Group Project

A review on the types of volcanic activity across different

subduction zones on earth
Presented by -
Divya Singh
Eli Giri
Namitha Eathala Class - Msc sem 2
Gaurav kumar Session- 2023-24

Gaurav kumar
Harishankar Naik
Harshita Singh
Hemant Kumar

Submitted to - Dr Sayandeep Banerjee

Table of ocean -ocean
contents subduction zone

Ocean-continent
subduction zone

continent-continent
subduction zone
Subduction zones are locations on Earth where the
oceanic material of one tectonic plate dives below

the material (oceanic or continental) of another

tectonic plate into the mantle. They are the most

complex and dramatic tectonic features on our home

planet.
The sinking of lithosphere in subduction zones provides
most of the force needed to drive the plates and cause
mid-ocean ridges to
spread, with the result that plate tectonics and
subduction zones are surficial and interior expressions
of earth’s dominant tectonic mode.
 Trenches form where the subducting plate begins its
descent and can be as much as 11 kilometers (7 miles)
deep. Thick layers of sediment may accumulate in the
trench, and these and the subducting plate rocks
contain water that subduction transports to depth,
which at higher temperatures and pressures enables
melting to occur and 'magmas' to form. The hot
buoyant magma rises up to the surface, forming chains
of volcanoes.
depending upon the types of lithospheric plates
involved in subduction zones, differences in
magmatism arise w.r.t type of lava, intensity, volatile
contents, physics of melt etc.
Scientific Project
ANDEAN SUBDUCTION ZONE
INTRODUCTION
The Andean subduction zone is
characterized by the subduction of the
Nazca and Antarctic plates beneath the
South American plate, leading to the
formation of the Andean volcanic arc. This
arc features over 200 potentially active
volcanoes and 12 large caldera/ignimbrite
systems, segmented into the Northern,
Central, Southern, and Austral Volcanic
Zones. Volcanic activity occurs where the
subduction angle is steep (>25°), with flat
segments (<10°) linked to Neogene
tectonics and the Miocene subduction of
buoyant oceanic plateaus.

Andean magmas originate from the

dehydration or melting of subducting
oceanic lithosphere, interacting with the
mantle wedge and incorporating
continental crust.

The Andean volcanic arc has over 200

potentially active volcanoes and 12 large
caldera/ignimbrite systems, divided into
Northern, Central, Southern, and Austral
Volcanic Zones. Volcanism is caused by
the subduction of the Nazca and Antarctic
plates beneath South America, with active
volcanoes located where the subduction
angle is steep (>25°). Segments with
flatter angles (<10°) are separated by
these regions, linked to Neogene tectonics. Andean magmas form through the dehydration or melting of
subducting oceanic lithosphere, interacting with the mantle wedge, and incorporating continental crust.
The Central Volcanic Zone, with a thick crust (>70 km), shows high subduction erosion rates. Hazards
include lava and pyroclastic flows, lahars, debris flows, and tephra falls, causing over 25,000 deaths since
1532, mainly from Nevado del Ruiz in 1985. Despite over 20 million people living near active volcanoes,
fewer than 25 are continuously monitored.

LOCATION
The Andean subduction zone stretches along western South America from Colombia to southern Chile
and Argentina. It involves the Nazca and Antarctic Plates subducting beneath the South American Plate,
forming four volcanic segments: Northern, Central, Southern, and Austral, causing significant volcanic
activity and mountain building in the Andes.
ANDEAN GEOLOGY AND TECTONICS
The Andean Cordillera extends over 7,500 km along South
America's western margin, divided into distinct volcanic zones:
Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ),
Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ), and Austral Volcanic Zone (AVZ).
Each zone is further segmented based on pre-Andean basement
ages, geological evolution, crustal thickness, and tectonic activity.
The Northern Andes (12°N-5°S) feature northeast-southwest
trending mountains with mafic oceanic crust and strike-slip faults.
The Central Andes (5-33°S) include the northwest-southeast
Peruvian segment and north-south Chilean segment,
characterized by orogen-orthogonal shortening on Paleozoic
crust. In the Southern Andes (33-56°S), the Coastal Cordillera and
Main Andean Cordillera are separated by the Central Valley,
hosting volcanoes in the SVZ and AVZ. Climate and sediment
supply vary along the Andes, influencing subduction dynamics,
mountain building, and magma chemistry in each segment.

CRUSTAL THICKNESS
The crust below the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) in the Central Andes is over 70 km thick, particularly
beneath the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Oriental. This thick crust spans a 700 km by 200 km
region with an average elevation over 3,700 m. Thickness decreases rapidly eastward and northward,
with variations due to crustal shortening, magmatic underplating, and lithospheric delamination. Crustal
thickening and uplift began during the Eocene, driven by rapid oblique convergence and varied across
different regions.

OCEANIC PLATES AND SUBDUCTION GEOMETRY

The volcanic activity in the South American Andes is primarily driven by the subduction of the Nazca and
Antarctic plates. The Nazca plate subducts beneath the continent at varying angles, forming the
Northern, Central, and Southern Volcanic Zones (NVZ, CVZ, SVZ). The Antarctic plate subduction occurs
further south, influencing the Andean Volcanic Zone (AVZ). Flat-slab segments, where the subduction
angle is low, lack volcanic activity and are associated with crustal deformation and uplift. Transform
faults and ridge subduction also affect the volcanic distribution, creating distinct volcanic segments
within the larger zones.

VOLCANIC ARC SEGMENTATION

NORTHERN VOLCANIC ZONE (5°N-2°S)
The Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ) in South America spans Colombia and Ecuador, encompassing 19
volcanoes in Colombia and 55 in Ecuador. Prominent volcanoes include Nevado del Ruiz, Huila, Galeras,
Cumbal in Colombia, and Mojanda, Guagua Pichincha, Cayambe, Reventador, Antisana, Cotopaxi,
Chimborazo, Tungurahua, and Sangay in Ecuador. These volcanoes are arranged in north-south belts
along the Cordillera Occidental and Cordillera Central (Colombia) or Cordillera Real (Ecuador), separated
by intermontane valleys. In Colombia, the NVZ is divided into north, central, and south segments, with
significant distances between them. In Ecuador, four parallel volcanic belts are recognized, with the
western belt forming a continuous chain in the Cordillera Occidental and the eastern belt irregularly
spaced in the Cordillera Real. Subduction of 12–20-million-year-old Nazca oceanic lithosphere occurs at
angles of 31-45° northeast of orthogonal, influencing the arc's distance from the trench, crustal
thickness, and geological characteristics across the region.

PERUVIAN FLAT-SLAB SEGMENT (5-14°S)

This
flat-
slab
segment extends from just south of the region of subduction of the eastward extension of the Carnegie
Ridge below southern Ecuador to the locus of subduction of the Nazca ridge below central Peru. The
northern boundary of this flat-slab segment corresponds to the boundary between the northeast-
southwest trending Northern Andes and the northwest-southeast Northern Central Andes. This
boundary occurs across major structures within the continental crust, such as the Dolores-Guayaquil
Megashear in Ecuador and the Huancabamba deflection in Peru, which separate Cretaceous mafic
accretionary crust in the north from older Paleozoic ensialic crust intruded by the Peruvian coastal
batholith to the south. At the southern end of this flat segment, the Abancay or Pisco deflection
separates Paleozoic accretionary crust to the north from older Proterozoic rocks in the Arequipa massif
to the south, and marks the northern limit of the Altiplano in Peru. The transition from low angle to
steeper angle subduction across this boundary is associated with an abrupt bend, but not a tear, in the
subducted Nazca plate. Magmatic activity occurred across this entire segment prior to ~10 Ma, but
decreased in intensity, progressively from north to south in conjunction with the southward migration of
the locus of subduction of the Nazca ridge, and ultimately terminated between 5 and 2 Ma.

