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Contents
Introduction iv

Core content: The 20th century: International relations

from 1919
Part 1 The Inter-War Years, 1919–39
1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair? 1
2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success? 9
3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the
outbreak of war in Europe in 1939? 17
Part 2 The Cold War, 1945–75
4 Who was to blame for the Cold War? 27
5 How effectively did the USA contain the spread
of communism? 38
6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern
Europe, 1948–c.1989? 46

Depth Study: Russia, 1905–41

7.1 Why did the Tsarist regime collapse in 1917? 56
7.2 How did the Bolsheviks gain power, and how did
they consolidate their rule? 60
7.3 How did Stalin gain and hold on to power? 65
7.4 What was the impact of Stalin’s economic policies? 69

Depth Study: Germany, 1918–45

8.1 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start? 75
8.2 Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934? 80
8.3a How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–45? 85
8.3b What was it like to live in Nazi Germany? 90
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Depth Study: The United States, 1919–41

9.1 How far did the US economy boom in the 1920s? 95
9.2 How far did US society change in the 1920s? 100
9.3 What were the causes and consequences of the
Wall Street Crash? 104
9.4 How successful was the New Deal? 108

Answers 114
Index 148

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

1.1 What were the motives and aims of the

Big Three at Versailles?

At the end of the First World War the Paris Peace Key point

Conference was held The peacemakers at the

Paris Peace Conference
l An armistice was signed on 11 November 1918 between the Allies
had different aims and
(principally Britain, France and the USA) and the Central Powers of motives. Wilson was
Germany, Austria–Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. an idealist who wanted
l There was great optimism for a lasting peace, especially from future peace in Europe;
US President Woodrow Wilson who outlined his Fourteen Points Clemenceau wanted
in a speech in 1918. revenge for the huge
war damage inflicted on
l Thirty-two nations representing over two-thirds of the world’s population
France; Lloyd George was
met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 to prepare five a realist who wanted to
peace treaties collectively known as the Versailles settlement. The most punish Germany, but not
important of these was the Treaty of Versailles which dealt with too harshly, to prevent
Germany. a future conflict. These
leaders would have to
The Big Three had different aims and motives for the find common ground in
order to agree on the
Treaty terms Treaty of Versailles.
l The Big Three of David Lloyd George (British prime minister), Georges
Clemenceau (French prime minister) and Woodrow Wilson (US president)
were the main peacemakers.
l The Big Three had different aims and motives and clashed on
many of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Big Three Aims Motives

Britain – Lloyd To punish Germany but not too harshly; Didn’t want Germany to seek revenge or have a
George (‘the wanted Britain and Germany to be communist revolution as in Russia if the Treaty was
realist’) trading partners; Germany to lose its too harsh BUT wanted to appease anti-German
naval power and colonies feelings at home; wanted jobs for people in Britain;
wanted to protect the British Empire
France – To incapacitate Germany economically For Germany not to be able to build up its armed
Clemenceau (‘the and territorially; ensure France’s forces again and threaten France, which had been
uncompromising’) borders were secure against future invaded twice (in 1870 and 1914); French people had
attack; demand Germany takes suffered huge casualties (1.4 million killed) and had
blame for starting the war and pays lost farmland and industry in north-east France
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reparations
USA – Wilson (‘the To create a ‘fair and lasting peace’ in To remove the causes of conflict in Europe to
idealist’) Europe by implementing his Fourteen prevent future wars; increase trade between Europe
Points, which included disarmament for and the USA to prevent the spread of communism;
all European nations, no secret treaties strengthen democracy and self-determination to
and a League of Nations break up empires

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The result was a compromise

Terms of the Treaty of
Versailles

Military: The German army was Financial: Reparations for war League of Nations: The League
reduced to 100,000 soldiers; damage to be paid to the Allies, was set up in 1920 to enforce
no conscription; no tanks; agreed in 1921 at £6.6 billion; the Treaty and keep
no air force; only six battleships; the coal in the Saar region went international peace. Germany
the Rhineland was to be to France for 15 years. was not allowed to join
demilitarised and the west bank until 1926.
of the Rhine occupied by an
Allied army for 15 years.

Territory: All of Germany’s colonies were taken away and War guilt: Article 231 said Practice question, Paper 2
controlled by the League of Nations (run by Britain Germany had to take full
and France); Alsace-Lorraine returned to France; Poland responsibility for starting the war. Study Source A.
to be given access to the sea by the creation of a Polish
Corridor; land given to Denmark, Belgium, Lithuania and What is the message
Czechoslovakia; Danzig to become a free city; union of the cartoonist? Explain
between Germany and Austria forbidden (Anschluss).
your answer using source
details and your own
knowledge. [8 marks]
Task

Study Source A. Tip

Draw a line from the annotation next to the cartoon to the relevant detail For interpretation
in the image then add some more notes. questions that ask you to
work out the cartoonist’s
SOURCE A A cartoon published in 1919 by an anonymous artist.
message, make sure
The Big Four Pills refer to … The spoon with the pill labelled that you think about
“Peace Terms” refers to … whether it is supporting,
criticising or commenting
on a particular event at a
particular time. Use the
provenance, the source
details and your own
knowledge to explain the
message.

Test yourself

1 Who were the Big

Three and what
problems did they face
at the Conference?
2 Give three examples
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of Wilson’s Fourteen
Points.
“You’ve got to swallow it whether you like The mouselike character being 3 List two aims and
it or not” suggests that … squeezed by the giant hand suggests motives of the Big
that … Three.
4 List what you think
were the three
harshest terms of the
Treaty of Versailles.

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

1.2 Why did the victors not get everything

they wanted?

The British and French leaders were influenced by Key point

public opinion in their home countries The Big Three were
l Britain had suffered hugely in the First World War. Lloyd George had forced to compromise
won the 1918 general election by promising to ‘make Germany pay’. over the terms of the
l The French public wanted a treaty that would severely punish Germany. Treaty. Each achieved
Over two-thirds of the men who had served in the French army had some of their aims but
were forced to make
been killed or wounded.
concessions in order to
l America had not suffered as much as Britain or France in the war and get everyone to sign.
Wilson had a more generous attitude towards Germany.

