Research ❖ It presents data in tabular,

- a collection of data and information. graphical, or figure form.

- to seek solutions to problems. - graphical data are visual aids for readers
- it is a systematic approach. to easily understand the content of the
- it can be conducted in different fields. study.

Qualitative Research ❖ It uses statistics to analyze data

- Collects non-numerical data. - aid researchers to interpret and draw
- It focuses on how's and why's. conclusions accurately.
- Uses open-ended questions, ❖ It is objective and logical
observations, interviews, and group - bias is avoided by minimizing the impacts
discussions. of extraneous variables
- Has only a small group of participants.
- Inductive process ❖ It follows the scientific method
- starts with observation and identification
Quantitative Research of the problem; data gathering and then
- Collects numerical data. conclusion.
- Predicts the future behavior of
phenomena based on existing data.
- Uses close-ended questions, surveys, DIFFERENT TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
scales, and experiments. RESEARCH
- Has a large group of participants.
- Deductive process. ➢ Experimental Research Design
- strictly follows the procedures of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE scientific method.
RESEARCH - manipulation of the variables and
employment of a treatment or
❖ It contains measurable variables intervention.
- The building blocks of data of One of the forms of scientific inquiry employed is
quantitative research. to identify the cause-and-effect relation between
two or more variables and to assess the
❖ It uses standardized research magnitude of the effects produced (Lavrakas
instruments such as tests, scales, 2008).
and surveys.
- instruments used should be public ❖ Pre-Experimental Research
domain and have tested for validity and - observing a group of dependent variables
reliability. after the treatment of an independent
variable is presumed to cause change in
❖ It generalizes conclusions from the group.
samples drawn from a population Ex. One shot case study
- since qualitative research is associated ❖ Quasi-Experimental Research
with - finds a relationship between independent
- hypothesis testing and statistics. and dependent variables after an action
or event has already occurred (Salkind,
2007).
 - it uses carefully selected participants. - Quantitative studies can be used as a
follow-up study for qualitative studies.
❖ True-Experimental Research
- refers to any randomized experiment WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE
- relies on statistical data to prove or RESEARCH
disapprove hypothesis which makes this - Requires a large number of respondents
to be the most accurate form of - It is costly
research. - Respondents are taken as a group, not
as individuals
➢ Non-Experimental Research Design - Critical issues need opinions and not just
- does not involve the manipulation of numerical ratings
variables to yield results. - Monitoring data gathering is difficult
- describes the characteristics of
phenomena QUALITATIVE RESEARCH STUDIES IN
DIFFERENT FIELDS
❖ Descriptive Research
- to describe the sample and seek to ❖ EDUCATION
answer the question "what" rather than - grades and performance in schools are
"why" measured in numerical data
- can provide answers to the learner's
❖ Correlational Research motivation, development, and classroom
- determines the relationship between two engagement questions.
or more variables
❖ BUSINESS
❖ Predictive Research - can be either qualitative or quantitative.
- to predict or forecast some event or - most of its numerical data came from the
phenomena in the future without clients.
necessarily establishing a - it predicts the acceptability of a new
cause-and-effect relationship product based on existing data.

TYPES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ❖ SOCIAL SCIENCE

According to Time Dimension
- most researchers that conduct studies in
❖ Cross-Sectional Research this field use quantitative research to test
- collects data from many subjects at a theories and to generate conclusions
single point in time. based on samples.
❖ Longitudinal Research
- collects data repeatedly from the same ❖ HEALTH AND MEDICAL FIELD
subjects over time. - to provide solutions to sicknesses and
illnesses of today's society.
STRENGTHS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH - medicine, surgery techniques,
- It is objective psychological approaches, and check-up
- It uses statistical testing methods
- It is real and unbiased
- Quantitative studies are replicable ❖ TECHNOLOGY
- new gadgets are all research innovations.
 - up-to-date features and advancement
come from satisfaction reviews and ❖ Nominal Variables
comments from the users. - Categorical
- developments in cars, infrastructure - Naming or identification
equipment, and construction materials Ex. student ID number and address
are also a fruit of research
❖ Ordinal Variables
❖ NATURAL SCIENCE - Quantitative
- advancements in food and livestock - Ranking/order
- genetically modified organisms and the Ex. winners in a race
discovery of cross-breeding among plants
and animal ❖ Interval Variables
- Quantitative
- No absolute zero
Ex. scores and attendance
RESEARCH VARIABLES