CENTRAL VOLCANIC ZONE (14-27°S)

The Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) in South America spans southern Peru, northern Chile, southwestern
Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina, hosting 44 active volcanic edifices and numerous minor centers.
Prominent volcanoes include Coropuna-Solimana, Sabancaya, Misti, and Huayna Putina in Peru;
Parinacota, San Pedro, Lascar, Ojos del Salado (the world's highest volcano), and others in Chile; and Tata
Sabaya in Bolivia. The region also features significant Quaternary silicic ignimbrite centers and caldera
systems like Cerro Panizos and Cerro Galan. Subduction of the <60-million-year-old Nazca plate
lithosphere occurs at 7-9 cm/yr., with varying angles and depths, influencing crustal thickness and
volcanic distribution. The volcanic front lies in the Cordillera Occidental, 240-300 km east of the trench,
with crustal thickness exceeding 70 km. The CVZ is divided into distinct segments based on volcanic
orientation and geological features, with older volcanic centers well preserved due to hyper-arid
conditions. Volcanic activity onset was earlier in the south and more recent in the north, reflecting
regional geological evolution

PAMPEAN FLAT SLAB SEGMENT (27-33°S)

In central Chile's Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), the subduction angle decreases gradually southward. At
the southern Pampean flat-slab segment, where the Juan Fernández Ridge subducts, the slab sharply
bends without breaking. This geological feature causes a steeper subduction angle north of the Southern
Volcanic Zone (SVZ). The migration of the Juan Fernández Ridge's subduction southward during the late
Cenozoic has contributed to this region's lower subduction angle. The arc's eastward expansion from the
Late Oligocene to Late Miocene, driven by decreasing subduction angles, led to volcanic activity in the
Pocho volcanic belt, about 500 km east of the earlier arc.

SOUTHERN VOLCANIC ZONE (33-46°S)

The Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) in South America hosts over 60 active volcanoes in Chile and
Argentina, including notable peaks like Tupungato, San José-Marmolejo, and Maipo-Diamante. These
volcanoes are part of a dynamic tectonic setting where the Nazca plate subducts beneath the South
American plate at varying angles and speeds, influencing volcanic activity. The SVZ is divided into
northern, transitional, central, and southern segments, each characterized by unique geological features
and volcanic structures. The northern SVZ is marked by a narrow chain of volcanic complexes along the
continental divide, while the transitional SVZ spans a wider belt
with stratovolcanoes and basaltic cones. In the central SVZ, the
volcanic front is narrower and aligned with tectonic features like
the Liquine-Ofqui fault zone. The southern SVZ comprises
volcanoes over deeply eroded Paleozoic metamorphic rocks, with
historic activity recorded at Michinmahuida and Hudson
volcanoes. This region showcases the complex interaction of
subduction dynamics, crustal deformation, and volcanic
evolution in the Andean volcanic arc.

PATAGONIAN VOLCANIC GAP (46-49°S)

A gap in active volcanism occurs between 46-49°S in the region south of the Chile Rise-Trench triple
junction where the southeast extension of the Chile Rise has been subducted during the last ~8 million
years. No Benioff zone of seismic activity occurs below this volcanic gap. The last manifestation of
subduction-initiated magmatic activity in this region are 12 Ma adakitic andesites of the Cerro Pampa
volcanic complex, which occur in Argentina well east of the north-south strike of the current arc. As a
consequence of ridge subduction, arc volcanism terminated and an asthenospheric slab-window resulted
in the development of an extensive back-arc alkaline basalt field, the southernmost part of the
Patagonian plateau lavas. Near-trench magmatic activity close to the Pacific coast on the Taitao
peninsula reflects the effects of the subduction of segments of the Chile Rise during the Pliocene

AUSTRAL VOLCANIC ZONE (49-55°S)

The AVZ consists of five stratovolcanoes
and a small complex of Holocene domes
and flows on Cook Island, the
southernmost volcanic center in the Andes.
The AVZ was first identified as an
independent segment of Andean volcanoes
in 1976, while Cook Island volcano (55°S),
the southernmost in the Andean chain, was
not discovered until 1978, and Reclus
volcano (51°S), previously mistakenly
identified as Cerro Mano del Diablo, was
accurately located only in 1987. The three
northernmost of these volcanoes (Lautaro,
Viedma and Aguilera), which are located
within or along the flanks of the Southern
Patagonian ice cap, have similar chemistry
and have been grouped together as the
Northern AVZ volcanoes (NAVZ). Cook Island center is located south of the Magallanes Fault Zone
(Polonia et al., 1999) and therefore on the Scotia plate.
The southeast extension of the Chile Rise was subducted below this region between 8-14 Ma. This
volcanic zone results from the subduction of 12-24 Ma oceanic lithosphere of the Antarctic plate below
South America at a velocity of 2 cm/yr. There is no Benioff zone of seismic activity associated with the
slow subduction of this young oceanic plate. Crustal thickness below the AVZ is <35 km, and pre-Andean
basement rocks consist of Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the
Eastern Andean metamorphic complex and Madre de Dios terrane. The volcanoes of the AVZ erupted
onto glacially eroded pre-Andean basement and Mesozoic Andean rocks, and there is no information
concerning pre-Holocene activity in this belt. However, peridotite xenoliths from 1-3 Ma Cerro del Fraile
alkali basalts, located 25 km east of the AVZ, are metasomatized by adakitic silicate melts (Kilian and
Stern, 2002). This suggests that, following a hiatus in volcanic activity associated with subduction of the
Chile Rise below this region beginning after 14 Ma, subduction-related magmatic activity may have
reestablished itself below the AVZ by the Pliocene.

ANDEAN MAGMA GENESIS

GENERAL
Thorpe (1984) concluded that Andean magmatism was initiated by the dehydration of the subducted
oceanic lithosphere resulting in the addition of subducted components into and melting of the overlying
mantle wedge. In this sense the initial subcrustal stages of generation of Andean magmas are similar to
magma generation processes in oceanic convergent plate boundary island arcs. In fact, tholeiitic and high
Al basalts from the volcanic front of the Central SVZ of the Andes, where the crust is only ~30 km thick,
have isotope and trace-element ratios similar to oceanic island arc basalts, and they have not obviously
assimilated continental crust (Hickey-Vargas et al., 1984, 1986, 1989).