The Big Three’s aims for the Treaty terms were too
different to be reconciled
l Clemenceau and Wilson clashed over what to do about the
Rhineland and Germany’s coalfields in the Saar. Wilson gave in,
and in return Clemenceau and Lloyd George conceded over eastern
European self-determination.
l Clemenceau and Lloyd George also disagreed. Clemenceau argued that
Britain was happy to treat Germany fairly in Europe, against France’s
interests, but stricter when it came to Germany’s navy and colonies,
which threatened British power.
l Wilson’s views on self-determination threatened the British Empire,
which ruled millions of people across the world.

As a result, each leader had to compromise

Clemenceau
l Clemenceau was content with the return of Alsace-Lorraine, which
helped secure France’s border with Germany.
l He also received two of Germany’s overseas colonies (Togoland and the
Cameroons), which expanded the French Empire.
l The reparations helped pay for the war damage France suffered and the
military terms helped reduce the threat of a future invasion.
l But Clemenceau wanted the reparations to be higher and was concerned
that Germany would recover its economic and military strength,
especially as the Rhineland was only demilitarised and not given to
France.
He was also concerned that the French people would not think
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l
the Treaty was harsh enough – this led to his defeat in the French
presidential elections in 1920 and his resignation soon afterwards.

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Lloyd George
l British imperial interests were helped as a result of the Treaty – its
empire in Africa gained an additional 13 million new subjects. The
reduction of the German navy also secured Britain’s rule of the seas.
l The German economy had not been totally destroyed by the Treaty,
which allowed Britain and Germany to trade again. This would help stop
the spread of communism and promote British businesses.
l But Lloyd George did not like the fact that German-speaking people
were now under the control of countries such as Poland and France – he
thought this would lead to resentment and future conflict.
l He was also under public pressure to punish Germany after Britain had
suffered over 1 million casualties in the First World War, meaning he
would have to balance his desire for a fair treaty with demands at home
for harsher terms.
Wilson
l Wilson had managed to get some of his Fourteen Points into the Treaty
of Versailles, such as the requirement to disarm and the setting up of a
League of Nations.
l He also managed to get concessions from France such as lowering the
reparations figure and only demilitarising the Rhineland. Task
l Wilson achieved self-determination for countries in eastern Europe such
as Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. Write the names of the
Big Three at the top of
l But France and Britain had increased the size of their overseas empires three separate cards.
at the expense of Germany. On one side of each card
l Britain had also increased its control of the seas by reducing Germany’s draw a + sign and on the
navy, which went against Wilson’s principle of free navigation of the seas. other a – sign. On each
card, make a list of the
terms with which each of
Test yourself the Big Three would have
been satisfied (+) and
1 How did France benefit from the terms of the Treaty of Versailles? unsatisfied (–).
2 Why might the French people not have been satisfied with the Treaty?
3 How did Lloyd George manage to increase British international
power? Tip
4 What were Wilson’s most significant achievements in the terms of the Four-mark questions
Treaty of Versailles? don’t require you
to explain, but to
demonstrate your
Practice question, Paper 1 knowledge. Make sure
you give sufficient factual
What aims did Clemenceau achieve in the Treaty of Versailles? details but keep your
[4 marks] answer relatively short.
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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

1.3 What was the impact of the Treaty on

Germany up to 1923?

The German people resented the terms of the Treaty Key point
of Versailles The Treaty was deeply
l Many Germans hated the war guilt clause and believed other countries unpopular with most
were as much to blame as them for starting the war. Germans and led to
resentment and hatred
l Germans felt the disarmament terms were too harsh. The army had been
towards the new Weimar
a source of German pride and none of the Allies were forced to disarm. Government. This caused
Germany was now left defenceless and surrounded by countries with far instability, political
superior armies to its own. extremism, violence
l Germans were bitter at the reparations and territorial losses: 10 per and huge economic
cent of its land in Europe; all overseas colonies; 12.5 per cent of its problems.
population; 16 per cent of its coalfields. This was a major blow to the
German economy.
l Many Germans, including politicians and soldiers, saw the Treaty as
a dictated peace or ‘diktat’. Germany was not allowed to attend the
peace conference and was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty or
face occupation.

Political opposition threatened to destabilise the

Weimar Government
l Right-wing nationalists opposed the Treaty and the new Weimar
Government by attempting several coups.
l The anti-communist Freikorps, made up of ex-soldiers, under the
command of Wolfgang Kapp, launched the Kapp Putsch in 1920 and
managed to seize Berlin. The army refused to fire on them, and it was
only defeated when the workers called a general strike.
l In 1922, the foreign minister Walter Rathenau was murdered by right-
wing extremists.
l In November 1923, Hitler’s Nazi Party attempted to seize control during
the Munich Putsch. Motivated by his hatred towards the Treaty of Versailles
and the Weimar government’s decision to continue paying reparations,
Hitler tried to establish a nationalist government by marching on the
Bavarian government. The putsch failed and Hitler was arrested.
l Left-wing extremists (communists), inspired by the Spartacists’ failed
uprising in January 1919 and taking advantage of anti-Weimar feeling,
attempted a rebellion in the Ruhr in 1920.

The Treaty led to economic instability in Germany

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l Many Germans claimed that the reparations bill of £6.6 billion would be
impossible to pay and together with the other harsh economic terms
would lead to instability.
l Germany paid its first instalment of the reparations bill in 1921 but
claimed it could not make the 1922 payment.
l France and Belgium decided to occupy the Ruhr region in January
1923 to take its raw materials and goods as payment. This occupation
was legal under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, so the League
of Nations did nothing to stop the French and Belgian forces. The
occupation of the Ruhr was a disaster for Germany.

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l Ebert ordered German workers to use passive resistance so the French

could take nothing. France reacted by killing over 100 workers and
expelling over 100,000 strikers.
l The Weimar Government printed money to pay the nearly 2 million
striking workers, which contributed to a period of hyperinflation
in Germany.
l The prices of goods rocketed, making the currency worthless – one
US dollar was worth over 4 trillion marks by November 1923. Many Germans
used worthless banknotes as wallpaper or burnt them as fuel. Those
with debts and mortgages were able to pay off their debts easily, but
trade was made impossible, people had to be paid daily, and the middle
classes and pensioners lost their savings.
l The Ruhr occupation impacted Germany’s economy as valuable resources
and factories were seized. Hyperinflation meant trade was heavily
impacted and many resorted to bartering.
l The Ruhr occupation and the period of hyperinflation allowed political
extremists to point the finger of blame towards the Weimar politicians
and the Treaty of Versailles. Right-wing nationalists infiltrated the
Ruhr and carried out acts of sabotage, such as derailing trains carrying
supplies to the French soldiers. In Munich, Hitler’s Nazi Party attempted
the Munich Putsch to seize power from the Weimar government.

