BIOLOGY 1 Cell Size

12 STEM
Cell Theory

Important events in the discovery of the

cell and the development of the cell theory…

1665 – Robert Hooke

Observed cells in cork.
Coined the term "cells”.

1673- Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Created a powerful microscope
1827-33 - Robert Brown
noticed that pollen grains in water Characteristics of All Cells
jiggled around called “Brownian motion” • A surrounding membrane
discovered the nucleus • Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
• Organelles – structures for cell function
1835 – Felix Dujardin • Control center with
Living cells has internal substance DNA
Named the internal substance as Cell Types
sarcode 1. Prokaryotic
First cell type on earth
Jan Evangelista Purkinje Cell type of Bacteria and Archaea
Made a thorough investigation of the No membrane bound nucleus
internal substance Nucleoid = region of DNA
Named it as protoplasm concentration
Organelles not bound by
1838 - Matthias Schleiden membranes
A botanist who concluded that all plants
are made of cells. 2. Eukaryotic
Nucleus bound by membrane
1839 - Theodor Schwann Include fungi, protists, plant, and
A zoologist who concluded that all animal cells
animals are made of cells. Possess many organelles

1855 - Rudolph Virchow

A physician who did research on cancer Animal Cell
cells and concluded “Omnis cellula e
cellula”.
“All cells are from other pre-existing
cells.”

The Cell Theory

1. All living things are composed of one or

more cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in an organism.
3. Cells come only from existing cells.

Cell Structure and Function

Cells
• Smallest living unit
• Most are
Microscopic

1
Plant Cell
Cell Wall Differences
• Plants – mostly cellulose
• Fungi – contain chitin

Cytoplasm
• Viscous fluid containing organelles
• components of cytoplasm
Interconnected filaments & fibers
Fluid = cytosol
Organelles (not nucleus)
storage substances
Cytoskeleton
• Filaments & fibers
• Made of 3 fiber types
Organelles Microfilaments
• Cellular machinery Microtubules
• Two general kinds Intermediate filaments
Derived from membranes • 3 functions:
Bacteria-like organelles mechanical support
Bacteria-Like Organelles anchor organelles
• Derived from symbiotic bacteria help move substances
• Ancient association Cilia & Flagella
• Endosymbiotic theory • Provide motility
Evolution of modern cells from cells & • Cilia
symbiotic bacteria Short
Plasma Membrane Used to move substances outside human
• Contains cell contents cells
• Double layer of phospholipids & proteins • Flagella
Phospholipids Whip-like extensions
• Polar Found on sperm cells
Hydrophylic head • Basal bodies like centrioles
Hydrophobic tail Cilia & Flagella Structure
Interacts with water • Bundles of microtubules
• With plasma membrane
Movement Across the Plasma Membrane Centrioles
• A few molecules move freely • Pairs of microtubular structures
Water, Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Oxygen • Play a role in cell division
Carrier proteins transport some molecules Membranous Organelles
Proteins embedded in lipid bilayer • Functional components within cytoplasm
Fluid mosaic model – describes fluid nature • Bound by membranes
of a lipid bilayer with proteins Nucleus
• Control center of cell
Membrane Proteins • Double membrane
• Contains
1. Channels or transporters Chromosomes
• Move molecules in one direction Nucleolus
2. Receptors Nuclear Envelope
• Recognize certain chemicals • Separates nucleus from rest of cell
3. Glycoproteins • Double membrane
• Identify cell type • Has pores
4. Enzymes DNA
• Catalyze production of • Hereditary material
substances • Chromosomes
Cell Walls DNA
• Found in plants, fungi, & many protists Protiens
• Surrounds plasma membrane Form for cell division
2
 • Chromatin • Break down fuel molecules (cellular
Nucleolus respiration)
• Most cells have 2 or more • Glucose
• Directs synthesis of RNA • Fatty acids
• Forms ribosomes • Release energy
Endoplasmic Reticulum • ATP
• Helps move substances within cells Chloroplasts
• Network of interconnected membranes • Derived from photosynthetic bacteria
• Two types • Solar energy capturing organelle
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Photosynthesis
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum • Takes place in the chloroplast
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum • Makes cellular food – glucose
• Ribosomes attached to surface
Manufacture protiens Review of Eukaryotic Cells
Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER
• May modify proteins
from ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• No attached ribosomes
• Has enzymes that help build molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Golgi Apparatus
• Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall
• Packaging & shipping station of cell

Golgi Apparatus Function

1. Molecules come in vesicles
2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane
3. Molecules may be modified by Golgi
4. Molecules pinched-off in separate vesicle
5. Vesicle leaves Golgi apparatus
6. Vesicles may combine with plasma
membrane to secrete contents

Lysosomes
• Contain digestive enzymes
• Functions
Aid in cell renewal
• Break down old cell parts
• Digests invaders
Vacuoles
• Membrane bound storage sacs
• More common in plants than animals
• Contents
Water
Food
wastes
Bacteria-Like Organelles
• Release & store energy
• Types
Mitochondria (release energy)
• Chloroplasts (store energy)
Mitochondria
• Have their own DNA
• Bound by double membrane

3
 CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

Types of cellular reproduction

1. Mitosis - somatic cells

2. Meiosis - gametes

MITOSIS

The process of cell division which results in the

production of two daughter cells from a single
parent cell.