However, differences in isotopic composition of volcanic rocks from the Northern SVZ and CVZ of the
Andes compared with those erupted in the Central SVZ and oceanic island arcs indicate the participation
of continental crust and/or subcontinental mantle lithosphere in the formation and evolution of the
NSVZ and CVZ Andean magmas. This may occur during interaction of magmas derived in the subarc
asthenospheric mantle wedge with continental lithosphere, by intra-crustal assimilation (AFC or MASH
processes; James, 1984; Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988; Davidson et al., 1991), and/or by source region
contamination of subarc mantle by subducted continental components. Relative roles of each process
have been debated in each different Andean volcanic zone, as described briefly below

CENTRAL AND SOUTHEREN SVZ

In the Central and Southern Volcanic Zone (CSVZ and SSVZ) of the Andes, where the crust is thin (<30
km), the primary volcanic rocks are tholeiitic and high-Al basalts and basaltic andesites, although
andesites, dacites, and rhyolites also occur. Isotopic data (Sr, Nd, Pb, O) indicate minimal assimilation of
continental crust in CSVZ basalts, offering insights into the genesis of mantle-derived Andean magmas.
CSVZ basalts form by melting subarc mantle, influenced by fluids from dehydrating subducted oceanic
lithosphere, including sediments. This conclusion is supported by Be isotope data, Ra-Th-U
disequilibrium, Pb isotopes, and element ratios (LILE/REE, REE/HFSE), which all point to slab-derived
fluid contributions. Decreasing Ba/La, La/Nb, and Ba/Nb ratios in magmas east of the volcanic front
suggest reduced slab-derived fluid input due to progressive slab dehydration. In the back-arc region,
alkali basalts show minimal evidence of slab-derived components, indicating low degrees of partial
mantle melting. Peridotite xenoliths in back-arc alkali basalts provide further evidence of slab-derived
metasomatism in areas of Cenozoic arc volcanism. Andesites, dacites, and rhyolites share isotopic
compositions with basalts, suggesting formation through crystal-liquid fractionation or assimilation of
isotopically similar young crust.

NORTHERN SVZ
In the Northern Southern Volcanic Zone (NSVZ), where the crust is over 45 km thick, the predominant
volcanic rocks are andesites, basaltic andesites, and dacites, characterized by higher 87Sr/86Sr^ and lower
143
Nd/144Nd ratios compared to the Central SVZ (CSVZ). This suggests significant incorporation of
continental crust in NSVZ magmas. The process of crustal incorporation remains debated, with models
like MASH (Mixing, Assimilation, Storage, and Homogenization) and hypotheses of mantle source region
contamination due to subducted continental components. The latter may result from a smaller mantle
wedge volume or increased subduction erosion from the Juan Fernández ridge. The isotopic differences
between NSVZ and CSVZ developed during the Late Miocene and Pliocene, predating the current
volcanic front position. Progressive isotopic changes in mantle-derived olivine basalts from the Early
Miocene to Pliocene indicate mantle source region alterations. These changes align with the southward
migration of the Juan Fernández ridge's subduction locus, suggesting crustal component contamination
of the mantle source due to subduction erosion or changing subduction angles. No significant isotopic
changes accompanied the eastward migration of the volcanic front in the Pliocene, indicating crustal
thickness was not a factor.

CENTRAL VOLCANIC ZONE

In the Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ), andesites, dacites, and rhyolites are dominant, with occasional
basaltic andesites and basalts. CVZ magmas exhibit elevated 87Sr/86Sr and δ18O and lower 143Nd/144Nd
ratios compared to Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) magmas, along with distinct Pb isotopic compositions.
These variations indicate significant incorporation of continental crust, due to thick crust and high
subduction erosion rates. The isotopic data show intra-crustal assimilation and crystallization, and/or
crustal anatexis as key processes. Geophysical studies suggest partial crustal melting impacts the crustal
structure. Temporal changes show increasing crustal contamination from the Miocene to the present,
correlating with crustal thickening to over 70 km. The arid climate from the Miocene may have reduced
sediment supply, increasing subduction erosion rates in the Central Andes. However, the extent of subarc
mantle contamination in the CVZ remains unclear due to the scarcity of basalts, which itself suggests
significant source region contamination.

NORTHERN VOLCANIC ZONE

In the Northern Volcanic Zone (NVZ), andesites and dacites dominate, with basaltic andesites, rhyolites,
and rare basalts. Despite crustal variations, Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic compositions are consistent across
rock types and similar to Central SVZ basalts. Studies suggest up to 20% intra-crustal assimilation and
incorporation of subducted crustal components in magmas, but more recent research indicates less than
10% crustal assimilation. Variations in trace-element ratios are due to differences in slab-dehydration,
mantle-source contamination, and partial melting, with volcanic front magmas forming from high-degree
partial melting (~15%) of the subarc mantle from significant slab-derived inputs.
AUSTRAL VOLCANIC ZONE
The six volcanic centers in the AVZ have erupted adakitic hornblende andesites and dacites. Neither
basalts or basaltic andesites, nor rhyolites, occur in this segment of the Andes. Compared to other
Andean arc magmas, Cook Island high-Mg adakitic andesites have very unusual Sr, Nd, Pb and O isotopic
compositions, similar to that of MORB, and may have formed by partial melting of young (<24 Ma)
obliquely subducted oceanic crust, followed by only very limited interaction with the overlying mantle
wedge and continental crust. Adakitic andesites and dacites erupted from the other volcanoes in the AVZ
also formed from slab melts which have interacted to a greater extent with the overlying continental
mantle lithosphere and crust. The extent of this interaction increases progressively towards the north as
subduction angle becomes more orthogonal.

EXOTIC MAGMAS
As well as basalts, andesites and rhyolites, other more unusual igneous rocks types occur associated with
Andean volcanoes. In the CVZ of northern Chile these include iron-oxide rich (magnetite ± apatite) lava
flows at El Laco, formed from Fe-rich magmas possibly separated from silicate magmas by liquid
immiscibility. Sulfur flows on the flanks of Lastarria and Bayo volcanoes are interpreted to have formed
by remobilization of hydrothermal sulfur. Anhydrite-bearing lavas have been erupted at Lascar volcano
(Matthews et al., 1994), and anhydrite-rich hypabyssal intrusive rocks of Pliocene age occur at El
Teniente (Funk et al., 2004), the world's largest Cu deposit in central Chile. Andean Cu deposits in central
Chile also contain extremely large magmatic-hydrothermal breccia pipes, such as the giant Braden
diatreme at El Teniente (>1 km diameter at the surface and >3 km known vertical extension; Skewes et
al., 2002), and the Cu-rich Sur-Sur (Vargas et al., 1999) and Donoso (Skewes et al., 2003) tourmaline
breccia pipes at Rio Blanco-Los Bronces, another giant Cu deposit in Central Chile.

CONCLUSION
Active Andean volcanoes are the most recent manifestation of over 185 million years of magmatic
activity related to oceanic-continent collision along the west coast of South America. Subduction
geometry, which is affected by subduction of buoyant oceanic plateaus and ridges, controls the presence
or absence of volcanic activity in different segments, and geochemical studies confirm the close genetic
link between the subduction process and magma genesis below the Andes. Other factors related to
subduction, such as the age of the oceanic plate being subducted, the degree of obliquity of subduction
direction relative to the continental margin, and the extent of sedimentary infill of the trench, which
affects the rates of subduction erosion along the continental margin, all have an important impact on the
details of processes of magma generation and the distribution of volcanic centers in each of the four
volcanically active zones of the Andes. Pre-Andean basement ages, Andean structural evolution, crustal
thickness and Neogene tectonic activity also influence the genesis and fine structure of the Andean
volcanic arc. What is most clear from the many detailed studies of individual Andean volcanoes
published in the last 30 years is that andesites are not the only volcanic rock type erupted in the Andes,
and that there is no unique 'Andean-type' volcanic arc. The diversity of Andean volcanic rocks reflects a
diversity of magma genesis processes that need to be evaluated in the context of both the along and
across-strike variations in the geologic and tectonic characteristics of the continental South American
plate, the oceanic plates it is colliding with, and the details of the collision process.
CASCADIA SUBDUCTION ZONE

1.INTRODUCTION

Subduction zones are linear belts on Earth where tectonic plates converge, with one plate sinking
into the mantle beneath the other plate, and where the largest earthquakes and volcanoes tend to
occur.
The Cascadia Subduction zone “megathrust” fault is a 1,000 km long dipping fault. Cascadia exhibits
complex and three-dimensional heterogeneities including variable coupling between
the overriding and down going plates, the amount of water carried within and released by the
oceanic plate, flow patterns within the mantle wedge and backarc, and the continuity and depth
extent of the subducting slab.