Quantitative Variable ❖ Ratio Variables

- numbers from data that can be added, - Quantitative
subtracted, multiplied, or divided. - There’s absolute zero
Categorical Variables Ex. height, weight, and length
- variables that represent groupings or
strata ❖ Independent Variables
- cannot be added, subtracted, multiplied, - Experimental
or divided - Manipulated to affect the outcome of an
Experimental Variables experiment
- variables are constant, controlled, or Ex. the amount and type of fertilizer for the
manipulated plant

TYPES OF VARIABLES ❖ Dependent Variables

- Experimental
❖ Discrete Variables - Affected when manipulating the
- Quantitative independent variable; outcome variable
- Countable values Ex. the amount of fruits produced by the plants
Ex. number of students in an auditorium when the amount and type of fertilizer are
changed
❖ Continuous Variables ❖ Control Variable
- Quantitative - Experimental
- Infinite values - Not manipulated nor changes
Ex. area of school ground Ex. the amount of water, sunlight, and location
that are held constant
❖ Dichotomous Variables
- Categorical ❖ Confounding Variables
- Two choices - Experimental
Ex. sex (male/female)
 - Influence both independent and - Examines how independent variables
dependent variables may or may not affect the dependent
- Type extraneous variable variable
Ex. the types of plant utilized to test the effect of
fertilizer and the number of fruits produced PRE – EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
- involves an independent variable that
SPECIFIC does not vary or control group that is not
randomly selected
- Clearly state the objective
- What will be done and who will do it?
❖ ONE SHOT CASE STUDY
MEASURABLE
- single group is study at a single point in
- Measuring the objective help you
time after some treatment
determine if you are making progress.
❖ ONE GROUP PRETEST – POSTTEST
ATTAINABLE DESIGN
- Set reasonable objectives that help to set - dependent variables are measured once
the project for success before the treatment is implemented and
REALISTIC once after it is implemented.
- The objective should be a real problem ❖ STATIC GROUP COMPARISON
that exists - group that has experienced some
TIME-BOUND treatment is compared with one that has
- The research study must be doable not.
within a specific time frame.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
- set of processes that are involved in - involves manipulation of an independent
achieving the goals of the study. variable without random assignment of
(Research Design, Sample and Sampling participants
techniques, instruments used, and
statistical analysis). TRUE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
(RANDOMIZED EXPERIMENT)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN - samples are assigned randomly, should
- research strategies that collect, organize, have a control group, only 1 variable can
and analyze numerical data to arrive at a be tested and manipulated, and
conclusion based on given null respondents should be assigned
hypotheses. randomly to control or experimental
- It is also used in response to relational groups.
questions of variables within the NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
research. - does not involve manipulation of
variables, it just describes the
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN characteristics of a phenomena
- has in treatment or an intervention in a
group. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
- Manipulation of variables - focuses on answering the question
- Used to determine the relationship WHAT
between the independent and dependent
variables CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN
- investigates the relationship between
variables. Measures the strength and
 direction of the relationship between two ● STRATA – small subgroups of the
or more variables population that share similar
characteristics
DEVELOPMENTAL DESIGN ➔ EQUAL ALLOCATION –
- explore how the characteristics of a aim is to get equal
sample change over time numbers of respondents
per strata
OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES – used of the ➔ PROPORTIONAL
researcher wants to provide a quantitative ALLOCATION – randomly
description of a certain phenomenon. selected in each strata
Observation should be written as objectively as depending on the
possible. proportion of the strata
from the population
SURVEY RESEARCH ❖ CLUSTER SAMPLING – the population
- easiest and most commonly used is divided into clusters or sections, and
method of data collection. Data from a then a cluster is randomly selected
sample to draw conclusions about the ❖ MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING – a
population combination of different sampling
techniques is applied
SLOVIN’S FORMULA – is used to compute the
sample size of the given population size. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING – techniques
wherein not all elements in the population have
an equal chance of being selected as a sample

