is in the direction of the net force acting on it.

Mathematically, this could be written as

𝑭
𝒂=
𝒎
or
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂

where a stands for acceleration, m for the mass, and F for the net force acting on the object.

• From Newton’s second law we can define the force as follows:

Force is an action capable of accelerating an object.

• Force is a vector quantity, so it has both magnitude and direction.

The SI unit of force is the Newton |(N), which is defined as:

The force that, when acting on a 1 kg mass, produces an acceleration of 1 m.s-2.
𝟏𝐍 ≡ 𝟏 𝐤𝐠. 𝐦. 𝐬−𝟐

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 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Newton’s 3rd Law

If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an

equal but opposite force on body A.

• Forces never occur singly but always-in pairs as a result of the interaction between two
bodies.
• The equal and opposite forces do not act on the same body; if they did, there could
never be any resultant forces and all acceleration would be impossible.

Examples:

We can walk forward because the ground The force of the hammer on the nail is equal
pushes forward on our feet when we push to and opposite the force of the nail on the
backwards against the ground hammer.

When a block is lying on a table, the forces acting on the block are the normal force, N, and the
force of gravity, W as illustrated in (b). The reaction to N is the force of the block on the table
N. The reaction to W is the force of the block on the earth, W.

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 Free-body force diagrams

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 Forces of Friction

• When a body is in motion either on a rough surface, or through a viscous medium such
as air or waters, there is resistance to motion because of the interaction of the body with
its surroundings. We call such resistance a force of friction.
• Forces of friction are very important in our everyday lives. Forces of friction allow us
to walk and run and are necessary for the motion of wheeled vehicles.
• When an object slides over a rough surface, the force of friction acts OPPOSITE to
the direction of the object’s velocity.

• When an object falls in air, the air resistance opposing its

motion increases as its speed rises, so reducing its
acceleration.

• The air resistance (force) is directly proportional to the

speed of the object.

Air resistance is a force opposing the motion.

a) At t = 0, u = 0 → R=0
a = g = 10 m/s2

b) When the object has gained velocity

Resultant force = W – R = m.a
ma = mg − R
R
a=g− g
m
c) W = R → Resultant force = zero
or a = 0
the object will move with constant velocity called Terminal Velocity

Notes
1) A small dense object such as a steel ball – bearing has a high terminal velocity.

2) A light object such as a raindrop, or one with a large surface area as a parachute, has a low
terminal velocity.

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 Practice Questions

1) What is the linear acceleration of the sphere of mass 2

kg in the figure right

2) What is the tension acting in the cable of the lift shown

right

7) A child is crouching at rest on the ground.

Below are free-body force diagrams for the child and the earth.

C
A
Earth

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 Complete the following table describing the forces A, B and C.

Body which exerts Body the force acts

Force Description of force
force on

A Gravitational Earth Child

All the forces A, B, C and D are of equal magnitude.

Why are forces A and B equal in magnitude?

Why must forces B and D be equal in magnitude?

[2]
The child now jumps vertically upwards. With reference to the forces shown, explain what
he must do to jump, and why he then moves upwards.

[3]
[Total 9 marks]

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 Work, Energy and Power

Work Done by a Constant Force

The work done on an object by a constant force is defined to be the

product of the magnitude of the displacement times the component
of the force parallel to the displacement.

Mathematically,
𝑾 = 𝑭|| 𝒅

where F|| is the component of the constant force ⃗F parallel to the displacement ⃗d.

In General, we can write

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
where F is the magnitude of the constant force, d is the magnitude of the displacement of the
object, and θ is the angle between the directions of the force and the displacement.

• The factor (cos θ) is the component of 𝐹 that is parallel to 𝑑 , i.e., (F|| = cos θ).
• Work is a scalar quantity – it has only magnitude, which can be positive or negative.
• The unit of work is N.m = Joule (J).

0 cos 0 = 1 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑
𝐼𝑓 𝜃 = { 90𝑜 cos 90 = 0 𝑊=0
180𝑜 cos 180 = −1 𝑊 = −𝐹. 𝑑

(The 3rd case ( = 180o) represents the work done against the movement (e.g. work done
by frictional force)

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 Motion

Ffr

If you hold a bag of groceries in your hands The work done by the frictional force is
and walk horizontally across the floor, you negative since  = 180o.
do no work on it (W = 0), since ⃗𝑭 ⊥ ⃗𝒅.

Question

Calculate the work done against gravity to carry a 15-

kg backpack up a hill of height h = 10.0 m as shown in
the Figure.

work done  Area under the curve

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Kinetic Energy and the Work-Energy Principle

Energy could be defined as the ability to do work.