Task

Complete a table like the one below to summarise and explain the impact
of the Treaty on Germany up to 1923.

Impact Details Effect on Germany by 1923

Social

Political

Economic

Practice question, Paper 1

Why did the Treaty of Versailles make Weimar Germany Tip

unstable up to 1923? [6 marks]
Six-mark questions
require you to explain
your reasons using
Test yourself
your own knowledge to
1 What terms of the Treaty caused the most resentment in Germany? support your answer.
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Make sure you use full

2 Give one example of a right-wing uprising up to 1923.
paragraphs and explain
3 How did the occupation of the Ruhr help lead to hyperinflation? more than one reason in
4 Who lost out and who benefited from German hyperinflation in 1923? your answer.

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

1.4 Could the Treaty be justified at the time?

In Germany, the Treaty was seen as unfair and too harsh Key point
l The German public resented the reparation payments which weakened Many in Germany viewed
the economy when Germany was trying to rebuild its finances and trade the Treaty of Versailles
after the war. The severe military restrictions were unpopular as it left as overly harsh and
Germany defenceless and encircled by powerful foreign armies. The unfair. Germany had not
territorial losses left many Germans living outside of their borders. The been part of the peace
War Guilt Clause led to a prevailing feeling of humiliation. talks and had been
l The terms of the Treaty caused economic problems and political forced to accept the
terms or face occupation.
instability, including nationalist uprisings and violence.
In contrast, many among
l In Britain, some politicians and journalists criticised the harshness of the the victorious powers
Treaty of Versailles and claimed it would lead to a future war with Germany. saw their terms as fair
and much of the public
However, some onlookers thought the Treaty let the even believed it was not
harsh enough after the
defeated nations off too easily devastation of the First
l Many in France took this view and claimed that when Germany had World War.
imposed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on Russia in 1918, its terms
were far harsher than those in the Treaty of Versailles.
l Marshal Foch of the French army claimed Versailles was merely a
twenty-year ceasefire and did not protect France sufficiently from
future invasion.
l Some members of the British and French public wanted revenge on
Germany for the casualties of the war and thought Germany should have
been completely incapacitated by the Treaty so it could not be a threat
in the future.

Some believed that the Treaty of Versailles was fair

and the best that could have been achieved
l Some journalists in Britain commented that Germany got off relatively
lightly and would be able to afford the economic and territorial costs of
the Treaty.
l Some in the USA saw the Treaty as the only possible compromise that
could be made between the Allies after the war. Practice question, Paper 1

Test yourself ‘The Treaty of Versailles

was too harsh on
1 What were the most damaging terms of the Treaty of Versailles for Germany.’ How far do
Germany’s economy? you agree with this
2 What terms of the Treaty might have led to some Germans feeling statement? Explain your
vulnerable? answer. [10 marks]
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3 Why might France have viewed the Treaty as not harsh enough?
4 Make a list of some of the compromises in the Treaty of Versailles. Tip
Ten-mark questions
Task require a balanced and
structured response
Draw a table with two columns. Put the heading ‘Too harsh’ at the top supported by your own
of the first column and the heading ‘Not harsh enough’ at the top of the knowledge. Try to think
second column. Use the information in Chapter 1 to find examples to of a counter-argument
support each heading. Then, write a short conclusion to reach an overall to the one given in the
judgement about whether you think the Treaty could be justified or not. question.

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Key terms
Make sure you know these Hyperinflation Process of Rhineland Area of Germany
terms, people or events and money becoming worthless; that bordered France. Under
can use them or describe them most notable instance was in Treaty of Versailles it was
confidently. Germany in 1923. demilitarised – no German
Anschluss Joining of Austria and Idealist/realist An idealist is forces were allowed there.
Germany as one state – motivated by particular beliefs, Right-wing Political groups
forbidden by the Treaty of e.g. commitment to right of or individuals with beliefs in
Versailles 1919 but carried out peoples to rule themselves. national pride, authoritarian
by Hitler in 1938. A realist is a politician who government and opposed to
Big Three Three main leaders accepts a particular course communism.
at the Paris Peace Conference of action even though it Ruhr Main industrial area of
1919 – Lloyd George (Britain), is not what they would Germany.
Wilson (USA), Clemenceau prefer to do.
Saar Region on the border
(France). Kapp Putsch Attempt to between France and Germany.
Conscription Compulsory service overthrow democratically Run by League of Nations
in the armed forces. elected government in Germany from 1920 to 1935 when its
in 1920. people voted to become part of
Demilitarised zone Area of
land where troops cannot be League of Nations Organisation Germany.
stationed, e.g. Rhineland area set up to manage international Secret treaties International
of Germany after the First disputes and prevent wars after agreements between countries
World War. the First World War. Brainchild that are not made public to
of US President Woodrow other nations.
Democracy Political system in
Wilson.
which the population votes for Self-determination The right for
its government in elections held Paris Peace Conference people to choose which nation
on a regular basis. Conference which ran 1919–23 they belong to, often by vote.
to decide how to officially end
Diktat Term used in Germany to Territory An area of land or
the First World War. Resulted
describe the Treaty of Versailles country controlled by another
in Treaty of Versailles with
because Germany had no say in nation.
Germany and three other
the terms of the Treaty. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty
treaties.
Disarmament Process of between Germany and Russia
Public opinion View of majority
scrapping land, sea or air in 1918 which ended war
or large section of population
weapons. between the two. Germany took
on an issue, most important in
Fourteen Points The statement massive amounts of land and
democracies where politicians
of principles for the peace reparations.
often must win over public
negotiations after the First opinion. Treaty of Versailles Treaty that
World War, made by Woodrow officially ended war between
Reparations Compensation to
Wilson. Allies and Germany in 1919.
be paid by Germany to France,
General strike Large-scale Controversial because of the
Belgium, Britain and other
co-ordinated strike by terms, which Germany claimed
states as a result of the First
workers designed to stop were excessively harsh.
World War.
essential services like power, War guilt Clause in Treaty
transport, etc. of Versailles which forced
Germany to accept blame for
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the First World War.