The daughter cells are identical to one

another and to the original parent cell. MEIOSIS

Mitosis can be divided into stages Organisms that reproduce Sexually are made
• Interphase up of two different types of cells.
• Prophase
• Metaphase 1. Somatic Cells are “body” cells and
• Anaphase contain the normal number of
• Telophase & Cytokinesis chromosomes ….called the “Diploid”
number (the symbol is 2n). Examples
Interphase would be … skin cells, brain cells, etc.
The cell prepares for division 2. Gametes are the “sex” cells and
 DNA replicated contain only ½ the normal number of
 Organelles replicated chromosomes…. called the “Haploid”
 Cell increases in size number (the symbol is n)….. Sperm
cells and ova are gametes.
Prophase
The cell prepares for nuclear division
 Packages DNA into chromosomes Gametes
• The Male Gamete is the Sperm and is
Metaphase produced in the male gonad the
The cell prepares chromosomes for division Testes.
 Chromosomes line up at the • The Female Gamete is the Ovum
center of the cell (ova = pl.) and is produced in the
 Spindle fibers attach from female gonad the Ovaries.
daughter cells to chromosomes at
the centromere During Ovulation the ovum is released
Anaphase from the ovary and transported to an area
The chromosomes divide where fertilization, the joining of the sperm
 Spindle fibers pull chromosomes and ovum, can occur…… fertilization, in
apart Humans, occurs in the Fallopian tube.
 ½ of each chromosome (called Fertilization results in the formation of the
chromotid) moves to each Zygote. (fertilized egg)
daughter cell
Telophase Fertilization
The cytoplasm divides • The fusion of a sperm and egg to form
 DNA spreads out a zygote.
 2 nuclei form • A zygote is a fertilized egg
 Cell wall pinches in to form the 2
new daughter cells Chromosomes
• If an organism has the Diploid number
(2n) it has two matching homologues

4
 per set. One of the homologues comes Meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis
from the mother (and has the mother’s and produces sperm.
DNA).… the other homologue comes Meiosis in females is called oogenesis and
from the father (and has the father’s produces ova.
DNA).
• Most organisms are diploid. Humans Interphase
have 23 sets of chromosomes…
therefore humans have 46 total • Similar to mitosis interphase.
chromosomes….. The diploid number for • Chromosomes replicate (S phase).
humans is 46 (46 chromosomes per • Each duplicated chromosome consist
cell). of two identical sister chromatids
attached at their centromeres.
Homologous Chromosomes • Centriole pairs also replicate.
• Nucleus and nucleolus visible.
• Pair of chromosomes (maternal and
paternal) that are similar in shape and Meiosis I (four phases)
size.
• Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry genes • Cell division that reduces the
controlling the same inherited traits. chromosome number by one-half.
• Each locus (position of a gene) is in the • four phases:
same position on homologues. a. prophase I
• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous b. metaphase I
chromosomes. c. anaphase I
d. telophase I
22 pairs of autosomes
1 pair of sex chromosomes A. Prophase I

Homologous Chromosomes • Longest and most complex phase.

(because a homologous pair consists of 4 • 90% of the meiotic process is
chromatids it is called a “Tetrad”) spent in Prophase I
• Chromosomes condense.
Sex Chromosomes • Synapsis occurs: homologous
chromosomes come together to form
The Sex Chromosomes code for the sex of the a tetrad.
offspring. • Tetrad is two chromosomes or four
** If the offspring has two “X” chromosomes it chromatids (sister and nonsister
will be a female. chromatids).
** If the offspring has one “X” chromosome
and one “Y” chromosome it will be a male. During Prophase I
“Crossing Over” occurs.
Meiosis is the process by which
”gametes” (sex cells) , with half the Crossing Over is one of the Two major
number of chromosomes, are produced. occurrences of Meiosis
(The other is Non-disjunction)
During Meiosis diploid cells are reduced to
haploid cells • During Crossing over segments of
nonsister chromatids break and
Diploid (2n)  Haploid (n) reattach to the other chromatid. The
Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of
If Meiosis did not occur the chromosome crossing over.
number in each new generation would
double…. The offspring would die. Crossing Over creates variation
(diversity) in the offspring’s traits.
Meiosis is Two cell divisions
(called meiosis I and meiosis II) B. Metaphase I
with only one duplication of chromosome
• Shortest phase
5
 • Tetrads align on the metaphase Non-disjunction
plate.
• INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT Non-disjunction is one of the Two major
OCCURS: occurrences of Meiosis
1. Orientation of homologous pair to (The other is Crossing Over)
poles is random.
2. Variation • Non-disjunction is the failure of
3. Formula: 2n homologous chromosomes, or sister
Example: 2n = 4 chromatids, to separate during meiosis.
then n = 2 • Non-disjunction results with the
thus 22 = 4 combinations production of zygotes with abnormal
chromosome numbers…… remember….
C. Anaphase I An abnormal chromosome number
(abnormal amount of DNA) is damaging
• Homologous chromosomes separate to the offspring.
and move towards the poles.
• Sister chromatids remain attached at Non-disjunctions usually occur in one of
their centromeres. two fashions.

D. Telophase I • The first is called Monosomy, the

second is called Trisomy. If an
• Each pole now has haploid set of organism has Trisomy 18 it has three
chromosomes. chromosomes in the 18th set, Trisomy
• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid 21…. Three chromosomes in the 21st
daughter cells are formed. set. If an organism has Monosomy 23 it
has only one chromosome in the 23rd
set.
Meiosis II
Common Non-disjunction Disorders
• No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA 1. Down’s Syndrome – Trisomy 21
replication) also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic
• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to disorder caused by the presence of all or part
mitosis of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is
typically associated with physical growth
A. Prophase II delays, characteristic facial features, and mild
to moderate intellectual disability.
• same as prophase in mitosis
2. Turner’s Syndrome – Monosomy 23 (X)
B. Metaphase II Turner syndrome is a chromosomal
condition that affects development in females.
 same as metaphase in mitosis The most common feature of Turner
syndrome is short stature, which becomes
C. Anaphase II evident by about age 5. An early loss of
ovarian function (ovarian hypofunction or
• same as anaphase in mitosis premature ovarian failure) is also very
• sister chromatids separate common.