A. LOCATION

The Cascadia Subduction Zone

(CSZ) extends from
northern California
to southern British
Columbia, stretching
along the Pacific coast.

B. CONVERGENCE
The CSZ represents an active
convergent boundary where the Juan de
Fuca Plate slides beneath the North
American

Plate.

Fig. location of Cascadia subduction

zone

This subduction process has major implications for seismic activity in the region.

The Cascadia Subduction Zone, a major geological feature off the west coast of North America, is
gaining increased attention due to its significant earthquake and tsunami risks.
Subduction of the JdF plate results in the ~1300- km-long active Cascade volcanic arc, which extends
from northern California through Oregon and Washington, USA, to northern Vancouver Island,
Canada. Arc volcanism initiated ~40 million years ago (Ma), following a change from a previous flat
slab configuration, and the most recent event was the major volcanic eruption of Mount
St. Helens in 1980.
2.GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

This figure represents the Tectonic setting and volcanic features of the Cascadia
subduction system. It is modified after Long (2016). Here red triangles represent
major Holocene volcanoes. Black contours indicate the approximate age progression
(in 2-My intervals) of volcanism across the High Lava Plains (HLP) and the Snake River
Plain (SRP). The brown area indicates the coverage of the Steens/ Columbia River
flood basalts. The black dotted line marks the outline of Siletzia west of the Cascades,
and the heavy black dashes indicate the inferred outline of Siletzia by Gao et al. (2011).
The thick black arrows show absolute plate motions in the hotspot reference frame, the
thick purple arrow shows the convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates,
and the thick blue arrow shows the rollback of the trench.

1.The Cascadia subduction zone, where the young and thin oceanic Juan de Fuca plate sinks beneath
western North America, represents a thermally hot endmember of global subduction systems. It
involves the north eastward subduction of the oceanic Juan de Fuca plate beneath western North
America at a convergence rate of ~3–4.5 cm/y along the trench.

Juan de Fuca plate- young, small thus it is warm, Remnant of old Farallon plate which has been
subducting beneath North America for the last ~180 million years (My). Most of the
Farallon slab is understood to have already sunk deep into the mantle beneath North America.
Subducted slabs are commonly imaged as high velocity features by seismic tomography, a method
that is analogous to a medical computerized tomography scan but uses seismic waves travelling
through the interior of the Earth rather than X-rays.

2.To the west of the Cascade volcanic arc, the distribution of Siletzia and to the east of the Cascade
arc, Siletzia is not exposed, and inferences concerning its distribution and structure are based on
indirect evidence and somewhat speculative.

3. The oceanic crust is subducting, or diving down, it is also breaking up. The fault surface is much
more complex in its geometry. The fault is split into four major segments, the researchers found. One
begins off northern California and extends to Cape Blanco, Oregon. The next extends northward
from Cape Blanco to Alsea Bay. Here, the researchers saw a lot of slip, or movement of the two sides
of the fault against one another. The next segment extends north of Alsea Bay to the mouth of the
Columbia River. Lastly segment stretching from southern Washington to southern Vancouver Island.
Here, the plates come together at a flat, shallow angle, and there is a lot of area of contact.
Sub-seafloor map of the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Diagonal black lines approximate divisions between
different segments of the zone. Yellow/orange indicates shallow depths; green, deeper; blues/purples
deepest. (Image credit: Science Advances, 2024)

3.GEODYANAMIC EVOLUTION
The mechanism controls melt generation in the mantle wedge and the corresponding arc
magmatism/volcanism at subduction zones - One commonly invoked mechanism is flux melting in
the wedge induced by fluid released from the subducting slab. This mechanism is supported by the
hydrous character of arc basalts (e.g., Wiens et al. 2008).
Decompression melting associated with subduction-induced asthenospheric upwelling from the
backarc regions has been proposed to explain the existence of nearly anhydrous (dry) magmatic
lavas. It is thought that the young and warm JdF plate loses most of its water at shallow depths,
leading to less dehydration and smaller water fluxes in the deep crust and upper mantle
as the slab descends. The primitive basalts of the Cascade arc volcanoes show evidence for both wet
and dry melting. A distinctive aspect of Cascadia is the extensive volcanic
and magmatic activity in the backarc region over the
last ~17 My. The presence of a deep mantle plume has been further supported by a recent
tomographic model developed by Nelson and Grand (2018).

TOPOGRAPHY

The Coast Ranges, including the Olympic Mountains, are made of oceanic sediments and hard rocks
that were caught in the vise between the converging plates, uplifted, and added to the edge of the
continent.
Puget Sound and the Willamette Valley are areas near sea level between the coastal and volcanic
mountain ranges.
The Cascades form above the line where the subducting plate extends to depths where it heats up,
dehydrates, and causes magma to form. The line of active volcanoes, from Mt. Garibaldi to Lassen
Peak, coincides with the north-to-south extent of the subducting plate boundary.
Cascadia backarc magmatism reflects a combination of slab subduction and rollback, the
Yellowstone mantle plume, and lithospheric extension in the Basin and Range.
In Cascadia, the young and small JdF oceanic lithosphere leads to a relatively warm and less hydrated
subducting slab at the trench.
Mantle shearing driven by the motion of the JdF plate toward the trench is dominant on the oceanic
side prior to subduction.

4.MEGA THRUST EARTHQUAKES

The last known great earthquake in the northwest was the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, 324 years
ago. Geological evidence indicates that great earthquakes (> magnitude 8.0) may have occurred
sporadically at least seven times in the last 3,500 years, suggesting a return time of about 500 years.
Seafloor core evidence indicates that there have been forty-one subduction zone earthquakes on the
Cascadia subduction zone in the past 10,000 years, suggesting a general average earthquake
recurrence interval of only 243 years.

Insufficient slab dehydration in the ultramafic slab (Hacker et al., 2003) more than7 km vertically
downward from the interface lowers the activity of ordinary earthquakes in Cascadia.
The transition in mineral assemblages from PA (4.4 wt %) to greenschist (3.0 wt %) may contribute to
occurrence of thrust earthquakes offshore; however, the amount of fluid produced is <50% of that
produced by MORB amphibolization and eclogitization.
Chlorite harzburgite (1.4 wt %), which dewaters to garnet harzburgite (0 wt %) and still favours the
northern Cascadia mantle wedge corner
The Cascadia Subduction Zone, which forms the boundary between the Juan de Fuca and North
American plates, is a very long sloping fault that stretches from mid-Vancouver Island to Northern
California.

Because of the great length of the fault, the Cascadia Subduction Zone can produce very large
earthquakes if rupture occurs along its entire length.
In 1999, a group of global positioning system sites registered a brief reversal of motion of
approximately 2 cms (0.8 inches) over a 50 Kms by 300 Kms (about 30 miles by 200 mile) area. The
movement was the equivalent of a 6.7 magnitude earthquake. The motion did not trigger an
earthquake and was only detectable as silent, non-earthquake seismic signatures.

