Data Acquisition
Sensors, Signals, and Systems
A sensor is often defined as a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus.
The process of sensing is a particular case of information transfer, and any transmission
of information requires transmission of energy. Transmission of energy can flow both
ways—it may be with a positive sign as well as with a negative sign; that is, energy can
flow either from an object to the sensor or from the sensor to the object. A special case is
when the energy is zero, and it also carries information about existence of that particular
case.
Sensor: converts any type of energy into electrical.
Transducer: is a converter of one type of energy into another.
An example of a transducer is a loudspeaker which converts an electrical signal into a
variable magnetic field and, subsequently, into acoustic waves.
Transducers may be used as actuators in various systems. An actuator may be described
as opposite to a sensor—it converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy.
For example, an electric motor is an actuator—it converts electric energy into mechanical
action.
There are two types of sensors: direct and complex. A direct sensor converts a stimulus
into an electrical signal or modifies an electrical signal by using an appropriate physical
effect, whereas a complex sensor in addition needs one or more transducers of energy
before a direct sensor can be employed to generate an electrical output.
The sensor’s place in a device is either intrinsic or extrinsic. It may be positioned at the
input of a device to perceive the outside effects and to signal the system about variations
in the outside stimuli.
Block Diagram Of A Data Acquisition And Control Device
An object can be anything: a car, space ship, animal or human, liquid, or gas. Any material
object may become a subject of some kind of a measurement. Data are collected from an
object by a number of sensors. Some of them (2, 3, and 4) are positioned directly on or
inside the object. Sensor 1 perceives the object without a physical contact and, therefore,
is called a noncontact sensor.
Examples of such a sensor is a radiation detector and a TV camera. Sensor 5 serves a
different purpose. It monitors internal conditions of a data acquisition system itself.
Some sensors (1 and 3) cannot be directly connected to standard electronic circuits
because of inappropriate output signal formats. They require the use of interface devices
(signal conditioners). Sensors 1, 2, 3, and 5 are passive. They generate electric signals
without energy consumption from the electronic circuits. Sensor 4 is active. It requires an
operating signal, which is provided by an excitation circuit. This signal is modified by the
sensor in accordance with the converted information. An example of an active sensor is a
thermistor, which is a temperature-sensitive resistor. It may operate with a constant-
current source, which is an excitation circuit. Depending on the complexity of the system,
the total number of sensors may vary from as little as one (a home thermostat) to many
thousands (a space shuttle).
Electrical signals from the sensors are fed into a multiplexer (MUX), which is a switch or a
gate. Its function is to connect sensors one at a time to an analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter if a sensor produces an analog signal, or directly to a computer if a sensor
produces signals in a digital format. The computer controls a multiplexer and an A/D
converter for the appropriate timing. Also, it may send control signals to the actuator,
which acts on the object. Examples of actuators are an electric motor, a solenoid, a relay,
and a pneumatic valve. The system contains some peripheral devices (for instance, a data
recorder, a display, an alarm, etc.) and a number of components, which are not shown in
the block diagram. These may be filters, sample-and-hold
circuits, amplifiers, and so forth.
Sensor Classification
Sensors may be of two kinds: passive and active.
A passive sensor does not need any additional energy source and directly generates an
electric signal in response to an external stimulus; that is, the input stimulus energy is
converted by the sensor into the output signal. The examples are a thermocouple, a
photodiode, and a piezoelectric sensor.
The active sensors require external power for their operation, which is called an
excitation signal. That signal is modified by the sensor to produce the output signal. The
active sensors sometimes are called parametric because their own properties change in
response to an external effect and these properties can be subsequently converted into
electric signals.
Depending on the selected reference, sensors can be classified into absolute and
relative.
An absolute sensor detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute physical
scale that is independent on the measurement conditions, whereas a relative sensor
produces a signal that relates to some special case.An example of an absolute sensor is
a thermistor: a temperature-sensitive resistor.
1. Sensor Characteristics
Transfer Function
This function establishes dependence between the electrical signal S
produced by the sensor and the stimulus s : S =f (s). That function may be a simple linear
connection or a nonlinear dependence, (e.g., logarithmic, exponential, or power
function). In many cases, the relationship is unidimensional (i.e., the output versus one
input stimulus). A unidimensional linear relationship is represented by the equation.