D. Telophase II 3. Kleinfelter’s Syndrome – Trisomy 23

(XXY).
• Same as telophase in mitosis. also known as the XXY condition, is a
• Nuclei form. term used to describe males who have an
• Cytokinesis occurs. extra X chromosome in most of their cells.
• Remember: four haploid daughter About one of every 500 males has an extra X
cells produced. chromosome, but many don't have any
gametes = sperm or egg symptoms.

6
4. Edward’s Syndrome – Trisomy 18
also known as trisomy 18, is a
geneticdisorder caused by the presence of all,
or part of a third copy of chromosome 18.
Many parts of the body are affected. Babies
are often born small and have heart defects.
Individuals with trisomy 18 often have
slow growth before birth (intrauterine growth
retardation) and a low birth weight.
• Sadly, most babies with Edwards'
syndrome will die before or shortly after
being born.
• Some babies with less severe types of
Edwards' syndrome, such as mosaic or
partial trisomy 18, do survive beyond a
year and, very rarely, into early
adulthood. But they are likely to have
severe physical and mental disabilities.

Amniocentesis
• An Amniocentesis is a prrocedure a
pregnant woman can have in order to
detect some genetics disorders…..such
as non-disjunction.

7
 TRANSPORT SYSTEM • Carrier protein binds to specific
substances on one side of cell
2 TYPES OF TRANSPORT SYSTEM membrane
• Binding causes protein to change shape
1. Passive Transport • As shape changes, the substance is
2. Active Transport moved across the cell membrane and
released on other side
3. Osmosis
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• Definition – diffusion of water across
selectively permeable membrane.
Passive Transport
• The direction of osmosis depends on the
• Substances are allowed to cross the cell
concentration of solutes inside and
membrane without any input of energy
outside the cell
•
• Protein channels specific to water.
Types of Passive Transport
1. Diffusion
Type of osmosis transport
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Osmosis
1. Isotonic Solution
 Solute and water concentrations
1. Simple Diffusion
equal on both sides of membrane.
• Molecules of a substance will move from
Water will move both ways randomly to
an area of high concentration to an area
maintain equilibrium
of low concentration
 No net water movement
• Diffusion occurs in cells when
 No change in cell volume
substances are small and uncharged
molecules like O2, CO2, salts, sugars and
2. Hypotonic Solution
amino acids that are dissolved in H2O
 Concentration of solutes outside the cell
move from an area of higher
is lower than the concentration inside.
concentration to an area of lower
Water will move into the cell to create
concentration
equilibrium
• Moves small, nonpolar molecules
 Water moves in Causes cell to swell
directly through lipid bilayer
 Cell could burst if it swells too much
 Plant cells have rigid cell wall to prevent
2. Facilitated Diffusion
this
• This process is used for molecules that
can’t move quickly through the cell
3. Hypertonic Solution
membrane
 Concentration outside the cell is higher
• Carrier proteins help move the
than inside. Water will move out of the
molecules
cell to create equilibrium
• The molecules still move down the
 Water moves
concentration gradient, so no energy is
 Causes cell to shrink
required
• Transport of glucose is facilitated
diffusion Active Transport
• Channel proteins – tunnel shape that
transports small charged molecules Active transport - movement of materials
• Ions, sugars, and amino acids can AGAINST the concentration gradient from low
diffuse with help of channel proteins concentration to high concentration
• Proteins, sometimes called pores, serve  Requires the cell to use energy (ATP)
as tunnels through the lipid bilayer  2 kinds:
• Each channel allows the diffusion of a 1. membrane pumps
specific substance 2. vesicle transports
• Carrier proteins – Transports non-
charged molecules with a specific shape 1. Cell Membrane Pumps
• Transport substances that fit within their  Involve carrier proteins called cell
binding site membrane pumps to move materials
against the concentration (UP
concentration gradient)
8
  Similar to the steps of facilitated Plasma Membrane Structure and
transport. Function
 Results in electrical impulses
across nerve cells Membrane Functions
 Ex. Sodium-Potassium Pump • Protection
2. Vesicle Transport • Communication
 Some substances (ex. Food) are too BIG • Selectively allow substances in
to pass through membrane • Respond to environment
OR • Recognition
large quantities need to pass through
the cell Plasma Membrane
 These situations use vesicle transport • Boundary that separates the living cell
 Two kinds from it’s non-living surroundings.
1. Endocytosis • Phospholipid bilayer
2. Exocytosis • Amphipathic - having both:
hydrophilic heads
Endocytosis hydrophobic tails
 Cells ingest external fluid, • ~8 nm thick
macromolecules & large particles • Is a dynamic structure
(including other cells)
 External materials are enclosed by part Functions of Proteins
of the cell, forming a pouch • Transport
 The pouch pinches off cell membrane & • Receptors
becomes a membrane bound organelle • Enzymes
called  a vesicle • Signal Transducers
 Vesicles can fuse with lysosomes to • Support
digests contents.
Plasma Membrane Proteins
Three kinds of Endocytosis: 1. Channel Proteins
1. Phagocytosis – movement of large  Each channel protein acts as gate
particles or whole cells. *Possible which can open and close
feeding method, or a method of defense  Each channel protein is specific
to destroy bacteria/viruses for each ion
2. Pinocytosis – transport of solutes or  They open up spaces or pores