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2 To what extent was the League

of Nations a success?

2.1 How far did weaknesses in the League’s

organisation and membership make failure
inevitable?

Leaders did not agree on the role of the League Key point
l British leaders like Lloyd George thought the League should only meet Wilson had envisaged
in emergencies. the League to be a world
parliament that could
l France wanted a strong League with its own army.
stop conflict before it
l Wilson wanted an organisation that would try to solve international started, but without the
issues, like a world parliament. USA it was dominated by
Britain and France. The
The absence of the USA was a serious blow League’s organisation
l Despite Wilson’s plans, many members of the US Congress opposed and structure also meant
it was often slow to act
the League. They did not want the USA to be involved in international
on international disputes.
affairs.
l Republican candidate Warren Harding campaigned for isolationism and a
‘return to normalcy’ and won a landslide victory. The USA never joined Test yourself
the League.
1 Why did the USA
The League was limited by its membership not want to join the
League in 1920?
l The USA, the most powerful and wealthy country in the world, never
2 Was the League too
joined, which severely reduced the League’s ability to deal with idealistic to fulfil its
aggressive nations (see Factfile). own Covenant?
l The Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany to join (until 1926).
l The communist Soviet Union was refused membership, for ideological
Factfile
reasons, until 1934.
l Britain and France were the most powerful countries in the League. League of Nations’
Both were severely weakened by the First World War, and both had sanctions
other priorities: for Britain, its empire; for France, the threat of Moral condemnation:
Germany. The Council could use the
l Both Britain and France felt only the USA had enough influence and might of world opinion
to condemn aggressive
resources to head up the League. This would lead both countries to
actions.
bypass the League when it suited them.
Trade sanctions: The
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The League’s structure was democratic, but it had Council could impose
trade boycotts on the
weaknesses aggressor (but the USA
l The League’s Covenant set up three main bodies: the Assembly, the could continue to trade
Council and the Secretariat. with them).
l A Permanent Court of Justice and International Labour Organization Military force: Member
(ILO) were also attached to the League along with various agencies, countries could raise
committees and commissions (see table on page 10). a force against the
aggressor (difficult
l The League was funded by member states and budgets were set by the
without the USA’s
Assembly. military might).

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Key body Roles and functions Strengths Weaknesses

Assembly The League’s ‘parliament’; each country Very democratic – each Only met once per year and
had one representative in the assembly member had one vote decisions had to be unanimous,
(there were 42 founding members); so no one country could meaning it was slow to act
could admit new members; discussed dominate decisions
and decided general policies
Council Smaller ‘executive’ (government) body Met up to five times per Permanent members (Britain,
that met more often and in emergencies year and could react France, Italy and Japan)
to resolve disputes. Had a variety of more quickly than the could dominate the Council’s
powers to stop aggressive nations (see Assembly decisions; each member had a
Factfile on page 9) veto so one member could stop a
decisive action
Secretariat Civil service of the League – kept Lots of experts brought Expensive to run and grew larger
records and administered all the together as the League’s roles expanded
different bodies over time
Permanent Based in The Hague in the Netherlands. Made up of legal Lacked the power to follow up its
Court of Judges settled disputes and provided experts from member rulings
International legal advice to the Council states; held in high
Justice regard by many
International Brought together employers, employees See focus point 2.2 See focus point 2.2 (page 11)
Labour and governments to improve working (page 11)
Organization conditions
Agencies Commissions and committees set up See focus point 2.3 See focus point 2.3 (pages 12–13)
to deal with social and economic issues (pages 12–13)
caused by the First World War and peace
settlements

Assembly Council
Practice question, Paper 1

Describe the main

Secretariat features of the
organisation and
structure of the League
Permanent Court of International Labour of Nations. [4 marks]
Justice Organization (ILO)

Agencies Tip
Mandates Commissions
Refugees Committee Four-mark questions
Slavery Commission require you to give
Health Committee
accurate and relevant
detail. You do not need
to write long answers
Task or explanations. Save
more of your time for
Use each letter of the word LEAGUE below to write a sentence about the
the questions that carry
League’s organisation and membership. Try to write three strengths and
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higher marks.
three weaknesses. The first has been done for you.
League of Nations’ members each had a vote in the Assembly meaning
Test yourself
it was very representative.
1 Which were the most
E
important bodies
A in the League’s
G organisation?
2 In what ways
U was the League
E a representative
organisation?

10

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

2.2 How successful were the League’s attempts

at peacekeeping in the 1920s?
Key point
The League had mixed results with border disputes
l The Covenant of the League had four main aims: to discourage aggression The League was the
from any nation and act together to prevent war (Article 10: collective dreamchild of Woodrow
security); to promote international co-operation and trade; to encourage Wilson, who hoped
disarmament; and to improve people’s living and working conditions. international disputes
could be solved by
l The League’s 42 members began work in 1920. diplomacy and goodwill.
Aaland Islands, 1921 These islands Corfu, 1923 In response However, the League
in the Baltic Sea were claimed to the murder of an Italian was fatally weakened by
by both Finland and Sweden. The officer, Mussolini occupied the the absence of the USA
and had varying success
League ruled in favour of Finland, Greek island of Corfu. Greece
throughout the 1920s.
and Sweden accepted the decision. appealed to the League, which
Rating: Total success at first condemned the invasion.
Mussolini then demanded that Vilna, 1920–29 Poland
the Conference of Ambassadors took control of Vilna
Bulgaria, 1925 Greece was ordered should decide, rather than the in Lithuania. Lithuania
to pay £45,000 in compensation League. Mussolini got his way: appealed to the League
after an incident on the Bulgarian Britain and France did not act and the League asked
border. Greece accepted the ruling, against Italy and made the Poland to pull out. Poland
but felt it had been treated unfairly League change its ruling, forcing refused the League’s ruling
when compared to Italy during the Greece to pay compensation. and Britain and France
Corfu incident, 1923. Rating: Partial Mussolini’s bullying tactics had refused to act against
success worked. Rating: Complete failure Poland. Rating: Complete
failure
Task
Tip
Complete a table like the one below to compare Sources A and B.
Some Paper 2 questions
Source A Source B will ask you to compare
What event is the source referring to? the details in two sources.
What details in the sources are similar? You need to make sure
that you can compare
What details in the sources are different?
the similarities and
What is the main message/attitude of the author?
differences between the
sources and the attitudes
Practice question, Paper 2
or messages of the
Study Sources A and B. authors. Make sure you
understand what event/s
How similar are these two sources? Explain your answer they are referring to!
using details of the sources and your knowledge. [8 marks]
SOURCE A Adapted from Peter J. Yearwood’s Article ‘Consistently with honour’ taken Test yourself
from the Journal of Contemporary History, 1986, making reference to the Corfu crisis.
1 What successes did
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The Italian occupation of Corfu on 31 August 1923 confronted the League the League have
of Nations with what was recognised as its first major test. Many people in solving border
thought, both then and later, that the League failed this test and that this disputes in the 1920s?
was also a failure for the policy of Great Britain, which had appeared as
2 What failures did
the strongest champion of the League during the crisis.
the League have in
SOURCE B Adapted from E. Wright’s A Dictionary of World History (2.ed), 2006. dealing with border
Following the bombardment by Italy in which 16 people were killed, Mussolini disputes in the 1920s?
issued an ultimatum, demanding a heavy indemnity [compensation]. Greece 3 What were the main
appealed to the League of Nations, which referred the dispute to the Council reasons the League
of Ambassadors. The Council ordered Greece to pay 50 million lire. Under failed in the border
pressure from Britain and France, Italian troops withdrew. The outcome of the disputes in Corfu and
dispute raised serious doubts about the strength and efficiency of the League. Vilna?