In 2004, a study conducted by the Geological Society of America analyzed the potential for land
subsidence along the Cascadia subduction zone.

There is also evidence of accompanying tsunamis with every earthquake. One strong line of evidence
for these earthquakes is convergent timings for fossil damage from tsunamis in the PACIFIC
NORTHWEST and historical Japanese records of tsunamis

5.CASCADES VOLCANIC ARC AND VOLCANOES

The Cascade Volcanic Arc is a continental volcanic arc that extends from northern to the CALIFORNIA
coastal peninsula of ALASKA.

The arc consists of a series of Quaternary age stratovolcanoes that grew on top of pre-existing
geologic materials that ranged from MIOCENE volcanics to glacial ice. The Cascade Volcanic arc is
located approximately 100 km inland from the coast, and forms a north-to-south chain of peaks that
average over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) in elevation. The major peaks from south to north include:

 Lassen peak and Mount Shasta (California)

 Crater Lake (Mazama), Three sisters, Mount Jefferson, Mount Hood (Oregon)
  Mount Adams, Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, Glacier Peak, Mount
Baker (Washington)
 Mount Garibaldi and Mount Meager massif (British Columbia)

Juan de Fuca Triple Junctions and the Cascade Volcanic Arc

The most active volcanoes in the chain include Mount St. Helens, Mount Baker, Lassen Peak, Mount
Shasta, and Mount Hood. Most of the volcanoes have a main, central vent from which the most
recent eruptions have occurred. The peaks are composed of layers of solidified Andesitic to dacitic
magma, and the more siliceous (and explosive) rhyolite.

St. Helens continues to rumble, albeit more quietly, emitting occasional steam plumes and
experiencing small earthquakes, both signs of continuing magmatic activity.
The volcanoes above the subduction zone include:

 Silverthrone Caldera  Mount St. Helens

 Mount Meager massif  Mount Adams
 Mount Cayley  Mount Hood
 Mount Garibaldi  Mount Jefferson
 Mount Baker  Three Sisters
 Glacier Peak  Newberry Volcano
 Mount Rainier Black Butte  Mount Mazama (Crater Lake)
 Black Butte (California)  Mount McLoughlin
 Lassen Peak  Medicine Lake Volcano
 Mount Shasta
Conclusion
The Cascadia subduction zone represents a thermally hot endmember of global subduction systems
as the oceanic JdF plate is young, warm, and presumably weak. The structure and dynamics of the
system have become much better understood over the last decade, in large part because of the
increasing availability of geophysical observations.
The role of the oceanic lithosphere structure prior to subduction is increasingly recognized as
important, a finding enabled by the extensive offshore deployment of geophysical instrumentation.
Nevertheless, the precise geometry, characteristics, continuity, and depth extent of
the subducting slab remain open questions.
It appears that subduction-driven processes, including the downdip motion of the plate and slab
rollback, exert primary controls on the mantle flow field, which is likely complex and three
dimensional, but the details remain to be understood.
It is abundantly clear that there are feedbacks among the fundamental geodynamic processes that
control the spatial and temporal evolution of arc and backarc magmatism, as well as the tectonic
evolution of the overriding plate. Understanding how these processes are linked remains a grand
challenge in our study of the Cascadia subduction system.

The diagram highlighting key dynamic features within the mantle of the U.S., including the young
Juan de Fuca slab (green), the old Farallon slab (blue), the possible presence of a deep mantle plume
(orange), low-velocity features surrounding the subducting slab (red), and the thickness variation
of the continental lithosphere.

A few of specific unresolved problems remain. For example, what combination of processes led to
the massive flood basalt eruptions approximately 17 Ma? To what extent is a deep mantle plume
necessary to explain the magmatic patterns in the Cascade backarc? What is the dominant factor for
the observed variations and complexities of the arc volcanoes?
What factors control along-strike segmentation in the structure and behaviour of the Cascadia
subduction zone and its shallow plate interface? What controls the kinematics of the overriding
plate, and how do crustal deformation and block rotation affect the subduction system as a whole?
Future integrative and multidisciplinary analyses of constraints from geophysics, geochemistry,
petrology, geodynamics, geodesy, and structural geology will further our understanding
of the Cascadia subduction system. So we have many problems unknown of Cascadia system in spite
of technologies used may be the key challenge for coming future.
Location

The Alaska subduction zone, also known as the Alaska-Aleutian subduction zone, is located in the
North Pacific Ocean, extending from the Aleutian Islands in the west to the southern coast of
Alaska in the east. This tectonic boundary is where the Pacific Plate is being forced beneath the
North American Plate, causing significant seismic and volcanic activity in the region. The zone is
one of the most seismically active areas in the world, responsible for numerous large earthquakes,
including the 1964 Alaska earthquake, one of the most powerful earthquakes ever recorded.

Tectonic setting

Alaska’s tectonic setting is dominated by the

interaction of several major tectonic plates,
primarily the Pacific Plate and the North American
Plate. The primary features and interactions in this
region include:
1. Subduction Zone: The Pacific Plate is being
subducted beneath the North American Plate along
the Alaska-Aleutian subduction zone. This
subduction process leads to significant seismic
activity, including powerful earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
2. Aleutian Trench: This deep oceanic trench marks
the boundary where the Pacific Plate is diving
beneath the North American Plate. It extends from the Gulf of Alaska to the Kamchatka Peninsula
in Russia.
 3. Volcanic Arc: The Aleutian
Islands form a volcanic arc resulting
from the subduction of the Pacific
Plate. This arc includes numerous
active volcanoes that are part of the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
4. Transform Faults: The region
also features transform faults, such
as the Fairweather Fault, which
accommodate horizontal movement
between the plates. These faults can
produce significant earthquakes.
5. Denali Fault System: The Denali
Fault is a major intracontinental
strike-slip fault that runs through
central Alaska. It is a right-lateral
fault, meaning that the opposite sides move horizontally past each other.
6. Yakutat Block: This block of crust is being pushed northward and colliding with southern
Alaska, contributing to the complex tectonics of the region.
These tectonic interactions make Alaska one of the most geologically dynamic regions in the world,
with frequent seismic activity and a landscape shaped by ongoing tectonic forces.

Topography

Alaska’s topography is diverse and rugged, shaped by a combination of tectonic activity,

glaciation, and volcanic processes. Key features of Alaska’s topography include:

1. Mountain Ranges:

2. • Alaska Range: Home to Denali (Mount McKinley), the highest peak in North America at
20,310 feet (6,190 meters). This range runs across south-central Alaska and is characterized by its
high, glaciated peaks.
 • Brooks Range: Located in northern Alaska, this range extends east-west and is notable for its
rugged terrain and arctic environment.

• Chugach and Wrangell-St. Elias Ranges: These coastal mountain ranges in southern Alaska
feature high peaks and extensive glaciation. Mount St. Elias, the second-highest peak in the United
States, is located here.

• Aleutian Range: Extending from the Alaska Peninsula into the Aleutian Islands, this range
includes numerous active volcanoes.

2. Volcanoes:

• Aleutian Arc: Part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, this volcanic arc includes over 40 active volcanoes
stretching from the Alaska Peninsula to the Aleutian Islands.