liquids (lined with polar groups) across
3. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis - the membrane and allow entry or
also called clathrin-mediated exit of charged ions.
endocytosis, is a process by which 2. Carrier Proteins
cells absorb metabolites, hormones,  They allow the diffusion of larger
other proteins – and in some cases polar molecules such as sugars
viruses – by the inward budding and amino acids
of plasma membrane vesicles containing  A molecule attaches to the carrier
proteins with receptor sites specific to protein at its binding site this
the molecules being absorbed changes the shape of protein and
the molecule is delivered through
Exocytosis (Reverse of endocytosis) membrane.
 Vesicles in cytoplasm fuse with cell 3. Cell Recognition Proteins
membrane and RELEASE their contents  Recognition proteins are proteins
into the external environment OUTSIDE in the extracellular surface of the
the cell plasma membrane that serves as
 Used to release large molecules such as ID tags and provides a fingerprint
proteins packaged by the golgi on the outside facing surface of
apparatus the cell, making it recognizable to
 Used in nervous & endocrine system to others.
control activities in other cells. 4. Receptor Proteins
 A receptor is a protein molecule
usually found embedded within
9
 the plasma membrane surface of  Found abundantly in fruits
a cell that receives chemical  Part of high-fructose corn
signals from outside the cell and syrup
3. Galactose
when such chemical signals bind  Commonly occurs as part of
to a receptor, they cause some dissaccharide lactose
form of cellular/tissue response.
5. Enzymatic Protein B. Disaccharides
 Carry out enzymatic reactions
right at the membrane when a Three Disaccharides
1. Sucrose
substrate binds to the active site
- Most common
 Selective acceleration of chemical 2. Lactose
reactions 3. Maltose
- Least common
- Formed from digestion of
starches
CARBOHYDRATES
2. Oligosaccharides
 Produced by plants during photosynthesis  Similar in length to simple
 Carbohydrate-rich plant foods make up the carbohydrates
foundation of diets all over the world  Similar in makeup to polysaccharides
 After eating plant foods, humans convert the  Humans lack the enzymes necessary to
carbohydrates into glucose digest them
Glucose  Intestinal microflora digest and ferment
• Most abundant carbohydrate them
• Preferred source of energy for the • Cause bloating, discomfort, and
blood, brain, and nervous system flatulence
•  Food sources
Classification of Carbohydrates • Legumes, beans, cabbage,
1. Simple carbohydrates brussels sprouts, broccoli
A. Monosaccharide
B. Disaccharide 3. Complex Carbohydrates
Perceived as sweeter than complex
carbohydrates A. Polysaccharides
- Mixes with saliva and reacts 1. Starch
with taste buds  Plants store glucose in chains of
2. Oligosaccharides starch
3. Complex carbohydrates a. Amylose
A. Polysaccharides - Straight chain
- More resistant to
1. Simple Carbohydrates digestion
- Resistant starch
A. Monosaccharides  May
improve
Three nutritionally important health of
monosaccharides digestive
1. Glucose tract
2. Fructose  May
3. Galactose improve
glucose
1. Glucose tolerance
 Also known as dextrose  May
 Blood glucose and blood stimulate
sugar in the body growth of
 Most abundant beneficial
monosaccharide in the body intestinal
 Is the preferred and main bacteria
source of energy for the brain b. Amylopectin
and red blood cells - Branched chains
 Part of every disaccharide - Easier to digest
 Only monosaccharide in 2. Fiber
starches  Nondigestible polysaccharides
2. Fructose  Provides no energy
 Sweetest of natural sugars  Classification
a. Soluble
10
 - Pectins, beta-
glucan, some  Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the
gums, mucilage mouth
- Easily fermented  Most carbohydrate digestion takes place in
by intestinal the small intestine
bacteria  Carbohydrates are broken down to
 Carbon monosaccharides for absorption
dioxide,  Monosaccharides are converted to glucose
methane, in the liver and
some fatty • Used as energy
acids • Stored as glycogen in the liver and
b. Insoluble muscle cells
- Cellulose, lignin, • Stored as glycerol and fatty acids in
some the adipocytes
hemicelluloses  Fiber travels to the colon undigested and
- Not easily most is eliminated from the body
fermented
Fiber Health Benefits Functions of Carbohydrate
 Soluble fibers  Provide energy
• Slow gastric emptying and may delay • 4 kilocalories per gram
absorption of some nutrients  Maintain blood glucose
- Helps reduce serum • Carbohydrate intake
cholesterol • Glycogenolysis > 4 hours after a
- Improve appetite control meal
- Normalize blood glucose  Spare protein
levels • Prevents the need for
• May help protect against colon glyconogenesis
cancer  Prevents ketosis
How to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
 Insoluble fibers  Goal for blood glucose is 70–100 mg/dl
• Relieves constipation  Insulin – lowers blood glucose levels
 Most plant foods contain both soluble and • Needed for glucose to enter the cell
insoluble fibers from the blood stream
- Exception: liver, kidney, and
brain cells
3. Glycogen • Helps convert glucose to glycogen
 Storage form of glucose in through glycogenesis
animals • Helps convert glucose to fatty acids
 Long, branched chains of through lipogenesis
glucose • Inhibits lipolysis
 Stored in liver and muscle  Glucagon – increases blood glucose levels
 Liver glycogen response to blood • Stimulates the release of glucose
glucose (BG) levels into the blood
 Muscle glycogen can be broken • Stimulates glycogenolysis
down for energy for the muscle • Stimulates gluconeogensis