S = a + bs
where a is the intercept (i.e., the output signal at zero input signal) and
b is the slope, which is sometimes called sensitivity. S is one of the characteristics of the
output electric signal used by the data acquisition devices as the sensor’s output. It may
be amplitude, frequency, or phase, depending on the sensor properties.
Logarithmic function: S = a +b ln s.
Exponential function: S = aeks .
Power function: S = a0 +a1sk where k is a constant number.
For a nonlinear transfer function, the sensitivity b is not a fixed number as for the linear
relationship [Eq. (2.1)]. At any particular input value, s0, it can be defined as
B = dS(s0)/ds.
In many cases, a nonlinear sensor may be considered linear over a limited range. Over
the extended range, a nonlinear transfer function may be modeled by several straight
lines. This is called a piecewise approximation.
A transfer function may have more than one dimension when the sensor’s output is
influenced by more than one input stimuli. An example is the transfer function of a
thermal radiation (infrared) sensor. The function1 connects two temperatures (Tb, the
absolute temperature of an object of measurement, and Ts , the absolute temperature of
the sensor’s surface) and the output voltage V :
V = G(Tb4−Ts4). where G is a constant.
To determine the sensitivity of the sensor with respect to the object’s temperature, a
partial derivative will be calculated as
b = ∂V/∂Tb = 4GTb3 .
Span (Full-Scale Input)
A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted by a sensor is
called a span or an input full scale (FS). It represents the highest possible input value that
can be applied to the sensor without causing an unacceptably large inaccuracy.
Decibels are equal to 10 times the log of the ratio of powers . 1 dB=10 log (P2/P1).
Decibels are equal to 20 times the log of the force, current, or voltage:
1 dB=20 log (S2/S1).
Accuracy
A very important characteristic of a sensor is accuracy which really means
inaccuracy. Inaccuracy is measured as a highest deviation of a value represented by the
sensor from the ideal or true value at its input. The true value is attributed to the object
of measurement and accepted as having a specified uncertainty.
The inaccuracy rating may be represented in a number of forms:
1. Directly in terms of measured value ( )
2. In percent of input span (full scale)
3. In terms of output signal.
Calibration
If the sensor’s manufacturer’s tolerances and tolerances of the interface
(signal conditioning) circuit are broader than the required system accuracy, a calibration
is required.
For example, if one uses a forward-biased semiconductor p-n
junction for temperature measurement, with a high degree of accuracy its transfer
function (temperature is the input and voltage is the output) can be considered linear:
v =a + bt.
To determine constants a and b, such a sensor should be subjected to two temperatures
(t1 and t2) and two corresponding output voltages (v1 and v2) will be registered. Then,
after substituting these values.
v1 =a + bt1 v2 =a + bt2
and the constants are computed as
b = (v1 −v2)/(t1 −t2) a = v1 − bt1
To compute the temperature from the output voltage, a measured voltage is inserted
into an inversed equation t = (v –a)/b
To calibrate sensors, it is essential to have and properly maintain precision and accurate
physical standards of the appropriate stimuli.
Calibration Error
The calibration error is inaccuracy permitted by a manufacturer when a
sensor is calibrated in the factory. This error is of a systematic nature, meaning that it is
added to all possible real transfer functions. It shifts the accuracy of transduction for each
stimulus point by a constant. This error is not necessarily uniform over the range and may
change depending on the type of error in the calibration.
Errors in the slope and intercept calculation. A new intercept, a1, will differ from the real
intercept, a, by δa = a1 − a = / (s2 – s1)
The slope will be calculated with error:
δb = − / (s2 −s1)
Hysteresis
A hysteresis error is a deviation of
the sensor’s output at a specified point of the
input signal when it is approached from the
opposite directions. Typical causes for
hysteresis are friction and structural changes
in the materials.
Nonlinearity
Nonlinearity error is specified for sensors
whose transfer function may be approximated by a
straight line. A nonlinearity is a maximum deviation
(L) of a real transfer function from the approximation
straight line.
Independent linearity is referred to as the so-called
“best straight line”, which is a line midway between
two parallel straight lines closest together and
enveloping all output values on a real transfer function.