• Wrangell Volcanic Field: This area in southeastern Alaska includes Mount Wrangell and other
large volcanic peaks.

3. Lowlands and Valleys:

• Interior Lowlands: Central Alaska features broad lowlands and river valleys, such as the Yukon
River Valley, which are important for transportation and wildlife habitats.

• Cook Inlet and Susitna Lowlands: These lowland areas in south-central Alaska are important for
human settlement and agriculture.

4. Coastal Features:

• Bays and Fjords: The southern coast of Alaska is deeply indented with fjords, bays, and inlets,
including Prince William Sound and Glacier Bay.

• Islands: The coastline is dotted with numerous islands, including the Alexander Archipelago in
the southeast and the Aleutian Islands to the southwest.

5. Glaciers and Icefields:

• Glaciers: Alaska is home to thousands of glaciers, including the massive Columbia Glacier and
the tidewater glaciers of Glacier Bay.

• Icefields: Extensive icefields, such as the Harding Icefield on the Kenai Peninsula and the Juneau
Icefield, cover large areas and feed numerous glaciers.
6. Rivers and Lakes:

• Major Rivers: The Yukon River, one of the longest rivers in North America, flows across central
Alaska. Other significant rivers include the Kuskokwim, Copper, and Susitna rivers.

• Lakes: Alaska has numerous large lakes, including Iliamna Lake, the largest lake in the state, and
Becharof Lake.

The combination of high mountain ranges, active volcanoes, expansive glaciers, and varied coastal
and interior landscapes makes Alaska’s topography one of the most dramatic and varied in the
world.

 Geodynamic evolution

The geodynamic evolution of Alaska is a complex process driven by the interactions of tectonic
plates, resulting in a landscape shaped by subduction, collision, and accretion. Key stages in the
geodynamic evolution of Alaska include:

1. Precambrian to Early Paleozoic:

• Initial Formation: The basement rocks of Alaska formed during the Precambrian and early
Paleozoic eras. These ancient rocks represent the initial continental crust that would eventually
become part of Alaska.

2. Late Paleozoic to Mesozoic:

• Accretion of Terranes: During the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, numerous terranes
(fragments of crust) were accreted to the western margin of North America. These terranes included
island arcs, oceanic plateaus, and fragments of continental crust, which collided and amalgamated
to form the complex geology of Alaska.

3. Mesozoic Subduction:

• Subduction and Volcanism: Subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the North American Plate
began in the Mesozoic era, leading to the formation of volcanic arcs and the emplacement of
plutonic rocks. This process contributed to the growth of Alaska’s continental margin.

4. Cretaceous to Early Cenozoic:

 • Continued Accretion and Deformation: The accretion of additional terranes continued through
the Cretaceous and into the early Cenozoic, further building the Alaskan landmass. Deformation
associated with these accretionary events produced significant mountain ranges, such as the Brooks
Range and the Alaska Range.

5. Cenozoic Collision and Transform Faulting:

• Yakutat Block Collision: In the Cenozoic, the Yakutat Block, a buoyant oceanic plateau, began
colliding with southern Alaska. This collision has caused significant crustal shortening, uplift, and
deformation in the region.

• Transform Faulting: The right-lateral motion along major transform faults, such as the Denali and
Fairweather faults, accommodates the relative movement between the Pacific and North American
plates.

6. Quaternary to Present:

• Active Subduction and Volcanism: Subduction of the Pacific Plate continues today, generating
frequent earthquakes and active volcanism along the Aleutian Arc.

• Glacial and Interglacial Cycles: The Quaternary period has seen repeated glacial and interglacial
cycles, which have shaped the landscape through glacial erosion and deposition.

The interplay of these tectonic processes has created Alaska’s diverse and rugged topography,
characterized by high mountain ranges, active volcanoes, and deep oceanic trenches. The ongoing
tectonic activity ensures that Alaska’s landscape continues to evolve.

.
Volcanoes

Alaska
contains
about 140
volcanoes
and
volcanic
fields active
within the
last 2.6
million
years (the
Quaternary).
About 90 of these volcanoes have been active within the last 11,000 years (the Holocene),
and more than 50 have been very recently active, within the last 300 years or so.The
volcanoes in Alaska make up more than three-quarters of U.S. volcanoes that have
erupted in the past 200 years.

Most of Alaska’s volcanoes are located along the 2,500 km (1,500 mi) Aleutian Arc, which
extends westward from the mainland of Alaska towards Kamchatka, and forms the
northern portion of the Pacific “ring of fire.” Other volcanoes in Alaska that have been
active in the last few thousand years exist in southeastern Alaska (Edgecumbe), and the
Wrangell mountains. Smaller volcanoes, some active within the past 11,000 years, are
found in interior Alaska and in western Alaska, as far north as the Seward Peninsula.

Alaska is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, an area known for its intense volcanic and seismic
activity. The volcanic arc in Alaska, known as the Aleutian Arc, stretches from the Alaska
Peninsula westward through the Aleutian Islands. Key features and notable volcanoes in this region
include:

Aleutian Arc

The Aleutian Arc is a volcanic arc formed by

the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the
North American Plate. This arc includes over 80
volcanoes, many of which are active. It extends
from the Gulf of Alaska in the east to the
Kamchatka Peninsula in the west, covering a
distance of approximately 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers).

Notable Volcanoes in Alaska

1. Mount Redoubt:

• Location: Cook Inlet, near the Kenai Peninsula.

• Elevation: 10,197 feet (3,108 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2009.

• Features: Known for its explosive eruptions and significant ash production.

2. Mount Spurr:

• Location: West of Anchorage.

• Elevation: 11,070 feet (3,374 meters).

• Last Eruption: 1992.

• Features: Composed of a central dome and an older caldera.

3. Mount Katmai:

• Location: Katmai National Park and Preserve.

• Elevation: 6,716 feet (2,047 meters).

• Last Eruption: 1912 (Novarupta eruption).

• Features: The 1912 eruption was one of the largest in the 20th century and formed the Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes.

4. Mount Augustine:

• Location: Augustine Island, Cook Inlet.

• Elevation: 4,134 feet (1,260 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2006.

• Features: A lava dome volcano known for frequent explosive eruptions.

5. Mount Pavlof:

• Location: Alaska Peninsula.

• Elevation: 8,261 feet (2,518 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2021.

• Features: One of Alaska’s most active volcanoes with frequent eruptions.

6. Mount Shishaldin:

• Location: Unimak Island, Aleutian Islands.

• Elevation: 9,373 feet (2,857 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2020.

• Features: A symmetric stratovolcano and one of the most active in the Aleutian Arc.

7. Mount Cleveland:
• Location: Chuginadak Island, Aleutian Islands.

• Elevation: 5,675 feet (1,730 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2019.

• Features: Known for its frequent eruptions and production of ash plumes.

8. Mount Okmok:

• Location: Umnak Island, Aleutian Islands.

• Elevation: 3,520 feet (1,073 meters).

• Last Eruption: 2008. • Features: A large caldera with a history of explosive eruptions.

Volcanic Activity

• Hazards: Alaska’s volcanoes pose significant hazards, including ash clouds, pyroclastic flows,
and lahars (volcanic mudflows). Ash clouds can disrupt air travel, as was seen during the eruptions
of Mount Redoubt and Mount Spurr.

• Monitoring: The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) monitors volcanic activity in the region,
providing early warning and information about potential eruptions.