Absorption of Carbohydrates  Glucose is the body’s preferred source of
 Once digested to monosaccharides energy
• Absorbed through the intestinal cell • Especially the brain and red blood
mucosa cells
• Transported to the liver via the portal  Adequate carbohydrate intake
vein • Maintains blood glucose levels
• Metabolic needs direct fate of the • Spares protein
monosaccharides • Prevents ketosis
- Galactose and fructose  Blood glucose levels are maintained by two
• Used by the liver for hormones
energy • Insulin which lowers blood glucose
• Converted to glucose levels
- Glucose • Glucagon which raises blood glucose
• Used for energy levels
• Converted to  Epinephrine, norepinephrine, corisol, and
glycogen through growth hormone raise blood glucose levels.
glycogenesis
• Converted to glycerol Carbohydrate Sources
and fatty acids for  Best choices should include nutrient-dense,
storage in adipocytes low-saturated fat foods, simple
11
 carbohydrates, fiber, complex
carbohydrates Fats
 Best sources of carbohydrates are  a natural oily or greasy substance occurring
• Fresh fruits and vegetables in animal bodies, especially when deposited
• Whole grains as a layer under the skin or around certain
 Excellent sources of fiber are organs.
• Whole grains  All greasy substances of elements C,H, and
• Fruits O with less oxygen than carbohydrates
• Vegetables
 Packaged foods can be good sources of Importance of Lipids
starch and fiber  Serve as the highest energy-giving foods in
• Read label carefully the body
• Avoid too much sugar, fat, and  Act as insulators by protecting animals from
kilocalories extreme cold
 Serve as constituent of the protoplasm of a
Diabetes Mellitus living cell
 Serve as the highest energy-giving foods in
 Occurs when an individual either doesn’t the body
make enough, or is unable to utilize, the  Act as insulators by protecting animals from
hormone insulin to regulate blood glucose extreme cold
levels  Serve as constituent of the protoplasm of a
 Epidemic living cell
• Sixth leading cause of death in the
United States Classification of Lipids
• Costs the U.S. almost $100 billion 1. Fatty Acids
annually  common sources are nuts, meat and
• Number of people with diabetes is milk
rising annually  may be liquid or solid
 may be saturated. Examples are
 Diabetes involves inadequate regulation of margarine and animal fats which are
blood glucose levels solid in ordinary condition
 Type 1 diabetes – inadequate production of  may be unsaturated. Examples are
insulin vegetable oil and corn oil which are
 Type 2 diabetes – insulin resistance liquid in ordinary condition. Better for the
 Chronic high blood glucose can damage health
vital organs 2. Phosphoglycerides or phospholipids
 Diabetics need medications and/or insulin to  Important component of plasma
manage blood glucose membrane as well as other biological
 High-fiber diet and routine exercise play a membranes
key role in managing and preventing  Best examples are lecithins and
diabetes cephalins
 Polycystic ovary syndrome increases the Lecithin
risk of developing type 2 diabetes  found in eggyolk, brain, yeast
and liver
 Symptoms of hypoglycemia  acts as an emulsifying agent
 Hungry, nervous, light-headed, shaky,  it breaks fat into smaller
and/or sweaty molecules so that the fat can
 Diabetics who take medications and/or be dissolved more
insulin and do not eat properly are at risk easily
 Individuals without diabetes may experience  Surfactants is an example
reactive hypoglycemia several hours after which helps reduce tension
meals in the lungs
 Fasting hypoglycemia may occur upon Cephalin
awaking in the morning  found in brain tissues
 Can be caused by medications, illnesses,
hormone imbalances, or excessive 3. Sphingolipids
consumption of alcohol  found in the brain, lungs and nerve
tissues
LIPIDS  sphingomyelin is a common example
 present until the 35th week of
 Constitute another major class of organic development of the fetus.
compounds present in living cells Sphingomyelin
 It include fats and fatlike molecules  helps maintain the right
 Insoluble in water but are soluble in organic shape of the lungs of the
solvent such as benzene, ether and fetus
chloroform
12
  reduces the tension of - Androgen commands the cell
water that deforms the to create a deep
walls of the lung area voice and facial
4. Waxes hairs in males
 composed of fatty acids but combined
with a much longer alcohol molecule Functions of Lipids
 used as lubricants, polishers and
ointments 1. Fatty Acids
 Serve to protect the surfaces of some - Metabolic fuel; component of several other
leaves, such as gabi leaf classes of lipids
2. Phosphoglycerides
5. Terpenes - Components of membranes; sources of
 Do not contain fatty acids arachidonic acid, inositol trisphosphate
 Considered lipids because they are (IP3), and diglyceride (DAG) for Signal
insoluble in water but are soluble in Transduction
organic solvents 3. Sphingolipids
 Come from a compound known as - Components of membranes; Imp. in signal
isoprene transduction
 Responsible for the aroma of some 4.Waxes
plants such as mint - Plant waxes. Plants secrete waxes into
and on the surface of their cuticles as a way
Examples of Terpenes to control evaporation, wettability and
a. Chlorophyll hydration
- the main pigment in plants that 5. Terpenes
accounts for their - reputedly hold therapeutic properties that
green color can help with everything ranging from
b. Carotene depression to infection. Limonene can help
- an orange pigment found in with depression and anxiety, while
some plants Caryophyllene is a perfect remedy
c. Vitamins A, E and K for inflammation..
- fat soluble vitamins 6. Steroids
d. Coenzyme Q - certain steroids (such as cholesterol) are
- involved in cellular respiration, important components of cell
particularly in the membranes which alter membrane fluidity,
electron transport chain and many steroids are signaling
6. Steroids molecules which activate steroid hormone
 have no fatty acids receptors

Examples of Steroids ENZYMES

a. Cholesterol
- a steroid that is harmful to the  Enzymes are proteins that function as
body because it biological catalysts
causes heart ailments  Catalyst: a substance that speeds up a
- it helps regulate fluidity in cell chemical reaction and is not changed by the
membranes reaction.
- aids in transport of materials  They are present in the cytoplasm of all
b. Bile Salts cells
- an emulsifier in the digestive  There are hundreds of different enzymes
system but each enzyme
- made in the liver, stored in the speeds up only one kind of reaction.
gall bladder and goes  They are specific.
to the small intestine  The substrate molecules fit the shape of the
- it breaks fat into smaller enzyme
globules,
thus hastening digestion in Properties of enzymes
the
small intestine  Enzymes can act on only one type of
c. Sex Hormone substrate (specific)
- a hormone that triggers off a  They always produce the same end
response which products
makes the cell undergo a  Although they take part in the reaction, they
special process are not used up
- Estrogen directs the cell to  Because enzymes are proteins, they are
produce bigger denatured by heat or some chemicals
breasts