Saturation
Every sensor has its operating limits. Even if it
is considered linear, at some levels of the input stimuli,
its output signal no longer will be responsive. A further
increase in stimulus does not produce a desirable
output. It is said that the sensor exhibits a span- end
nonlinearity or saturation.
Dead Band
The dead band is the insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of input signals.
In that range, the output may remain near a certain value (often zero) over an entire
dead-band zone.
Resolution
Resolution describes the smallest increments of stimulus which can be sensed.
When a stimulus continuously varies over the range, the output signals of some sensors
will not be perfectly smooth, even under the no-noise conditions. The output may change
in small steps.
When there are no measurable steps in the output signal, it is said that the sensor has
continuous or infinitesimal resolution.
Special Properties
Special input properties may be needed to specify for some sensors. For
instance, light detectors are sensitive within a limited optical bandwidth. Therefore, it is
appropriate to specify a spectral response for them.
Output Impedance
The output impedance Zout is important to know to better interface a
sensor with the electronic circuit. This impedance is connected either in parallel with the
input impedance Zin of the circuit (voltage connection) or in series (current connection).
Excitation
Excitation is the electrical signal needed for the active sensor operation.
Excitation is specified as a range of voltage and/or current. For some sensors, the
frequency of the excitation signal and its stability must also be specified. Variations in the
excitation may alter the sensor transfer function and cause output errors.
An example of excitation signal specification is as follows: Maximum current through a
thermistor.
in still air 50 μA in water 200 μA
Dynamic Characteristics
Under static conditions, a sensor is fully described by its transfer
function, span, calibration, and so forth. However, when an input stimulus varies, a
sensor response generally does not follow with perfect fidelity. The reason is that both
the sensor and its coupling with the source of stimulus cannot always respond instantly.
In other words, a sensor may be characterized with a time-dependent characteristic,
which is called a dynamic characteristics.
If a sensor does not respond instantly, it may indicate values of stimuli which are
somewhat different from the real; that is, the sensor responds with a dynamic error. A
difference between static and dynamic errors is that the latter is always time dependent.
The warm-up time is the time between applying electric power to the sensor or
excitation signal and the moment when the sensor can operate within its specified
accuracy.
A zero-order sensor is characterized by the relationship which, for a linear transfer
function is
S(t) = a + b s(t). The value a is called an offset and b is called static sensitivity.
A zero-order sensor responds instantaneously. In other words, such a sensor does not
need any dynamic characteristics.
A first-order differential equation describes a sensor that incorporates one energy
storage component. The relationship between the input s(t) and output S(t) is the
differential equation.
b1 ( d S(t) / dt) + b0 S(t) = s(t).
A typical example of a first-order sensor is a temperature sensor for which the energy
storage is thermal capacity. The first-order sensors may be specified by a manufacturer in
various ways. Typical is a frequency response, which specifies how fast a first-order
sensor can react to a change in the input stimulus.
A commonly used reduction number (frequency limit) is −3 dB. It shows at what
frequency the output voltage (or current) drops by about 30%.The frequency response
limit fu is often called the upper cutoff frequency, as it is considered the highest
frequency a sensor can process.
The frequency response directly relates to a speed response, which is defined in units of
input stimulus per unit of time.
Another way to specify speed response is by time, which is required by the sensor to
reach 90% of a steady-state or maximum level upon exposure to a step stimulus. For the
first-order response, it is very convenient to use a so-called time constant. The time
constant, τ , is a measure of the sensor’s inertia. In electrical terms, it is equal to the
product of electrical capacitance and resistance: τ =CR.
In thermal terms, thermal capacity and thermal resistances should be used instead.
Practically, the time constant can be easily measured. A first-order system response is
S = Sm (1 − e −t/τ )
where Sm is steady-state output, t is time, and e is the base of natural logarithm.
Substituting t =τ, we get S/Sm = 1− (1/e) = 0.6321
After an elapse of time equal to one time constant, the response reaches about 63% of
its steady-state level. Similarly, it can be shown that after two time constants, the height
will be 86.5% and after three time constants it will be 95%.
The cutoff frequency (fc) indicates the lowest or highest frequency of stimulus that the
sensor can process. The upper cutoff frequency shows how fast the sensor reacts; the
lower cutoff frequency shows how slow the sensor can process changing stimuli.
fc ≈ 0.159/τ
The phase shift at a specific frequency defines how the output signal lags behind in
representing the stimulus change. The shift is measured in angular degrees or rads and is
usually specified for a sensor that processes periodic signals.