There are many types of energy like

• Kinetic Energy • Thermal Energy

• Potential Energy • Electrical Energy

• Chemical Energy • Nuclear Energy

In this Chapter, we will study the kinetic and potential energy.

Kinetic Energy (KE)

Kinetic Energy is the energy a body has because of its motion.

Mathematically,

1
Kinetic Energy = × mass × (velocity)2
2

or
1
𝐾𝐸 = 2𝑚𝑣 2

We call this quantity “translational” kinetic energy to distinguish it from rotational kinetic
energy.

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Work- Energy Principle

The net work done on an object is equal to the change in the

object’s kinetic energy.

Mathematically,
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐾𝐸2 − 𝐾𝐸1

or
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∆𝐾𝐸

NOTES
• If positive net work W is done on an object, the objects kinetic energy increases by
an amount W.
• If negative net work W is done on an object, the objects kinetic energy decreases by
an amount W.
• The unit of KE is Joule (J).

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Potential Energy (PE)

Potential Energy (PE) is energy associated with forces that

depends on the position or configuration of objects.

We will study two types of potential energy

• Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE).
• Elastic Potential Energy (elastic PE).

Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy of an object, due to Earth’s gravity,

is defined as the product of the object’s weight mg and its
height h above some reference level (such as the ground).

𝑷𝑬𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

Note

What is physically important in any situation is the change in potential energy, PE, because it is
related to the work done.

For an object of mass m to be lifted vertically, an upward

force at least equal to its weight, mg, must be exerted on
it say by a person’s hand.

The work done by the hand to lift the object without

accelerating it is:
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) = 𝒎𝒈𝒉
→
𝑾𝒆𝒙𝒕 = 𝑷𝑬𝟐 − 𝑷𝑬𝟏 = ∆𝑷𝑬

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Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic materials (like springs) have potential energy when compressed (or stretched), this type of
energy is called elastic potential energy.

A spring can store energy (elastic PE) when compressed as in (b) and can do work when released as in
(c).

The elastic potential energy for a stretched or compressed spring is given by

𝟏
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝑷𝑬 = 𝟐𝒌𝒙𝟐

Where x is the displacement from the unstretched position (the compression or extension) and k is the
spring stiffness constant.

Conservative and Nonconservative forces

Conservative forces

Forces for which the work done does not depend on the path taken but only on the
initial and final positions.

Examples: Gravitational, elastic and electric forces.

Nonconservative forces

Forces for which the work done depends on the path taken.

Examples: Friction, air resistance, push or pull by a person, …etc.

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 Mechanical Energy and its Conservation

The total mechanical energy (E) is defined as the sum of gravitational

potential energy and kinetic energy.

→
𝑬 = 𝑷𝑬 + 𝑲𝑬

The Principle of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

If only conservative forces are acting, the total mechanical energy of a

system neither increase nor decrease in any process. It stays constant – it is
conserved.

In other words,
The total mechanical energy at a point equals the total mechanical energy at any other point, provided
that the forces are conservatives.

→
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Or
𝑷𝑬𝟏 + 𝑲𝑬𝟏 = 𝑷𝑬𝟐 + 𝑲𝑬𝟐
Or
∆𝑲𝑬 = −∆𝑷𝑬

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 Other Forms of Energy; Energy Transformations and the Law of
Conservation of Energy

Besides the kinetic and potential energy, there are many other forms of energy such as:

• Thermal Energy • Chemical Energy

• Electrical Energy • Nuclear Energy

It is to be noted here that all these forms of energy are considered to come from kinetic and
potential energy in the Atomic or Molecular Scale.

Thermal Energy is The KE of the moving

molecules.

Chemical Energy is The PE due to the relative

positions of the atoms.

The Law of Conservation of Energy

The principle of the conservation of mechanical energy is a special case of the more general
principle of conservation of energy.

The total energy is neither increased nor decreased in any process.

Energy can be transformed from one form to another, and transferred
from one object to another, but the total amount remains constant.

or

Energy may be transformed from one form to another but it cannot be

created or destroyed, i.e. the total energy of the system is constant.

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 Power

Power is defined as:

The rate at which work is done.
i.e.
The rate at which energy is transformed.

→
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
In symbols
𝒘
𝒑=
𝒕
But
𝑾 = 𝑭. 𝒅

𝑭. 𝒅
𝒑= = 𝑭𝒗
𝒕

The unit of power is Watt (W), where

1 W = 1 J/s

Horsepower (hp)

Another unit for power is the horsepower (hp) where

1 ℎ𝑝 = 746 𝑊

Efficiency

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝒐𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)

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 1. A diver climbs some steps on to a fixed platform above the surface of the water in a
swimming-pool. He dives into the pool. The Figure below shows the diver about to
enter the water.

