EAST POINT SCHOOL

SESSION : 2023-24

NAME- Swastika Pramanik

CLASS – XI
SECTION – A
ROLL NO – 01

Physics project
 TOPIC-
To study the
physics concept
of Doppler effect
and the fibre
gyroscope
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
Swastika Pramanik is a
student of class XI A has
successfully completed
the project under the
guidance of Biplab Ballav
during year 2023-24.
 DECLARATION
I ,hereby declare that the
project work entitled “To study
the physics concept of Doppler
effect and the fibre gyroscope”
submitted to the "East Point
School" is a record of original
work done by me, which are duly
acknowledged under the
guidance of my subject teacher
Biplab Ballav.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special
thanks to our school East Point
School, Principal Ma’am Mrs. Keya
Chakraborty , to the management
team of our school who gave me
the opportunity to do this project
on the topic ‘ To study the physics
concept of Doppler effect and the
fibre gyroscope’ which also helped
me in doing a lot of research and I
came to know about so many new
things.
Secondly, I would also like to
thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finishing this
project within the time.
 Index

 Introduction
 About christian doppler
 About doppler effect along with
derivation
 Consequences
 Experimental form
 Applications
 Fibre -optic gyroscope
 Gyroscope basics and operation
 Advantage and disadvantages of
gyroscope
 IFOG construction
 IFOGS at work
 Conclusion
 abstract
The reason for the Doppler effect is that when the
source of the waves is moving towards the
observer, each successive wave crest is emitted
from a position closer to the observer than the
crest of the previous wave . For waves that
propagate in a medium, such as sound waves,
the velocity of the observer and of the source are
relative to the medium in which the waves are
transmitted . A fibre-optic gyroscope (FOG) senses
changes in orientation using the Sagnac effect,
thus performing the function of a
mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of
operation is instead based on the interference of
light which has passed through a coil of optical
fibre, which can be as long as 5 kilometres (3 mi).
Two beams from a laser are injected into the same
fibre but in opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac
effect, the beam travelling against the rotation
experiences a slightly shorter path delay than the
other beam. The resulting differential phase
shift is measured through interferometry, thus
translating one component of the angular
velocity into a shift of the interference pattern
which is measured photometrically.
 INTRODUCTION-

The Doppler effect(or Doppler shift),

named after the Austrian physicist,
Christian Doppler ,who proposed it in
1842 in Prague, is the change in
frequency of a wave (or other periodic
event) for an observer moving relative
to its source. It is commonly
heard when a vehicle sounding a siren
or horn approaches, passes,
and recedes from an observer. The
received frequency is higher
(compared to the emitted frequency)
during the approach, it is identical at
the instant of passing by, and it is
lower during the recession.
Christian Doppler was raised in Salzburg,
Austria, the son of a stonemason. Doppler could
not work in his father's business because of his
generally weak physical condition. After
completing high school Doppler studied
philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and
physics at the k. k. Polytechnisches Institut (now
Vienna University of Technology) where he worked
as an assistant since 1829. In 1835 started to
work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech
Technical University), where he was appointed in
1841.
The reason for the Doppler effect is that when the
source of the waves is moving towards the observer,
each successive wave crest is emitted from a position
closer to the observer than the crest of the previous
wave .Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to
reach the observer than the previous wave. Hence, the
time between the arrivals of successive wave crests at
the observer is reduced, causing an increase in the
frequency. While they are traveling, the distance
between successive wave fronts is reduced, so the
waves "bunch together". Conversely, if the source of
waves is moving away from the observer, each wave is
emitted from a position farther from the observer than
the previous wave, so the arrival time between
successive waves is increased, reducing the frequency.
The distance between successive wave fronts is then
increased, so the waves "spread out".
For waves that propagate in a medium, such
as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the
source are relative to the medium in which the waves
are transmitted .The total Doppler effect may therefore
result from motion of the source, motion of the observer,
motion of the medium, or any combination thereof. For
waves propagating in vacuum, such as electromagnetic
waves or gravitational waves, only the difference in
velocity between the observer and the source needs to
be considered. If this relative speed is not negligible
compared to the speed of light ,a more
complicated relativistic Doppler effect arises.
In classical physics, where the speeds of source and the
receiver relative to the medium are lower than the speed of
waves in the medium, the relationship between observed
frequency f and emitted frequency 𝑓0 is given by

Where,

 c is the propagation speed of waves in the medium;

 𝒗𝒓 is the speed of the receiver relative to the medium, added
to c if the receiver is moving towards the source, subtracted if
the receiver is moving away from the source;
 𝒗𝒔 is the speed of the source relative to the medium, added
to if the source is moving away from the receiver, subtracted if
the source is moving towards the receiver.