Alaska’s volcanic activity plays a crucial role in shaping its landscape and affects both the natural
environment and human activities in the region.

Central America

Location
 The Central America
Subduction Zone is located
along the Pacific coast of
Central America. It extends
from southern Mexico through
Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa
Rica, and ends in northern
Panama. This geological
feature is where the Cocos
Plate is being subducted
beneath the Caribbean Plate,
leading to significant tectonic
activity, including earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions.

Tectonic setting
The tectonic setting around Central America is characterized by the interaction of several tectonic
plates:

1. Cocos Plate: This oceanic plate is being subducted beneath the Caribbean Plate along the Central
America Subduction Zone. This subduction process causes significant seismic activity and volcanic
eruptions.
 2. Caribbean Plate: This mostly oceanic plate includes the landmass of Central America and parts
of the surrounding seas. The interaction between the Caribbean Plate and the Cocos Plate leads to
the formation of a volcanic arc and frequent earthquakes.

3. North American Plate: To the north, the boundary between the North American Plate and the
Caribbean Plate is marked by the Motagua Fault in Guatemala, which is a transform boundary.

4. Nazca Plate: Off the southern coast of Central America, the Nazca Plate interacts with the Cocos
Plate at the Galápagos Triple Junction. This interaction influences the tectonics and volcanic
activity in the region.

5. Panama Microplate: This smaller plate is located at the southern end of Central America,
interacting with the Cocos, Nazca, and Caribbean Plates. Its movement and interactions contribute
to the complex tectonic activity in the region.

These interactions result in a complex and dynamic tectonic environment, characterized by frequent
earthquakes, active volcanism, and significant geological hazards.

Geodynamic evolution
The geodynamic evolution of Central America is a complex process influenced by the interactions
of several tectonic plates over millions of years. Here’s an overview of the key stages and
processes involved:

1. Mesozoic Era:

• During the late Mesozoic (about 150 million years ago), the region was dominated by oceanic
crust and volcanic arcs. The subduction of the Farallon Plate beneath the western margin of the
Caribbean Plate initiated volcanic activity and the formation of an island arc.

2. Cretaceous Period:

• As subduction continued, the island arcs collided and amalgamated, forming the early landmass
of Central America. This period also saw the emplacement of large igneous provinces and the
formation of significant volcanic complexes.

3. Paleogene Period:

• By the Paleogene (about 66 to 23 million years ago), the region experienced continued
subduction and arc volcanism. The collision of the Caribbean Plate with the Pacific plates led to the
uplift and emergence of the Central American land bridge, connecting North and South America.

4. Neogene Period:

• During the Neogene (about 23 to 2.6 million years ago), the subduction of the Cocos Plate
beneath the Caribbean Plate became more pronounced, leading to increased volcanic activity and
the formation of the modern volcanic arc. This period also saw significant tectonic reorganization,
including the initiation of the Central American volcanic arc and the development of the Middle
America Trench.
5. Quaternary Period:

• The most recent geological period, the Quaternary (the last 2.6 million years), has been marked
by ongoing subduction, intense volcanic activity, and frequent earthquakes. The formation of the
Isthmus of Panama during this period had profound effects on global ocean currents and climate,
facilitating the Great American Biotic Interchange between the fauna of North and South America.

6. Present Day:

• Today, Central America is a region of high tectonic activity. The continued subduction of the
Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate results in frequent earthquakes and active volcanism along
the Central American volcanic arc. The region’s complex tectonics are further influenced by the
interactions of the North American, Nazca, and Panama microplates.

Topography

The topography of Central America is diverse and complex, characterized by a range of landforms
from mountainous regions and volcanic chains to coastal plains and lowlands. Here’s an overview
of the main topographic features:

1. Mountain Ranges:

• Sierra Madre de Chiapas: Extends through southern Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador. It
includes high peaks such as Tajumulco, the highest in Central America.

• Cordillera Isabelia: Runs through Nicaragua and Honduras, featuring highlands and rugged
terrain.

• Cordillera de Talamanca: Stretches through Costa Rica and western Panama, with Chirripó as the
highest peak in Costa Rica.

2. Volcanic Chains:
 • Central American Volcanic Arc: A prominent volcanic chain resulting from the subduction of the
Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate. This arc includes numerous active and dormant volcanoes,
such as Fuego, Pacaya, and Arenal.

3. Lowlands and Coastal Plains:

• Pacific Coastal Plain: A narrow lowland strip along the Pacific coast, characterized by fertile
soils and agricultural activity.

• Caribbean Coastal Plain: Broader and more humid than the Pacific coast, with extensive
wetlands, rivers, and tropical rainforests.

4. Highlands:

• Guatemalan Highlands: Located in central and western Guatemala, these highlands are part of the
Sierra Madre de Chiapas and are known for their rugged terrain and volcanic peaks.

• Honduran Highlands: Comprising several mountain ranges and plateaus, these highlands cover
much of central Honduras.

5. Isthmus of Panama:

• A narrow, mountainous region connecting Central and South America. It includes the Panama
Canal, which cuts through the Continental Divide.

6. Rivers and Lakes:

• Lake Nicaragua: The largest lake in Central America, located in Nicaragua.

• Lake Atitlán: A deep, volcanic lake in Guatemala, surrounded by highlands and volcanoes.

• San Juan River: Flows from Lake Nicaragua to the Caribbean Sea, forming part of the border
between Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

Volcanic Arc and volcanoes

The Central American Volcanic Arc is a prominent volcanic chain extending along the Pacific coast
from southern Mexico through Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and into
northern Panama. It is the result of the subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the Caribbean Plate.
Here are some key volcanoes and regions along this arc:

Guatemala

1. Volcán Tajumulco:

• The highest peak in Central America (4,220 meters or 13,845 feet).

• Dormant stratovolcano.

2. Volcán de Fuego:

• One of the most active volcanoes in Central America.

• Known for frequent, explosive eruptions.

3. Volcán Pacaya:

• Continuously active since the 1960s.

• Popular with tourists for lava viewing.

4. Volcán Agua:

• Dormant stratovolcano near Antigua.

• Known for its symmetrical cone shape.

El Salvador

1. Izalco:

• Known as the “Lighthouse of the Pacific” due to its frequent eruptions in the 19th and 20th
centuries.

• Last erupted in 1966.

2. Santa Ana (Ilamatepec):

• The highest volcano in El Salvador.

• Last erupted in 2005.

Nicaragua

1. Momotombo:

• Active stratovolcano.

• Famous for its symmetrical cone and historical eruptions, including a significant eruption in
2015.
2. Masaya:

• One of the most active and accessible volcanoes.

• Known for its persistent lava lake and frequent gas emissions.

3. Concepción:

• Located on Ometepe Island in Lake Nicaragua.

• Active stratovolcano with frequent explosive eruptions.

Costa Rica

1. Arenal:

• One of the most active volcanoes

in Costa Rica until 2010.

• Known for its conical shape and

past lava flows.

2. Poás:

• Features one of the largest active

craters in the world.

• Notable for its acidic crater lake and frequent phreatic eruptions.

3. Rincón de la Vieja:

• Complex volcano with numerous eruptive vents.

• Known for geothermal activity and recent eruptions.