The mass of the diver is 65 kg. The platform is 8.0 m above the surface of the water.

Calculate
a) the increase in the gravitational potential energy of the diver when he climbs up
to the platform.

b) the speed with which the diver hits the surface of the water. Ignore any effects
of air resistance.

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 2. On a day with no wind, a fountain in Switzerland propels 30 000 kg of water per minute
to a height of 140 m.

Calculate the power used in raising the water.

a)

The efficiency of the pump which operates the fountain is 70%.

b)
Calculate the power supplied to the pump.

On another day, a horizontal wind is blowing. The water does not rise vertically.
c) Explain why the water still rises to a height of 140 m.

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 3) The graph on the right shows a force acting on an object as it moves through a certain
displacement. How much work is done during this motion?

4) An athlete of mass 55kg runs up a flight of stairs of vertical height 3.6m in 1.8s.
Calculate the power that this athlete develops in raising his mass.

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 5) A granite block is suspended at rest just below the surface of water in a tank (Figure i).
The block is now released and falls 0.80 m to the bottom (Figure ii).

Figure i Figure ii

0.8 m

The volume of the block is 3.0 x 10-3 m3, and the density of granite is 2700 kg m-3.
Calculate the gravitational potential energy lost by the block as it falls.

Although the water level has not changed, the water has gained gravitational potential
energy. Explain why?

The gravitational potential energy gained by the water is less than that lost by the granite.
Explain this.

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 6) The diagram shows part of a roller coaster ride. In practice, friction and air resistance will
have a significant effect on the motion of the vehicle, but you should ignore them
throughout this question.

The vehicle starts from rest at A and is hauled up to B by a motor. It takes 15.0 s to reach
B, at which point its speed is negligible. Complete the box in the diagram below, which
expresses the conservation of energy for the journey from A to B.

Useful work

done by

motor

The mass of the vehicle and the passengers is 3400 N. Calculate

(i) the useful work done by the motor.

Work done = …………………..

(ii) the power output of the motor.

Power = …………………..

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 At point B the motor is switched off and the vehicle moves under gravity for the rest of the
ride.
Describe the overall energy conversion which occurs as it travels from B to A.

Calculate the speed of the vehicle at point C.

On another occasion there are fewer passengers in the vehicle; hence its total mass is less
than before. Its speed is again negligible at B. State with a reason how, if at all, you should
expect the speed at C to differ from your previous answer.

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 Turning Effects of Forces

1) Moment of a force (or turning effect of a force about a point)

𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒑𝒊𝒗𝒐𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆

Notes

• Pivot (or fulcrum): the fixed point about which the object will turn (like the hinge of
the door).
• The unit of the moment of the force is N.m (not Joule)
• The moment of a force is a vector quantity (has both magnitude and direction).

Example

Wrench (with long arm) Opening a door Crowbar to lift a heavy weight

The moment of a force is bigger if

• The force is bigger.
• The force acts further from the pivot.
• The force acts at 90o to the object it acts on.

The moment of a force is ZERO if

• The force acts on the pivot.
• The force parallel to the object it acts on (0o or 180o).

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Equilibrium
Beam: a long rigid
• When a beam is balanced, we say that it is in Equilibrium. object that is pivoted
at a point.
• There are two conditions for an object to be at equilibrium:
1) The resultant force on it is zero (i.e., no resultant force, or the forces must be
balanced)
2) The turning effect of the forces on it must be balanced (i.e., no resultant
turning effect)

Law of Moments (Law of Lever)

When a body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals
the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point.
i.e.
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Example

Find F?
Levers
A lever is any device which can turn about a pivot.
In a working lever, a force called the effort is used to
overcome a resisting force called the load. The pivotal
point is called the fulcrum.

Centre of Mass (Centre of Gravity)

A point at which the whole mass (weight) of the body is imagined to be concentrated and
all the applied forces acts at that point.

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Practical work
Finding the Centre of Mass (Gravity) using a plumb line
To find the centre of mass of an irregularly
shaped piece of card.
• Hangs the card (lamina) freely from the
pin.
• The centre of mass must lie on the line
indicated by the plumb-line hanging
from the pin.
• Three lines are enough to find the centre
of mass.

Stability
For an object to be stable, it should have:
1) Low centre of mass.
2) Wide base.

Note:
There are three terms used with stability:

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 1) Stable equilibrium.
2) Unstable equilibrium
3) Neutral Equilibrium

Toppling

A body topples when the vertical

line through its centre of gravity
falls outside its base (as shown in
the figure) otherwise it will remain
stable.

1
)

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 2
)

3
)

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