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2.3 How important was the League’s

humanitarian work?

The League attempted to tackle major problems in Key point

the world after the war One of the League’s
l Many former colonies that were part of the German and Ottoman greatest successes
empires were run as mandates by Britain and France on behalf of the in the 1920s was its
League. The Mandates Commission was set up to ensure that these humanitarian work,
which aimed to improve
mandates were run properly, and that the interests of the people of
living and working
that territory were being protected. conditions for people
l Hundreds of thousands of refugees had fled from areas of conflict around the world. This
during the war. The Refugees Committee was set up to help repatriate was largely achieved
them or provide temporary clean shelter in refugee camps. through the work of
l The Slavery Commission worked to abolish slavery, particularly in the League’s agencies,
which included various
East Africa, but also in other parts of the world.
permanent and
l The Health Committee worked to educate people about health and temporary committees
sanitation. It also worked with health organisations around the world and commissions that
to stop the spread of dangerous diseases such as malaria. each dealt with specific
social issues.
The International Labour Organization aimed to
address working conditions around the world
l The ILO worked with employers, trade union representatives and
governments to improve working conditions.
l It investigated working conditions in different countries and proposed
ways to improve them. However, the ILO could only persuade member
states to adopt their ideas – they could not be mandated.
l Many at the Paris Peace Conference hoped that better pay and
conditions for workers would reduce support for communist parties
after the war.

The League’s agencies had some successes

Agency Successes Failures
International Improved health and safety by banning poisonous white lead It lacked funds to implement the
Labour from paint and limited hours for child labour. Campaigned for the changes and members refused
Organization introduction of an eight-hour day and 48-hour week. to adopt the changes.
Refugees Helped 425,000 displaced people return to their homes or find new It was plagued by a constant
Committee ones; helped stamp out diseases like cholera in the refugee camps. lack of funds.
Health Spread good medical practices and helped introduce vaccines for The Health Committee’s work
Committee diseases like malaria; became the World Health Organization was seriously affected by the
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in 1948. Depression of the 1930s.

Slavery Freed 200,000 enslaved people in Sierra Leone and organised Failed to establish procedures
Commission raids against slave traders in Burma. for reviewing the incidence of
slavery in member states.
Economic Financial reconstruction in Austria (1922) and Hungary (1923). The The work was cut short by the
and Financial League oversaw the economic assistance to both countries in the Depression of the 1930s.
Organisation form of loans.
Disarmament Washington Naval Conference, 1921 limited the navies of France, The League’s reputation was
Commission Britain, Japan and the USA. Locarno Treaty, 1925 saw Germany damaged as Germany was the only
accept its western borders, as set out in the Treaty of Versailles. country to be forced to disarm.
The Disarmament Conference was
not held until 1932.

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Practice question, Paper 1 Test yourself

Describe the humanitarian work of the League of Nations 1 In your opinion,

in the 1920s. [4 marks] which agency of the
League was the most
successful? Explain
Task your answer.
Use the mnemonic below to provide four more pieces of factual 2 In your opinion,
information about the humanitarian work of the League of Nations in the which agency of the
1920s. The first one has been done for you as an example: League was the least
successful? Explain
Hundreds of thousands of refugees were given temporary shelter by the your answer.
Refugees Committee.
3 What issue affected
U the ILO’s ability to
M improve working
conditions?
A
N

2.4 How far did the Depression make the work

of the League more difficult in the 1930s?
Key point
In October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred
l The 1920s had been a period of economic recovery and the USA had The Depression of the
grown wealthy. 1930s swept away much
of the goodwill of the
l As a result, US loans had been made to many countries, including 1920s. League members
Germany. started to focus on
l The Wall Street Crash had a massive effect on the US economy, their own economies
leading to bankruptcies and high unemployment. and ignore the growing
militarism around the
A worldwide depression followed world.

l The USA saw unemployment rise by over 600 per cent between 1929
and 1932, meaning 30 per cent of the working population were without
jobs and US loans were called back as banks collapsed.
l In Germany, unemployment reached nearly 6 million in 1932, which led
to chaos on the streets and a surge in support for extremist parties like
the Nazis and Communists.
l In Japan, the Depression led to a drop in its main export, silk. Japan
was unable to buy important raw materials and food.
l Britain and France, the League’s two leading powers, were unwilling
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to help sort out international disputes while their economies were

suffering.
l Many countries cut expenditure as worldwide trade dropped over
50 per cent between the world’s major powers. Some countries put up
tariffs on imports and this made things worse.
l The spirit of international co-operation was lost.