A second-order differential equation describes a sensor that incorporates two energy
storage components. The relationship between the input s(t) and output S(t) is the
differential equation
b2 d2S(t) / dt2 + b1 dS(t) / dt + b0S(t) = s(t).
An example of a second-order sensor is an accelerometer that incorporates a mass and a
spring. A second-order response is specific for a sensor that responds with a periodic
signal. Such a periodic response may be very brief and we say that the sensor is damped,
or it may be of a prolonged time and even may oscillate continuously. Naturally, for a
sensor, such a continuous oscillation is a malfunction and must be avoided. Any second-
order sensor may be characterized by a resonant (natural) frequency.
Fig. 2.10.
Responses of
sensors with
different damping
characteristics
Damping is the progressive reduction or suppression of the oscillation in the sensor
having higher than a first-order response. When the sensor’s response is as fast as
possible without overshoot, the response is said to be critically damped. An
underdamped response is when the overshoot occurs and the overdamped response is
slower than the critical response. The damping ratio is a number expressing the quotient
of the actual damping of a second-order linear transducer by its critical damping.
For an oscillating response, a damping factor is a measure of damping, expressed
(without sign) as the quotient of the greater by the lesser of a pair of consecutive swings
in opposite directions of the output signal, about an ultimately steady-state value. Hence,
the damping factor can be measured as
Damping factor = F/A = A/B = B/C = etc
Environmental Factors
Storage conditions are nonoperating environmental limits to which a
sensor may be subjected during a specified period without permanently altering its
performance under normal operating conditions. Usually, storage conditions include the
highest and the lowest storage temperatures and maximum relative humidities at these
temperatures.
Short- and long-term stabilities (drift) are parts of the accuracy specification.
The short-term stability is manifested as changes in the sensor’s performance within
minutes, hours, or even days. The sensor’s output signal may increase or decrease,
which, in other terms, may be described as ultralow-frequency noise.
The long-term stability maybe related to aging of the sensor materials, which is an
irreversible change in the material’s electrical, mechanical, chemical, or thermal
properties; that is, the long-term drift is usually unidirectional. It happens over a
relatively long time span, such as months and years.
Long-term stability is one of the most important for sensors used for precision
measurements. Aging depends heavily on environmental storage and operating
conditions. The aging phenomenon is typical for sensors having organic components and,
in general, is not an issue for a sensor made with only nonorganic materials.
A powerful way to improve long-term stability is to pre-age the component at extreme
conditions. The extreme conditions may be cycled from the lowest to the highest. a
sensor may be periodically swung from freezing to hot temperatures. Such accelerated
aging not only enhances the stability of the sensor’s characteristics but also improves the
reliability, as the pre-aging process reveals many hidden defects.
Epoxy-coated thermistors may be greatly improved if they are maintained at +150◦C for
1 month before they are calibrated and installed in a product.
Environmental conditions to which a sensor is subjected do not include variables which
the sensor measures. For instance, an air-pressure sensor usually is subjected not just to
air pressure but to other influences as well. In resistive strain gauge, sensitivity increases
with temperature.
Temperature factors are very important for sensor performance; they must be known
and taken into account. The operating temperature range is the span of ambient
temperatures given by their upper and lower extremes (e.g., −20◦C to +100◦C) within
which the sensor maintains its specified accuracy. Many sensors change with
temperature and their transfer functions may shift significantly. Special compensating
elements are often incorporated either directly into the sensor or into signal conditioning
circuits, to compensate for temperature errors.
Temperatures will also affect dynamic characteristics, particularly when they employ
viscous damping. A relatively fast temperature change may cause the sensor to generate
a spurious output signal.
A self-heating error may be specified when an excitation signal is absorbed by a sensor
and changes its temperature by such a degree that it may affect its accuracy. Depending
on its coupling with the environment, the sensors’ temperature may increase due to a
self-heating effect. The coupling depends on the media in which the sensor operates—a
dry contact, liquid, air, and so forth. A worst coupling may be through still air.