13
  Denaturing involves a change of shape in
the enzyme molecule so that it cannot What do Amino Acids Do?
combine with the substrate
 Individual enzymes work best at a particular  Amino acids are essential to life, have a role
temperature and pH (acidity or alkalinity) in metabolism, and are important in
nutrition.
Enzymes can act on only one type of substrate  They form short polymer chains called
peptides, as well as longer chains that are
called polypeptides or proteins.
 About 75 percent of the human body is
Proteins and Amino Acids made up of chains of amino acids, which is
why they are so vital to how your system
What is Protein? functions.
 The word protein came from a Greek word  All the chemical reactions that occur in the
“Proteios” body depend on amino acids and the
 Proteins are like long necklaces with proteins they build.
differently shaped beads. Each "bead" is a
small molecule called an amino acid.
 Compounds composed of carbon, NUCLEIC ACIDS
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and
arranged as strands of amino acids • are the largest and the most complex
 Most abundant organic compounds in living organic molecules. Friedrich Miescher
cells discovered nucleic acids in 1871
 Fundamental constituents of the protoplasm • are macromolecules, found in all cells,
of the cell which precipitate in the storage,
transmission and translation of genetic
information.
made up of nucleotides
• Nucleic acids were first isolated from the
Protein Deficiency and Excess cellular nucleus, hence the name. Nucleic
acids are macromolecules, huge polymers
• Protein-deficiency symptoms are always with molecular masses of over 100 million.
observed when either protein or energy is • There are two types of nucleic acids, the
deficient ribose nucleic acid (RNA) and the
• Extreme food energy deficiency is deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA), which on
marasmus hydrolysis yield the sugar ribose and
Marasmus deoxyribose respectively.
- severe undernourishment
causing an infant's or child’s
weight to be significantly low What are they made of?
for their age (e.g., below 60
percent of normal)  Simple units called nucleotides, connected
• Extreme protein deficiency is kwashiorkor in long chains
Kwashiorkor  Nucleotides have 3 parts:
- a form of malnutrition caused 1- 5-Carbon sugar (pentose)
by protein deficiency in the 2- Nitrogen containing base
diet, typically affecting young (made of C, H and N)
children in the tropics. 3- A phosphate group ( P )
• The two diseases overlap most of the time  The P groups make the links that unite the
and together are called PEM sugars (hence a “sugar-phosphate
• Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) backbone”
• World’s most widespread malnutrition
problem Two types of Nucleotides (depending on
• Includes both marasmus and kwashiorkor the sugar they contain)
and states of overlap
• Hunger 1- Ribonucleic acids (RNA)
• Physiological craving for food The pentose sugar is Ribose
• Progressive discomfort, illness, and (has a hydroxyl group in the 3rd carbon---
pain resulting from the lack of food OH)
2- Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA)
What is Amino Acid? The pentose sugar is
Deoxyribose (has just an hydrogen in the
• Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic same place--- H) Deoxy = “minus
acids formed by substitution of -hydrogen oxygen”
for amino functional group
14
 DNA back up in case of lost or destroyed genetic
information. Ex. Down’s Syndrome or Sickle
• Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that Cell Anemia.
contains the genetic instructions used in the  Nucleic acids (specifically DNA) carry out a
development and functioning of all known vital role in the human body. In particular,
living organisms. The main role of DNA nucleic acids play an essential role
molecules is the long-term storage of in: Mitosis, Meiosis
information and DNA is often compared to a  Providing Energy / Cellular Respiration
set of blueprints, since it contains the
instructions needed to construct other The Double Helix (DNA)
components of cells, such as proteins and Structural model:
RNA molecules.
• The DNA segments that carry this genetic  Model proposed by Watson & Crick, 1953
information are called genes, but other DNA  Two sugar-phosphate strands, next to each
sequences have structural purposes, or are other, but running in opposite directions.
involved in regulating the use of this genetic  Specific Hydrogen bonds occur among
information. bases from one chain to the other:
• Deoxyribose is present in the nucleic acid A---T , C---G
found in the yeast cell nuclei, while ribose is
contained in the nucleic acid obtained from Due to this specificity, a certain base on one
pancreas. strand indicates a certain base in the other.
• There are cases also were both of nucleic  The 2 strands intertwine, forming a double-
acids are found together. So that it is now helix that winds around a central axis
definitely accepted that both the ribose and
deoxyribose nucleic acids are found in How DNA Works
plants and animals; and that while the
deoxyribose type is found in the nucleic of 1- DNA stores genetic information in segments
the cells (white) the ribose type predominate called genes
in the cytoplasm 2- The DNA code is in Triplet Codons (short
• Some amount of DNA are also housed in sequences of 3 nucleotides each)
the cell’s mitochondria, whose main function 3- Certain codons are translated by the cell into
is to generate the energy needed for the cell certain Amino acids.
functioning, it couldn’t be in the cell wall, 4. Thus, the sequence of nucleotides in DNA
because human cells are bound by indicate a sequence of Amino acids in a protein.
membrane and lack the cell walls that plants
have. RNA