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Some countries turned to extremism and militarism Task

l Britain, Germany, Japan and Italy all started to rearm to help solve
Draw a spider diagram
their unemployment problems.
with ‘How the Depression
l In Japan, the military wanted to expand Japan’s overseas empire to impacted the League’
access the raw materials and food it needed. in the centre and
l In Italy, the fascist government under Mussolini believed that an empire ‘Unemployment’,
in the Mediterranean and Africa would help solve economic problems. ‘Extremism’ and
‘Militarism’ as branches.
l In Germany, the Nazis came to power under Hitler in 1933. He promised Add some facts.
to solve Germany’s economic problems by rearming and winning back
territory lost in the Treaty of Versailles.
Test yourself
Many nations were now weak and aggressive 1 How did the Wall
l The League had failed in the 1920s when more aggressive nations had Street Crash lead
used force – now leading members like Japan, Italy and Germany were to worldwide
threatening military expansion. depression?
l Britain and France had been weakened by the Depression and were not 2 Why did Germany,
willing to spend money or send forces to stop international aggression. Italy and Japan believe
military expansion
l Nationalism was on the rise in many countries leading to
would solve their
dictatorships that were preparing their countries for war – the League
problems?
lacked an army or the might of the USA to stop them.
3 Why would the
League’s ability to
The League, weakened by the Depression, faced its solve international
first crisis when Japan invaded Manchuria disputes be made
more difficult?
Why Manchuria?
1 Economic: Japan lacked food and raw materials and the Depression had Practice question, Paper 1
ruined its silk trade with the USA. Manchuria had rich natural resources
and links to Asian markets. Explain why the
Depression led to
2 Military: China’s military was inferior to Japan’s modern armed forces.
problems for the League
3 Geographical: Japan had controlled Korea, which was on the border of of Nations. [6 marks]
Manchuria, since 1905, and controlled the South Manchurian Railway
which carried food and fuel to Japan.
What happened?

Sept. 1931: Jan. – March March 1932: April 1932: Sept. 1932: Feb. 1933: March 1933:
Mukden 1932: China appealed Lord Lytton Lytton Report Japan ignored Japan vetoed
incident – Japan Japan occupied to the League sent by League condemned the report and the actions of
blamed China for all of Manchuria for help. to investigate. invasion and invaded more the League
a staged attack and renamed it asked Japan to of China. and resigned
on the South Manchukuo. withdraw. its membership.
Manchurian
Railway.
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League members looked weak and powerless:

Britain and France looked self-interested: Both
None of the League’s leading members wanted to lose
countries had colonies in the Far East and did not want
trade in the Far East and did not want to risk their
to be drawn into a war with Japan.
forces with military sanctions.

The consequences of the

Manchurian crisis for the League

No USA or USSR: Both countries had the resources Future aggression: Italy and Germany both saw the
to remove Japan, but neither were members of League’s members were not willing to stop powerful
the League. nations when they acted aggressively.

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

The League also failed in its aim to disarm countries Test yourself
l The League’s Covenant was committed to disarmament, but only
1 How similar were
Germany was forced to disarm. the causes of the
l In 1932, the Disarmament Conference was convened in Geneva. Manchurian and
l Germany proposed that all nations disarm to its level. The Conference Abyssinian invasions?
failed to agree. 2 Why did Britain and
l In 1933, Hitler started to rearm Germany in secret. He left the France fail to act
Conference and the League. against Japan?
l France was concerned over its security with Germany and refused to disarm. 3 What were the main
Poland and Czechoslovakia were also concerned as they bordered Germany. reasons for the failure
of the Disarmament
l By 1934, the major countries had failed to reach any agreement and Conference?
many countries began to rearm.
4 Were Britain and France
the main reason why
Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia was the final blow to the the League failed over
League’s reputation the Abyssinian crisis?

Why Abyssinia?
Practice question, Paper 1
1 Historical: In 1896, the Italian army had been defeated by a poorly
equipped Abyssinian army. Mussolini wanted revenge and a military ‘The weak leadership
victory to boost his prestige at home. of France and Britain
was the main reason
2 Economic: Abyssinia had rich mineral deposits and fertile land that the League failed in
could be added to Italy’s empire. Manchuria and Abyssinia.’
3 Geographical: Abyssinia was bordered by two other Italian colonies –
How far do you agree
Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. This would give Mussolini a stronger with this statement?
foothold in East Africa, which was dominated by British colonies. Explain your answer.
 [10 marks]
What happened?
Dec. 1934: Jan. – Oct. 1935: Oct. 1935: Nov. – Dec. 1935: Dec. 1935: May 1936:
Mussolini claimed Italy prepared for Italy invaded The League Hoare–Laval Pact Abyssinian capital,
Abyssinia after a invasion while Abyssinia in a condemned the signed but it was Addis Ababa,
border dispute at negotiating with ruthless attack invasion and leaked to the captured.
the Wal-Wal oasis. the League to that included the imposed economic French press and
settle the dispute; use of chemical sanctions, except Britain and France
Mussolini rejected weapons. on oil. were blamed.
the League’s
judgements.

Stresa Pact, 1935: Britain and France wanted Italy as an ally

Britain and France: The Hoare–Laval Pact was a secret deal to
against Hitler and did not take the situation seriously enough.
give Mussolini two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for ending the war.
They didn’t even close the Suez Canal, so Italy was able to
When it was leaked it looked like the League’s leading members
continue to supply its troops. They were prepared to ignore the
were following their own interests rather than the League’s.
League, which weakened its authority.

The consequences of the

Abyssinian crisis for the League
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Hitler’s actions: Hitler saw the League was preoccupied and

No USA: The League had banned arms sales and loans to Italy but
launched an invasion of the Rhineland in 1936, which broke the
not oil over fear the USA would not support the sanctions. The
terms of the Treaty of Versailles. In November, angered by Britain
delays in a decision were fatal for Abyssinia. The League’s
and France, Mussolini allied himself with Hitler to form the
sanctions were ineffective without the membership of the USA.
Rome–Berlin Axis and Italy left the League in 1937.

Tip
Remember, ten-mark questions require you to and Britain’; ‘No USA in the League’; ‘The
write a balanced, essay-style response. It is League’s weak structure and organisation’.
worth spending a few minutes planning your Make sure you use relevant examples in your
answer. To plan for this question you could draw paragraphs to explain the different factors
up a table with evidence and explanations for and write a conclusion to make an overall
three factors: ‘The weak leadership of France judgement.