Note this relationship predicts that the frequency will decrease if

either source or receiver is moving away from the other.
Equivalently, under the assumption that the source is either
directly approaching or receding from the observer:

If the source approaches the observer at an angle (but still with a

constant speed), the observed frequency that is first heard is higher than
the object's emitted frequency. Thereafter, there is a monotonic decrease
in the observed frequency as it gets closer to the observer, through
equality when it is coming from a direction perpendicular to the relative
motion (and was emitted at the point of closest approach; but when the
wave is received, the source and observer will no longer be at their
closest), and a continued monotonic decrease as it recedes from the
observer. When the observer is very close to the path of the object, the
transition from high to low frequency is very abrupt. When the observer
is far from the path of the object, the transition from high to low
frequency is gradual
If the speeds 𝒗𝒘𝒓 and 𝒗𝒘𝒔 are small compared to the speed of the wave,
the relationship between observed frequency f and emitted
𝒇𝟎 frequency is approximately:
 Stationary sound source produces sound waves at a constant
frequency f, and the wave-fronts propagate symmetrically away
from the source at a constant speed c. The distance between
wave-fronts is the wavelength. All observers will hear the same
frequency, which will be equal to the actual frequency of the
source where f = f0
The same sound source is radiating sound waves at a constant
frequency in the same medium. However, now the sound
source is moving with a speed υs = 0.7 c. Since the source is
moving, the centre of each new wavefront is now slightly
displaced to the right. As a result, the wave-fronts begin to
bunch up on the right side (in front of) and spread further apart
on the left side (behind) of the source. An observer in front of
the source will hear a higher frequency f = c + 0/c – 0.7c f0 =
3.33 f0 and an observer behind the source will hear a lower
frequency f = c − 0/c + 0.7c f0 = 0.59 f0.
 Consequences

Assuming a stationary observer and a source moving at the speed of

sound, the Doppler equation predicts a perceived momentary infinite
frequency by an observer in front of a source that is traveling at the
speed of sound. All the peaks are at the same place, so the wavelength
is zero and the frequency is infinite. This overlay of all the waves
produces a shock wave which for sound waves is known as a sonic
boom.

When the source moves faster than the wave speed the source outruns
the wave. The equation gives negative frequency values, which have no
physical sense in this context (no sound at all will be heard by the
observer until the source passes past them).
Lord Rayleigh predicted the following effect in his classic book on
sound: if the observer were moving from the (stationary) source at
twice the speed of sound, a musical piece previously emitted by that
source would be heard in correct tempo and pitch, but as if
played backwards.
Aim

To measure the rotation in a gyroscope using the doppler effect.

Theory

1. The change in frequency of a wave with respect to an observer who is

moving toward the frequency or away from it. It is termed Doppler Shift or
Doppler Effect. The Formula for the Doppler effect is:

2. A device used for maintaining and measuring angular velocity and

orientation is called a gyroscope.
3. A Sagnac interferometer is a device in which two mirrors and a beam
splitter are arranged in a triangle.
Requirements
1. Helium-Neon Laser
2. Sagnac Interferometer
3. Turntable
4. Beamsplitter
5. Notebook

Procedure

Step 1: To assemble a Sagnac Interferometer, use a Helium-Neon laser.

Where, on a rotating frame, two beams propagate in opposite directions. A
long fiber will work as a beam carrier for both the propagating beams to
produce the Doppler effect.
Step 2: Using a turntable is a rotating frame.
Step 3: Use a beam splitter to produce counter-propagating beams. These
beams will be injected into the fiber.
Step 4: Obtain a fringe pattern on a screen created by returning the beam.
Step 5: Rotate the fiber on the turntable.
Step 6: Observe the change in the pattern of fringes.
Step 7: Observe the pattern of fringe by rotating it at three different speeds
of 17, 33, and 45 rotations per minute.
Step 8: Record your observations.

Observation

1. Our experiment performed the same as we expected it to perform.

2. We were successful in building the Fiber Optic Gyroscope. And we also
measured the Doppler shift introduced by the rotating frame.
3. Our result came under five percent of accuracy.