❖ CONVENIENCE SAMPLING – are

selected based on availability. This type
of type of sampling is used at the first
stage of research since this delivers the
results easily (pilot testing)
SAMPLING METHODS – refers to the ❖ PURPOSIVE SAMPLING – relies on the
techniques on how to choose samples from a purpose or goal of the study. Elements of
population. the samples are chosen based on the
characteristics that can achieve the
PROBABILITY SAMPLING – population gets an purpose or the goal of the study.
equal chance to be part of the selected sample ❖ QUOTA SAMPLING – the same
percentage should be reflected in the
❖ RANDOM SAMPLING (FISHBOWL sample
SAMPLING) ❖ REFERRAL SAMPLING – (SNOWBALL
- elements in the population have equal SAMPLING) will look for a first element
chances to be selected as samples and will seek recommendations from the
first element about a person who fits the
❖ SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING – employs characteristics of the needed sample
the use of intervals in selecting samples
which are arranged or with certain RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS – aids researcher
identification in the collection of numerical data from the
❖ STRATIFIED SAMPLING – divides the sample
population into strata
QUESTIONNAIRES – primary source of ❖ CONVERGENT VALIDITY – two
collecting a data, may have openended and instruments that measure the same
closed-ended questions constructs and shows that they are
TEST – used to collect data about aptitude, related. Can also establish validity of
learning, ability, or performance. May range from newly constructed instruments in relation
researcher-made test to standardized test to an existing one. Example: Suppose
you use two different methods to collect
RATING SCALE – allows sample to give ratings data about anger: observation and a
on the degree to which they think the self-report questionnaire. If the scores of
statement/questions are applicable to them the two methods are similar, this
suggests that they indeed measure the
OBSERVATIONAL CHECKLIST – contains same construct.
statements that needed to be observed during a ❖ DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – refers to
certain situation how the scores of the respondents are
- In collecting a data, CONSENT FORMS not related to other variables or criteria
should always be included. It has that are seen differently. Example: the
information about the possible risks and scores of two tests measuring security
benefits and loneliness theoretically should not be
correlated.
VALIDITY – ability of an instruments to measure
what it is intended to measure RELIABILITY – refers to the consistency of
❖ FACE VALIDITY – how the instrument results or outcome given by the instruments
appears and perceived by the ❖ TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY – the
respondents. Example: a mathematical researcher would administer a test to the
test consisting of problems in which the sample at one time; then, administer the
test taker has to add and subtract test to same set of samples after some
numbers may be considered to have time. Example: We may give an IQ test to
strong face validity. 50 participants on January 1st and then
❖ CONTENT VALIDITY – how the give the same type of IQ test of similar
instrument covered the construct or difficulty to the same group of 50
variable it intended to measure. Example: participants one month later.
standardized assessment in 9th-grade ❖ INTERNAL CONSISTENCY – aim is to
biology is content-valid if it covers all identify if the response of the samples
topics taught in a standard 9th-grade are consistent with the items. Example: if
biology course designing a test on geometry, then all
❖ CONSTRUCT VALIDITY - ability of an questions on the test should be about
instrument to distinguish samples who geometry.
possess a certain construct or
characteristics from those who do not
CRONBACH’S a INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
have. Example: if a test is designed to
measure leadership skills, construct a ≥ 0.90 Excellent
validity ensures it isn't inadvertently
measuring another trait, such as 0.90 ≥ a ≥ 0.80 Good
communication skills 0.80 ≥ a ≥ 0.70 Acceptable
- To establish construct validity, researcher
can use convergent or divergent validity 0.70 ≥ a ≥ 0.60 Questionable
0.60 ≥ a ≥ 0.50 Poor

a ≥ 0.50 Unacceptable

❖ INTER-RATER RELIABILITY – if the aim

of the researcher is to identify if the
observers are consistent with their
judgement. Example: watching any sport
using judges, such as Olympics ice
skating or a dog show, relies upon
human observers maintaining a great
degree of consistency between
observers.

KUDER RICHARDSON FORMULA 20 AND 21

– is a measure of reliability for a test with binary
variables.