A sensor’s temperature increase above its surroundings may be found from the following
formula:
T ◦ = V 2 / (ξvc+α)R Where ξ is the sensor’s mass density, c is
specific heat, v is the volume of the sensor, α is the coefficient of thermal coupling
between the sensor and the outside (thermal conductivity), R is the electrical resistance,
and V is the effective voltage across the resistance.
Reliability
Reliability is the ability of a sensor to perform a required function under stated
conditions for a stated period. It is expressed in statistical terms as a probability that the
device will function without failure over a specified time or a number of uses. It should be
noted that reliability is not a characteristic of drift or noise stability. It specifies a failure,
either temporary or permanent, exceeding the limits of a sensor’s performance under
normal operating conditions.
Number of test cycles (n), n = N ( Tmax / Ttest)2.5
where N is the estimated number of cycles per lifetime, Tmax is the maximum specified
temperature fluctuation, and Ttest maximum cycled temperature fluctuation during the
test.
A sensor, depending on its application, may be subjected to some other environmental
effects which potentially can alter its performance or uncover hidden defects.
Among such additional tests are:
• High temperature/high humidity while being fully electrically powered. For
instance, a sensor may be subjected to its maximum allowable temperature at 85–
90% RH and kept under these conditions for 500 h.
• Mechanical shocks and vibrations may be used to simulate adverse environmental
conditions, especially in the evaluation wire bonds, adhesion of epoxy, and so
forth. A sensor may be dropped to generate high-level accelerations (up to 3000g
of force). The drops should be made on different axes. Harmonic vibrations should
be applied to the sensor over the range which includes its natural frequency.
• Extreme storage conditions may be simulated, for instance at +100 and −40◦C
while maintaining a sensor for at least 1000 h under these conditions. This test
simulates storage and shipping conditions and usually is performed on non-
operating devices. The upper and lower temperature limits must be consistent
with the sensor’s physical nature.
• Thermal shock or temperature cycling (TC) is subjecting a sensor to alternate
extreme conditions. For example, it may be dwelled for 30 min at −40◦C, then
quickly moved to +100◦C for 30 min, and then back to cold. The method must
specify the total number of cycling, like 100 or 1000. This test helps to uncover die
bond, wire bond, epoxy connections, and packaging integrity.
• To simulate sea conditions, sensors may be subjected to a salt spray atmosphere
for a specified time, (e.g., 24 h). This helps to uncover its resistance to corrosion
and structural defects.
Application Characteristics
Design, weight, and overall dimensions are geared to specific areas of
applications. Price may be a secondary issue when the sensor’s reliability and accuracy
are of paramount importance. If a sensor is intended for life-support equipment,
weapons or spacecraft, a high price tag may be well justified to assure high accuracy and
reliability. On the other hand, for a very broad range of consumer applications, the price
of a sensor often becomes a cornerstone of a design.
Uncertainty
Nothing is perfect in this world, all materials are not exactly perfect. Knowledge of
even the purest of the materials is always approximate.
Machines are not perfect and never produce perfectly identical parts according to
drawings. All components experience drifts related to the environment and their aging;
external interferences may enter the system and alter its performance and modify the
output signal. Workers are not consistent and the human factor is nearly always present.
Any measurement system consists of many components, including sensors. Thus, no
matter how accurate the measurement is, it is only an approximation or estimate of the
true value of the specific quantity subject to measurement. The result of a measurement
should be considered complete only when accompanied by a quantitative statement of
its uncertainty. We simply never can be 100% sure of the measured value.
Error in measurement is expressed as δ =s1 –s
Where s – stimulus, s1 – different value
An error can be compensated to a certain degree by correcting its systematic
component. The result of such a correction can unknowably be very close to the
unknown true value of the stimulus and, thus, it will have a very small error.
The uncertainty of measurement may be very large so we cannot really trust that the
error is indeed that small. In other words, an error is what we unknowably get when we
measure, whereas uncertainty is what we think how large that error might be.
Uncertainty consists of many factors that can be grouped into two classes:
A: Those evaluated by statistical methods.
B: Those evaluated by other means.
Type A components of uncertainty arise from random effects, whereas the Type B
components arise from systematic effects.
When both Type A and Type B uncertainties are evaluated, they should be combined to
represent the combined standard uncertainty.
uc = (u12+u22+ · · · + ui2+ · · · + un2)(1/2)
where n is the number of standard uncertainties in the uncertainty budget.