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Key terms
Make sure you know these terms, Council Influential body within Moral condemnation Criticism of
people or events and can use the League of Nations which a state for actions against
them or describe them contained the most powerful another state – prelude to
confidently. members of the League. stronger action such as
Abyssinian crisis International Covenant Agreement or set of economic sanctions or military
tensions resulting from invasion rules. force.
of Abyssinia (present-day Depression Period of economic Normalcy Term used by US
Ethiopia) by Italy in 1935. downturn where trade between President Warren Harding in the
Article 10 Article of League of countries and inside countries 1920s to describe the return to
Nations Covenant which declines, often leading to normal life after the First World
promised security to League unemployment. War.
members from attack by other Dictatorship System in which one Secretariat The section of the
states. person runs a country. League of Nations which carried
Assembly Main forum of the out administrative tasks and
Disarmament Process of scrapping
League of Nations for discussing also the agencies of the League.
land, sea or air weapons.
important issues. Tariffs Taxes on imported goods
Isolationism Policy in the USA in
Collective security Key principle which made them more
the 1920s which argued that the
of the League of Nations that expensive – often designed to
USA should not get involved in
all members could expect to be protect makers of home-
international disputes.
secure because the other produced goods
Manchurian crisis International
members of the League would Trade sanctions Restricting sale
crisis sparked off when Japan
defend them from attack. of goods to a nation or sales
invaded the Chinese province
Commissions Organisations set from a nation.
of Manchuria in 1931. Despite
up by the League of Nations investigating, the League of Unanimous Agreed by all.
to tackle economic, social and Nations failed to stop Japanese Wall Street Crash Collapse in
health problems. aggression. value of US companies in
Conference of Ambassadors Mandate Territory assigned to October 1929, which led to
Organisation involving Britain, another nation to run on behalf widespread economic distress.
France, Italy and Japan which of the League of Nations.
met to sort out international
Military force Use of armed force
disputes. Worked alongside
(e.g. troops, bombing by aircraft)
League of Nations.
as opposed to political or
economic methods.
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How far was Hitler’s foreign

3 policy to blame for the outbreak

of war in Europe in 1939?
3.1 What were the long-term consequences of
the Treaty of Versailles?

The Versailles settlement left many major powers Key point

dissatisfied The peace settlement

had been a compromise
l Italy had hoped to gain more out of the peace settlement, especially
and left many parties
more colonies from Germany and Turkey. dissatisfied. In Germany,
l Japan had its racial equality clause rejected at the Paris Peace in particular, the Treaty
Conference. of Versailles had bred
l Germany resented the Treaty of Versailles. It opposed the harsh resentment and Hitler
territorial, military and financial terms. Since the end of the First promised to overturn its
terms and make Germany
World War, Weimar politicians had been accused of stabbing Germany
a world power again.
in the back for signing the armistice and the Treaty and were referred
to as the ‘November Criminals’ by right-wing nationalists like
Hitler. Task
l Germans had been split apart by the Treaty which led to nationalism: Create a spider diagram
East Prussia had been separated by the Polish Corridor and nearly with ‘Hitler breaks the
4 million Germans lived in the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. Treaty of Versailles’ in the
l Many in Britain began to feel that the Treaty was too harsh on Germany. centre and the branches
They wanted to see Germany return as a defence against the threat of labelled: Rearmament,
League of Nations,
the Soviet Union.
Anschluss, German
l In France, the public felt the Treaty was not harsh enough and wanted territory. Add dates and
reassurances, especially from Britain, that their borders would remain examples.
secure.
Practice question, Paper 1
Hitler became the German Chancellor in 1933 and
Describe how Hitler
promised to break the terms of the Treaty broke the terms of the
l Hitler laid out his plans to overturn the terms of the Treaty in Treaty of Versailles.
Mein Kampf (1925).  [4 marks]
l Some terms of the Treaty were already being ignored; for example
reparation payments had already ceased. Tip
l Hitler wanted to rearm and felt it was unfair that Germany was Four-mark questions
surrounded by countries with more powerful armies, while Germany was should have short
defenceless with only 100,000 soldiers and no air force. answers. Only spend a
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l Hitler’s desire to reunite all German-speaking people, create living few minutes answering
space in the East (Lebensraum) and destroy communism would them and do not waste
mean the terms of the Treaty would be violated. time writing lots of
background information.
Hitler breaks the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

1933: 1934: 1936: 1937: 1938: 1939:

Germany leaves the Hitler tries to annex Hitler reintroduces Hitler tests new Hitler annexes Hitler takes over all
League of Nations Austria but is conscription and air force in Spanish Austria (Anschluss) of Czechoslovakia
and begins to stopped by occupies the Civil War. and takes over and invades Poland
secretly rearm. Mussolini. Rhineland. the Sudetenland. – war begins!

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3.2 What were the consequences of the failures

of the League of Nations in the 1930s?

The League was supposed to uphold collective Key point

The League of Nations
security and stop aggressive nations, but … was supposed to
l The League had been seriously weakened by the effects of the maintain world peace
worldwide depression. Member states, including Britain and France, through its system of
concentrated on solving their own economic problems rather than collective security, but
concerning themselves with collective security. the Depression made its
l Britain increasingly viewed the Treaty as unfair and too harsh. The work almost impossible
League was supposed to enforce the Treaty of Versailles but failed to as leading members
looked inwards to
stop Germany when it reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936.
solve their countries’
l The League failed to stop Hitler rearming. Britain, France and Italy had problems. This gave
formed the Stresa Pact in 1935 to try to condemn Hitler, but they were Hitler the opportunity
not prepared to go to war. Britain, France and Italy all began to rearm. to begin his aggressive
l The crises in Manchuria and Abyssinia had shown the world the League foreign policy unopposed.
was powerless to stop aggressive nations and that Britain and France
were not prepared to use military force. This encouraged Japan, Italy
and Germany to take further actions. Practice question, Paper 1