• Ribonucleic acid (RNA) functions in

converting genetic information from genes
into the amino acid sequences of proteins.
DNA Nucleotides The three universal types of RNA include
Composition (3 parts): transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA
(mRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).
1- Deoxyribose sugar (no O in 3rd carbon) • Ribonucleic acid is found only in plants
2- Phosphate group while the deoxyribonucleic acid is exclusive
3- One of 4 types of bases (all containing of animal products
nitrogen):
- Adenine Kinds of RNA
- Thymine (Only in DNA)
- Cytosine 1. Transfer RNA – 10 tO 15%
- Guanine -small, about 80 nucleotides long.
-transport amino acids to site of protein
FUNCTION OF DNA: synthesis.
-exhibits extensive inter chain of bonding
 Functions of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): represent by clover leaf structure.
-DNA is a permanent storage place for - serves as the carrier molecule for amino
genetic information. acids to be used in protein synthesis, and is
-DNA controls the synthesis of RNA responsible for decoding the mRNA. In
(ribonucleic acid). addition, many other classes of RNA are
-The sequence of nitrogenous bases in now known.
DNA determines the protein development in 2. Ribosomal RNA – 75 to 80%
new cells. -several kinds
 The function of the double helix formation of -variable in size
DNA is to ensure that no disorders occur. -combines with proteins to form
This is because the second identical strand ribosome's,
of DNA that runs anti-parallel to the first is a the site oh CHON synthesis.
15
 - molecules to be quite large. • Autotrophic Process: Plants and plant-like
- Ribosomal RNA is a major component organisms make their energy (glucose) from
of sunlight.
the ribosome, and catalyzes • Stored as carbohydrate in their bodies.
peptide bond formation. • 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight  C6H12O6 + 6O2
3. Messenger RNA • Plants use sunlight to turn water and carbon
-variable size(its size varies with the dioxide into glucose. Glucose is a kind of
size of CHON) sugar.
-directs amino acids sequence of • Plants use glucose as food for energy and
proteins as a building block for growing.
-extent of it bonding is very little. • Autotrophs make glucose and heterotrophs
- in most cells it constitutes not more than are consumers of it.
5% • Absorbing Light Energy to make chemical
to 10% of the total cellular RNA. energy: glucose!
- Messenger RNA acts to carry genetic • Pigments: Absorb different colors of
sequence information between white light (ROY G BIV)
DNA and ribosomes, directing • Main pigment: Chlorophyll a
protein synthesis. • Accessory pigments:
- mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) is Chlorophyll b and
used to transfer genetic Carotenoids
information through plasma • These pigments absorb all
membranes wavelengths (light) BUT
green!
RNA Nucleotides • Why do we see green?
Composition ( 3 parts): • Green color from white light reflected
NOT absorbed
1- Ribose sugar (with O in 3rd carbon) • Chloroplast: organelle responsible
2- Phosphate group for photosynthesis
3- One of 4 types of bases (all containing nitrogen): • Chlorophyll: located within
- Adenine Chloroplast
- Uracyl (only in RNA) Green pigment
- Cytosine
- Guanine Why is Photosynthesis important?

 Makes organic molecules (glucose) out of

inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and
FUNCTION OF RNA: water).
 It begins all food chains/webs. Thus all life
-RNA is synthesized by DNA for the is supported by this process.
transportation of genetic information to the  It also makes oxygen gas!!
protein building apparatus in the cell.
-RNA also directs the synthesis of new
proteins using the genetic information it has 2 Phases of Photosynthesis
transported.
1. Light-dependent reaction
DNA vs RNA 2. Light-independent reaction

DNA Light-dependent: converts light energy into

1- Deoxyribose sugar chemical
2- Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, energy; produces ATP molecules to be used to fuel
Guanine light-independent reaction
3- Double-stranded helix arrangement
Light-independent: uses ATP produced to make
RNA simple sugars.
1- Ribose sugar
2- Bases: Adenine, Uracyl, Cytosine, 1. Light-dependent reaction (LIGHT Reaction)
Guanine • Requires light
3- Single stranded • Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
• Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy
from light
• Light excites electron (e-)
PHOTOSYNTHESIS • Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to
an electron transport chain
• means "putting together with light."

16
 • Electron transport chain: • Notice that the cellular respiration equation
series of proteins in thylakoid is the breakdown of those molecules made
membrane through photosynthesis and that it also uses
• Bucket brigade the waste products of photosynthesis.
• Energy lost along electron transport
chain • Notice that photosynthesis uses those
• Lost energy used to recharge ATP products made by cellular respiration.
from ADP
• NADPH produced from e- transport • This is representative of a cycle.
chain
The Cellular Respiration Equation
• Stores energy until transfer to
stroma C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (ATP)
• Plays important role in light-
independent reaction Biochemical Pathway
• Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2
• Cellular Respiration is a biochemical
2. Light-independent reaction (Dark Reaction)
pathway just like photosynthesis in which
 Does not require light
each step (chemical reaction) of the process
 Calvin Cycle
is dependent on the products of the
 Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
previous step.
 Requires CO2
 Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run • The cellular respiration equation represents
 Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and many steps that have taken place.
Hydrogen • Overall, cellular respiration is a process that
is aerobic. Aerobic means that it requires
the presence of oxygen.
Cellular Respiration
• Some steps within the process of cellular
• The process in which organisms take respiration do not require the presence of
molecules broken down from food and oxygen and are therefore anaerobic.
release the chemical energy stored in the
chemical bonds of those molecules. Where does cellular respiration occur?

• It’s important to remember that food is not • Cellular respiration takes place in the
the direct source of energy. mitochondria of the eukaryotic cell.

• The energy that is released from chemical • Recall that the mitochondria is considered
bonds during cellular respiration is stored in to be the “powerhouse” of the cell because
molecules of ATP. it produces the majority of a cell’s ATP.