Result

1. The simple fiber optic gyroscope that we constructed in this experiment

measured rotation with an accuracy of five percent. There are two reasons
for this performance, the first one is the poor contrast ratio between fringes,
and the second one is we counted fringes’ shifts with limited accuracy.
2. We used non-polarising material as fiber which is a reason for the poor
contrast.
3. Another reason for poor contrast is facing difficulties in balancing the
intensities of two beams.
4. This problem can be solved by repeating the experiment with the same
speed at least ten times.
5. By repeating each experiment, we can successfully reduce the standard
deviation by ten percent of the average value at a speed of 45 rotations per
minute and forty-five percent of the average value at a speed of twenty-five
rotations per minute

Precaution

1. Repeat the experiment ten times with each speed.

2. Make sure every instrument is working properly.
3. Record your observation precisely.
 APPLICATIONS

 Acoustic Doppler current

profiler
 Robotics
 Sirens
 Astronomy
 Radar
 Medical
 Flow measurement
 Velocity profile
measurement
 Satellite
1. Satellite navigation
2. Satellite communication

 Audio
 Vibration measurement
 Developmental biology
 Fibre -optic gyroscope

A fibre-optic gyroscope (FOG) senses changes in orientation

using the Sagnac effect, thus performing the function of a
mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of operation is
instead based on the interference of light which has passed
through a coil of optical fibre, which can be as long as 5
kilometres (3 mi).
GYROSCOPE BASICS:
A gyroscope is a device that can sense orientation and angular velocity. The basis
for the simplest type of gyroscope is a spinning wheel held in a frame – familiar to
many as a child’s toy. Angular momentum causes the wheel’s orientation to
remain constant even as the frame around it rotates.
Gyroscopes became much more than toys with the development of flying vehicles –
airplanes, and then rockets – in the 20th century. The reason for this is that flying
vehicles have a navigational requirement that isn’t present in ground vehicles, or
even ships. That is, they can freely rotate and move in all three dimensions. Pilots
therefore need to continuously know vehicle orientation in three axes to control
the aircraft.
Unmanned rockets and missiles have a further requirement. These craft need to
know their orientation and position without a human pilot to monitor it. The
solution to this is an inertial guidance system (IGS). The IGS uses gyroscopes to
sense orientation and angular motion to continuously control the craft and
calculate how far it has moved from its starting point.

Operation:
Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fibre but in opposite directions.
Due to the Sagnac effect, the beam travelling against the rotation experiences a
slightly shorter path delay than the other beam. The resulting differential phase
shift is measured through interferometry, thus translating one component of
the angular velocity into a shift of the interference pattern which is
measured photometrically.
Beam splitting optics split light from a laser diode (or other laser light source) into
two waves propagating in both clockwise and anticlockwise directions through a
coil consisting of many turns of optical fibre. The strength of the Sagnac effect is
dependent on the effective area of the closed optical path: this is not simply the
geometric area of the loop but is also increased by the number of turns in the coil.
The FOG was first proposed by Vali and Shorthill[1] in 1976. Development of both
the passive interferometer type of FOG, or IFOG, and a newer concept, the passive
ring resonator FOG, or RFOG, is proceeding in many companies and
establishments worldwide.
Advantages:
A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information, in part
because of its lack of cross-axis sensitivity to vibration, acceleration, and
shock. Unlike the classic spinning-mass gyroscope or
resonant/mechanical gyroscopes, the FOG has no moving parts and
doesn't rely on inertial resistance to movement. Hence, the FOG is an
excellent alternative to a mechanical gyroscope. Because of their intrinsic
reliability and long lifetime, FOGs are used for high performance space
applications and military inertial navigation systems.

The FOG typically shows a higher resolution than a ring laser gyroscope.

FOGs are implemented in both open-loop and closed-

loop configurations.

Disadvantages:
Like all other gyroscope technologies and depending on detailed FOG
design, FOGs may require initial calibration (determining which indication
corresponds to zero angular velocity).

Some FOG designs are somewhat sensitive to vibrations.However, when

coupled with multiple-axis FOG and accelerometers and hybridized with
Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) data, the impact is mitigated,
making FOG systems suitable for high shock environments, including gun
pointing systems for 105mm and 155mm howitzers.
IFOG CONSTRUCTION:

IFOG coils are typically made by winding a highly birefringent,

polarization-maintaining optical fiber around a central axis, and then
encapsulating the coil in a protective material. There are two main
different types of encapsulation methods: wet and dry. Wet IFOG coils use
a liquid, such as oil or water, to protect and support the optical fiber, while
dry IFOG coils use a solid, such as a ceramic or glass, to protect and
support the optical fiber.