The Saar region of Germany had been run by the Explain why the League
of Nations’ failures
League since 1919, but … encouraged Hitler’s
l In 1935, the League held a plebiscite for people in the Saar region to vote aggressive foreign
on whether they wanted to be run by Germany again. Many opponents of policy. [6 marks]
Hitler were living in the Saar region and he was fearful of a negative result.
l Hitler allowed the plebiscite to take place and over 90 per cent of the
population voted to return to German rule. This was a great propaganda Tip
success for Hitler and another blow to the League.
Remember that for
l Hitler promised to make no further claims to French territory, but it six-mark questions
encouraged him to take further gambles in the future – the Rhineland you need to explain
would be next in 1936. the reasons you give.
Use full paragraphs
and provide relevant
Task knowledge to support
The factors in the first column of the table are reasons why the League your explanations.
failed. Use the second column to explain the impact this would have on
Hitler’s foreign policy. Remember to add examples. The first one has
been done for you. Test yourself
Factor Explanation
1 How far was the
Depression The Depression caused high unemployment in many countries, Depression the cause
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especially Germany where it reached nearly 6 million in 1932. of all the League’s
This led to Hitler promising to rearm Germany and expand its problems in the
borders to help solve the unemployment problem. The League 1930s?
members were too focused on problems in their own countries
2 Do you think
to effectively oppose Hitler.
the Manchurian
Treaty of and Abyssinian
Versailles
crises would have
Disarmament encouraged Hitler?
Manchuria and
3 How was the Saar
Abyssinia
plebiscite a body blow
Saar for the League?

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3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?

As Chancellor, Hitler wanted to make Germany a great

power again
Reunite Germany: Hitler wanted all
German-speaking people to be part of
Destroy the Treaty of Versailles: Hitler
a Greater Germany – this included a
wanted to rearm Germany, reintroduce
union with Austria (Anschluss), taking
conscription and build up Germany’s
back the Polish Corridor and absorbing
armed forces to take back lost territory.
Germans in the Sudetenland in
Czechoslovakia.

Hitler’s foreign policy

Living space: Hitler wanted to expand Destroy communism: Hitler wanted

eastwards towards Poland and the to defeat the threat of Bolshevism
Soviet Union to create a living space or (communism) in the Soviet Union as he
Lebensraum for the German people as believed communists wanted to destroy
part of a Third Reich. the German Reich.

Hitler’s initial foreign policy moves were seen as

reasonable
l Hitler began rearming Germany in secret. After withdrawing Germany
from the League of Nations, he staged a military rally in 1935 and
reintroduced conscription in the same year.
l Nothing was done in response as other countries were rearming and
Britain believed the Treaty had punished Germany too severely.
l Hitler didn’t achieve everything he wanted. In 1934, Mussolini moved
Italian troops to the Austrian border, which forced Hitler to back down
in his attempt to annex Austria.

Hitler’s first foreign policy gamble was the Rhineland Test yourself
l The Rhineland had been demilitarised as part of the terms of the Treaty
of Versailles and accepted by Germany as part of the 1925 Locarno 1 Did Hitler’s foreign
Treaties. It was designed to protect France from German invasions. policy aims suggest
war was inevitable?
l Hitler used the alliance between France and Russia in 1935 as an excuse
2 Why do you think
to invade. He said Germany was surrounded by hostile forces.
Hitler’s early foreign
l Germany’s invasion went unimpeded – the League of Nations was busy policy was not as
with the Abyssinian crisis, Britain believed Germany had a right to the aggressive as
Rhineland and France was about to hold an election so politicians did later on?
not want to start a conflict with Germany. 3 How did the success
of the Rhineland
In 1936, Germany tried out its weapons in the Spanish invasion encourage
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Hitler to become more

Civil War aggressive in his
l The Spanish Civil War was fought between the left-wing Republican foreign policy?
Government and the right-wing nationalist rebels led by General Franco. 4 How did Hitler
l The Soviet leader, Stalin, sent weapons and aircraft to support the manipulate events
Republicans and Mussolini and Hitler declared their support for Franco. in Austria to his
l Britain and France refused to get directly involved. advantage in 1938?

l Germany sent pilots and aircraft from the new Luftwaffe (air force) to
take part in bombing raids on civilian populations.

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l The bonds between Mussolini and Hitler strengthened and Britain and
France increased the scale and speed of their rearmament.
l At the same time, in 1936, Germany allied itself with Japan to form the
anti-communist Anti-Comintern Pact and then made an alliance with
Italy in 1937 called the Rome–Berlin Axis alliance.

Hitler, spurred on by his success and good luck,

turned his attention to Austria again in 1938 Task
l Many in Austria supported the idea of a union with Germany and there
was already a strong Nazi Party there. Hitler told the Nazis to stir up Source-based exam
trouble in Austria and demand the union. questions in Paper 2
sometimes ask you to
l The Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg, appealed to Britain and France explain ‘why’ a source
for help. No help was offered, and Schuschnigg held a plebiscite. was made at a certain
Hitler feared losing the vote so demanded Schuschnigg’s resignation. time. This means you
He was replaced by the Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart who requested help need to work out the
from Germany to restore order. Hitler’s troops marched into Austria purpose of the source.
unopposed in March 1938. Study Source A (below)
l The plebiscite was held and over 99 per cent voted in favour of a union. and read the provenance.
You will need to use
l The British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, said it had been your own knowledge
wrong to not allow a union in the Treaty of Versailles in the first place. of events on the date it
Hitler’s gamble had paid off again. was published to help
you explain. Answer the
Practice question, Paper 2 questions around the
image to help you analyse
Why was this photo published in 1937? Explain your answer the photograph.
using details of the source and your knowledge. [7 marks]
SOURCE A A postcard published in France to mark the bombing of Guernica in
1937. The text reads ‘The Basque people murdered by German planes. Guernica Tip
martyred 26 April 1937’. Paper 2 questions that
ask you ‘why’ something
What year What was published or made
was the message is the are asking you to work
photograph photograph out the purpose rather
published? giving the
than the message of
What event audience?
How is it
the source. This means
is it referring
to? achieving this? you need to think about
the impact the source
would have had on its
intended audience. Is
it trying to persuade or
convince them to feel a
How does the
certain emotion, change
photographer
their attitudes towards
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want the
audience to something or encourage
react? What them to support or
does the oppose a particular
Is the photo photographer group, person, policy or
supportive want to action? Always look at the
or critical of persuade or date of the source in the
the event? convince the provenance so you can
What details audience to do use your own knowledge
suggest this? or to think? to support your answer.

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Copyright: Sample Material

Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Study and Revision Guide Second Edition