What types of organisms undergo cellular • Many similarities exist between the
respiration? chloroplast and the mitochondria

While only autotrophs undergo photosynthesis both • Mitochondria has a double membrane
autotrophs and heterotrophs undergo cellular • Mitochondria have their own DNA and only
respiration. come from preexisting mitochondria.
What types of molecules are broken down? • Mitochondria have a smooth outer
• Any food (organic) molecule, or nutrient, membrane
including carbohydrates, fats/lipids, and proteins
• Mitochondria have a folded inner-membrane
can be processed and broken down as a source
of energy to produce ATP. called the cristae. A folded inner membrane
allows more surface area for chemical
What will the ATP be used for? reactions to occur.
• Mitochondria have a center called the
• ATP will release energy for cellular
matrix.
metabolic processes.
• Examples: Cellular Respiration
1) Active transport of molecules
across the cell membrane. Cellular respiration breaks down into these
2) Protein synthesis major steps.
3) Muscle contractions 1. Glycolysis (anaerobic)
2. Krebs Cycle (aerobic)
Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis 3. Electron Transport Chain (aerobic)

17
 Energy Carriers Found in Cellular • Cyclical series of oxidation reactions that
Respiration give off CO2 and produce one ATP per cycle
• Requires Oxygen (Aerobic)
• ATP • Turns twice per glucose molecule (produces
• NADH (similar to NADPH in photosynthesis) 1 ATP per turn).
• FADH2 • Produces two ATP
• Takes place in matrix of mitochondria
Glycolysis • Acetyl CoA (formed from Pyruvic Acid)
combines with a four-carbon molecule to
• Glycolysis is an anaerobic step in the make a molecule of citric acid.
cellular respiration pathway therefore it • Citric acid is broken down in several steps
doesn’t require oxygen. providing the energy to make NADH,
• Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of FADH2, , ATP.
the cell and is a series of reaction using
enzymes. Krebs Cycle Reactant Summary
• Glycolysis is the splitting of a molecule of
glucose. • Pyruvic Acid
• The products of glycolysis are broken down • ADP
in the mitochondria to make more ATP • NAD+
• FAD+
What are the products of glycolysis?

• When a molecule of glucose is split, pyruvic Krebs Cycle Product Summary

acid, NADH, and ATP are produced. • 2 ATP Usable energy
• Glycolysis makes 4 molecules of ATP but it • NADH Goes to ETC
takes 2 molecules of ATP for the reaction to • FADH2 Goes to ETC
occur. Therefore Glycolysis yields a net of • CO2 Byproduct
2 ATP molecules.

What moves on to the next Stage? The Electron Transport Chain

• Pyruvic acid is the main goal of glycolysis • The ETC is a series of proteins located in
and these molecules will move on to the the mitochondrial membrane.
Krebs Cycle. • It uses high energy electrons from the
• Pyruvic Acid Krebs Cycle NADH and FADH2 provided by the Krebs
• NADH ETC Cycle to move H+(protons) across the
• ATP Usable Energy concentration gradient.
• These protons pass back down the
The Aerobic Pathway concentration gradient through ATP
synthase to form ATP. Very much like the
Pre-Krebs Cycle ETC in the light reactions of photosynthesis.
(Acetyl- CoA) • Oxygen is used as the final electron
acceptor at the end of the ETC.
• Before pyruvic acid enters the Krebs Cycle, • Oxygen receives electrons and H+
it combines with an enzyme called (hydrogen ions) and produces a molecule of
Coenzyme A (CoA). water.
• This reaction produces a molecule of Acetyl
CoA. ETC Product Summary
• Acetyl CoA is a molecule produced by • 34 ATP Usable energy
almost all nutrients (carb., protein, lipids) • H2O Byproduct
before entering the Krebs cycle.
Pathway to the Krebs Cycle
(citric acid cycle)
Cellular Respiration ATP Tally
Glycolysis
Pyruvic Acid 1. Glycolysis – 2 ATP
Acetyl CoA 2. Krebs Cycle – 2 ATP
Krebs Cycle 3. ETC – up to 34 ATP
Grand Total = 36-38 ATP
Krebs Cycle
(Citric Acid Cycle) Anaerobic Pathways
Fermentation
• Named after Hans Krebs who won the
Nobel Prize for the pathway he discovered What happens to the products of glycolysis when
in cellular respiration. O2 isn’t present?

18
Fermentation

• Breathing provides enough oxygen for your

body to carry out normal activities.
• When you are conducting a high level of
activity, breathing doesn’t supply enough air
for your cell’s activities.
• If oxygen is not present, the products of
glycolysis (pyruvic acid and NADH) will
enter an alternative process called
fermentation.
• Fermentation provides enough ATP and
recycles NADH into NAD+ so that glycolysis
may continue until more oxygen becomes
available.

Where does fermentation occur?

• Cytosol of the cell

Two Types of Fermentation

• Lactic Acid
• Alcoholic
Lactic Acid Fermentation

• Occurs in muscle cells in the body.

• Lactic acid is a waste product of
fermentation that will build up and cause
your muscles to “burn” during hard exercise.
• Lactic acid fermentation also occurs in
some bacteria and molds.
• Waste products of the fermentation process
give cheese different flavors.
• Yogurt is another product of lactic acid
fermentation.

Alcoholic Fermentation

• Alcoholic fermentation is a process used by

many yeasts and plants.
• Also uses the products of glycolysis (NADH
and pyruvic acid) to provide enough NAD+
and ATP for glycolysis to continue.
• Alcoholic fermentation is used to make
bread or dough rise and is also used for
beer and wine.

Fermentation

• Bacteria that rely upon fermentation play a

very important role in digestive systems of
animals.
• They breakdown molecules by taking
undigested material for their needs.
• Without these bacteria we’d be unable to
fully digest food.

19