KR 20 – instruments should only have

one correct answer and not those which
have partial points or Likert scales
KR 21 – used for binary tests with all the
items having the same difficulty

DESIGN RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

1. Be clear with your objectives
2. Adapt an instrument, but make sure that
it is properly acknowledged and that the
author allows you to use it
3. If there is no available instrument for your
study, create one. Make sure to establish
the reliability and validity
4. Do not forget to include consent forms in
your instrument.

CREATING A LIKERT SCALE FOR YOUR

RESEARCH STUDY
1. Define clearly the construct you would
want to measure
2. Decide whether you would like to use
statements or questions a. Use
positive/negative statements. If it is
negative it should be reverse scored
3. Choose your response items
4. Decide on how you are going to make
your instrument valid and reliable.
Research – Collection of data and information 1. Pre-experimental research – done if
- Process of steps to collect and analyze further investigation is needed for
data to increase understanding of a topic particular groups
or issue. 2. Quasi-experimental research – seeks
- Creative work under a systematic to find relationships between
approach. independent and dependent variables
Quantitative Research – analysis of numerical after an action has already occurred
data and form conclusions from samples drawn 3. True-experimental research – refers
from the population. to any randomized experiment. Relies on
- Predicts future behavior of phenomena statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
based on existing data hypothesis
- Data are gathered from scales and
instruments where numerical rating is ❖ Non-experimental research
needed - does not have manipulation of variables
Qualitative Research – Collects non-numerical to yield results
data to understand concepts, opinions, 1. Descriptive research – describes the
situations, or experiences. sample and seeks to answer the question
- How’s and Why’s WHAT
- Data was gathered through narrations, 2. Correlation Research – determines the
observations, anecdotes, written relationship between two or more
literature, and interviews. variables

Characteristics of Quantitative Research Strengths of Quantitative Research

● It is objective
1. It contains measurable variables ● It uses statistical testing
2. It uses standardized research ● It is real and unbiased
instruments such as tests, scales, and ● Quantitative studies are replicable
surveys ● Quantitative studies can be used as a
3. It generalizes conclusions from samples follow-up research study for qualitative
drawn from a population studies
4. It presents data in tabular, graphical, or
figure form Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
5. It uses statistics to analyze data ● Quantitative research requires a large
6. It is objective and logical number of respondents
7. It follows the scientific method ● It is costly
● Respondents are taken as a group, not
Types of Quantitative Research as individuals
● Critical issues need opinions and not just
❖ Experimental research design numerical ratings
- Identify the cause-and-effect relation ● Monitoring data gathering is difficult
between two or more variables, and
assess the magnitude of the effect Why use Quantitative Research?
produced - Gather new information and knowledge
about certain phenomena which can be
described or expressed in numerical data
 - Objective information can be
communicated through statistics and ❖ Independent Variables
numbers - Manipulated to affect the outcome of an
- Provides descriptions and predictions experiment
from numerical data Ex. the amount and type of fertilizer for the
- Questions are close-ended and answers plant
for what and how many
Research Variables ❖ Dependent Variables
- Affected when manipulating the
❖ Quantitative Variables independent variable; outcome variable
- added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided Ex. the amount of fruits produced by the plants
❖ Categorical Variables when the amount and type of fertilizer are
- represent groupings or strata changed
❖ Experimental Variables
- constant, controlled, or manipulated ❖ Control Variable
- Not manipulated nor changes
TYPES OF VARIABLES Ex. the amount of water, sunlight, and location
that are held constant
❖ Discrete Variables
- Countable values ❖ Confounding Variables
Ex. number of students in an auditorium - Influence both independent and
dependent variables
❖ Continuous Variables - Type extraneous variable
- Infinite values Ex. the types of plant utilized to test the effect of
Ex. area of school ground fertilizer and the number of fruits produced

❖ Dichotomous Variables
- Two possible answer
Ex. sex (male/female)

❖ Nominal Variables
- Naming or identification
Ex. student ID number and address

❖ Ordinal Variables
- Ranking/order
Ex. winners in a race

❖ Interval Variables
- No absolute zero
Ex. scores and attendance

❖ Ratio Variables
- There’s absolute zero
Ex. height, weight, and length