Wet IFOG coils offer better temperature stability and can be used in a
wider range of environments. But they are more complex and difficult to
manufacture. Dry IFOG coils are simpler and easier to manufacture, but
they are more sensitive to temperature changes.

The IFOG light source is typically a low-power, continuous-wave laser,

superluminescent diode, or amplified spontaneous emission source. The
detector is usually a photodiode or a photomultiplier tube.

There are almost limitless possible IFOG configurations – especially

options for how the coil is wound and how it is packaged. Other variables
are the total length of the fiber in the coil, various optical coatings, and
features like radiation resistance (especially for spaceborne applications).
 But all these different design forms have fairly similar requirements in
terms of the fiber optic coil at the center of the system. In particular, there
are certain parameters that are critical to proper IFOG performance. The
most important ones are insertion loss, the polarization extinction ratio
 (PER), and wavelength dependent losses. Winding precision and
encapsulation quality are also important.

Achieving good performance in these areas requires the ability to tightly

control manufacturing of the fiber itself, and then the process of winding
it into coil format. In particular, it’s essential that the fiber coil be wound in
a manner that is perfectly symmetrical (so that the beams traveling in
opposite directions experience identical conditions). Also, it’s important to
minimize mechanical stress in the wound fiber.

There’s quite a bit of expertise and process experience required to

perform these tasks repeatably. Coherent maintains a
completely vertically integrated IFOG coil fabrication capability – from
drawing the fiber optic cable through winding it into coils – in order to
ensure the level of process control necessary to consistently produce
high-performance IFOG coils.

There is no one “best” type of IFOG. The required performance level, the
operating environment, and the acceptable size, weight, and power
consumption must all be traded off against cost in any specific
application.
 IFOGS AT WORK:
IFOGs deliver several significant advantages over traditional gyroscopes,
and even other non-mechanical technologies. For one, IFOGs are highly
sensitive and can detect very small rotational movements – angular
velocities at a resolution of a few nanoradians per second. This is several
orders of magnitude better than mechanical gyroscopes. So, they deliver
higher accuracy navigation and guidance.

In addition, IFOGs are relatively immune to vibration and electromagnetic

interference, and having a long lifespan and low maintenance
requirements. This makes them useful in a variety of “harsh” environments,
or where access to the equipment is limited. This includes spaceborne
applications, and in inertial measurement systems for seaborne and
underwater vehicles and equipment.

IFOGs are also often used to stabilize stationary structures because of

their high sensitivity and accuracy. For example, IFOGs can measure the
rotational movement of a structure, such as a bridge, building, or antenna
platform, and to feed the data back to a control system that compensates
for any movement. This can help to maintain the stability of the structure,
especially in high wind or seismic conditions.

In summary, IFOGs are a highly precise and accurate type of rotation

sensor that have a wide range of applications. They are immune to
electromagnetic interference, relatively immune to vibration, have a long
lifespan and low maintenance requirements, and relatively small and
lightweight. This makes them ideal for use in navigation, guidance, and
control systems for aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles. Plus, they are
useful in industrial automation and robotics.
 Conclusion-
The reason for the Doppler effect is that when the source of the waves is
moving towards the observer, each successive wave crest is emitted from
a position closer to the observer than the crest of the previous
wave Therefore, each wave takes slightly less time to reach the observer
than the previous wave. Hence, the time between the arrivals of
successive wave crests at the observer is reduced, causing an increase in
the frequency. For waves that propagate in a medium, such
as sound waves, the velocity of the observer and of the source are
relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted The total
Doppler effect may therefore result from motion of the source, motion of
the observer, motion of the medium, or any combination thereof. For
waves propagating in vacuum, such as electromagnetic
waves or gravitational waves, only the difference in velocity between the
observer and the source needs to be considered.

A fibre-optic gyroscope (FOG) senses changes in orientation using

the Sagnac effect, thus performing the function of a
mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of operation is instead based
on the interference of light which has passed through a coil of optical
fibre, which can be as long as 5 kilometres (3 mi).

There are almost limitless possible IFOG configurations – especially

options for how the coil is wound and how it is packaged. Other variables
are the total length of the fiber in the coil, various optical coatings, and
features like radiation resistance.
 REFERENCES-
 https://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Doppler_effect
 https://en.wikipedia.or
g/wiki/Fibre-
optic_gyroscope
 https://www.coherent.
com/news/glossary/fib
er-optic-gyroscope
 https://myprojectideas.
com/doppler-effect-
and-the-fiber-
gyroscope/
THANK
YOU