Panama

1. Barú: • The highest volcano in Panama (3,474 meters or 11,398 feet).• Dormant stratovolcano,
but with the potential for future activity.
CONTINENT-CONTINENT SUBDUCTION RELATED VOLCANISM :
INTRODUCTION:

Continent-continent collision is a process that occurs when two continental plates converge
and collide, resulting in the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and other geological features. This
type of collision can lead to various volcanic activities, shaping the Earth's surface. In this type of
convergent boundary, a powerful collision occurs. The two thick continental plates collide, and both of
them have a density that is much lower than the mantle, which prevents subduction (there may be a
small amount of subduction, or the heavier lithosphere below the continental crust might break free
from the crust and subduct). Fragments of crust or continent margin sediments might be caught
in the collision zone between the continents, forming a highly deformed melange of rock. The
intense compression can also cause extensive folding and faulting of rocks within the two
colliding plates. This deformation can extend hundreds of miles into the plate interior.

Plate tectonics has provided a unifying explanation for many diverse geological and geophysical
observations. The idea of rigid plate motion with narrow zones of deformation gives an
accurate description of plate boundaries such as mid-ocean ridges and transform faults.
Convergent margins where oceanic crust is subducted can also exhibit narrow zones of
deformation extending from the surface to depths in excess of 600 km. However, when both
colliding plates contain continental crust, continued subduction is not possible owing to the
lower density of continental crust compared to oceanic crust. If the region of continental crust
on one plate is relatively small, terrane accretion can occur, with the arc jumping to the
outboard side of the accreted terrane (Rotstein and Kafka 1982). Terrane accretion was first
recognized in the Southern Canadian Cordillera (Coney et al. 1980) and contributes to the
growth of the continents over time. It occurs today in the Northern Canadian Cordillera as the
Yakutat block is accreted to North America (Mazzotti and Hyndman 2002). If the accreted block
is continental in size then a continent–continent collision will occur and deformation can extend
over horizontal distances of thousands of kilometers and the plate boundary becomes a broad
region rather than a narrow zone. Continent–continent collisions are important because they
have led to the assembly of the modern continents, have influenced global weather patterns
such as the monsoon etc.

The Pyrenees, Alps, Zagros and Himalaya are all associated with Neo-Tethyan subduction and
represent the youngest collisional orogens on Earth .The four orogens can be divided into simple
and composite types. Simple orogens are represented by the Pyrenees and the Alps, and are
characterized by narrow linear shapes in plain view and symmetric structures in cross-section, are
free of arc magmatism, In contrast, composite orogens, as exemplified by the Zagros-Iranian and
Himalayan-Tibetan Plateaus, are associated with broad orogenic plateaus in plain view and
asymmetrical structures in cross-section, record extensive arc magmatism in continental margins.
 Fig1: Map of the world’s largest mountain ranges

Causes of Volcanism during continent-continent collision:

1. Crustal Thickening: The collision causes the Earth's crust to thicken, leading to an increase in
pressure and temperature. This can result in the melting of rocks and the formation of magma.

2. Magma Generation: The melting of rocks produces magma, which rises to the surface,
causing volcanic eruptions.

3. Lithospheric Delamination: The collision can cause the lithosphere (the outermost solid layer
of the Earth) to break off, leading to the upwelling of hot mantle rocks and magma generation.

Types of Volcanism:
1. Arc Volcanism: The subduction of one plate beneath the other can lead to the formation of a
volcanic arc, characterized by strato volcanoes and calc-alkaline magmas.

2. Collisional Volcanism: The collision itself can cause volcanism, resulting in the formation of
volcanoes and the eruption of alkaline magmas.

3. Post-Collisional Volcanism: After the collision, extensional processes can lead to the
formation of rifts and the eruption of alkaline and tholeiitic magmas.
Mechanisms of Volcanism:
Compression and Extension:

During continent-continent collision, compressional forces can lead to crustal thickening and
uplift in some areas. This compression may create extensional stresses in other regions,
promoting volcanic activity along faults and rift zones.

Subduction and Volcanic Arcs:

One of the prominent features of continent-continent convergence is subduction, where one

continental plate sinks beneath another. This process can generate volcanic arcs on the
overriding plate due to melting of the descending plate and the mantle above it.

Intraplate Volcanism:

In some cases, continent-continent collision can trigger intraplate volcanism away from plate
boundaries. This may occur due to localized mantle plumes or hotspots influenced by the
tectonic stresses of the collision.

Metamorphic Processes:

Intense crustal deformation and metamorphism during continent-continent collision can result
in partial melting of crustal rocks, forming magmas that may lead to volcanic eruptions.

Types of Volcanic Features:

Volcanic Arcs:

Formed parallel to the boundary between colliding continents, volcanic arcs such as the Andes
in South America and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska are classic examples.

Rift Volcanism:

Rift valleys can form as continents stretch and thin during collision, leading to volcanic activity
along rift zones, as seen in parts of East Africa (e.g., East African Rift System).

Intraplate Volcanism:

Hotspots or mantle plumes can create volcanoes within continental interiors due to the stress
and deformation caused by continent-continent collision.
Example of continent-continent collisional related
volcanism:
The Arabia–Eurasia collision zone is one of the very few places on Earth where it is possible to
study active volcanism associated with a continent–continent collision event. The geodynamic
processes that drive volcanism remain unresolved, with numerous and sometimes conflicting
models for its origin. Most of the volcanism in the region is located on the Anatolian–
Armenian–Iranian Plateau, a broad uplifted region to the north and east of the Arabian
foreland, with an average elevation of over 2 km. The lithospheric structure of this plateau is
considered to show a strong contrast between very thin mantle lithosphere in the west (below
Eastern Anatolia), and very thick mantle lithosphere in the Zagros Core to the SE (Fig. 1), below
western Iran.

fig 2: The map showing the three

plates namely African Plate,
Arabian Plate, Indian plate
colliding the big Eurasian Plate in
the same direction resultantly in
the formation of continent
continent collisional mountain
belts

Figure 3: Arabian plate boundaries

adapted from Johnson and Stern,
The Lesser Caucasus mountains sit close to the edge of the Zagros Core region, and therefore close to a
transition from thick to thin lithosphere. The region thus provides an opportunity to look at the
influence of lithospheric thickness on the geochemistry of collision-related magmas. Figure 1 shows the
four volcanic highlands considered in this study, which form a NW–SE transect almost orthogonal to
contours of lithospheric thickness from Priestley et al. (2012), which increase from NW to SE. It should
be noted that the resolution on these lithospheric thickness estimates is limited by the 30–50 km
vertical resolution of the seismic tomography data (McKenzie & Priestley, 2008). The model is used
because it is likely to give better local resolution in the Lesser Caucasus region than other global
lithospheric thickness studies.

Fig. 4
Terrane map of the Caucasus region with inset showing the location of the Caucasus mountains.
The major tectonic blocks are labelled, which from north to south are: Greater Caucasus, Kura
Basin, Pontides–Lesser Caucasus (LCA)–Alborz Mesozoic–early Cenozoic arc, Taurides–Anatolides–
South Armenian Block (SAB)–Cimmeria microcontinent terranes, East Anatolian Accretionary
Complex (EAAC), Bitlis Mountains and the Arabian foreland. Terrane boundaries are after Neill et
al. (2015). Red triangles denote the locations of major composite volcanoes. The locations of
volcanic highlands that are used for the geochemical comparison that forms the focus of this study
are shown by the coloured fields: 1, Shirak and Lori (Neill et al., 2013, 2015); 2, Gegham (I. P. Savov,
unpublished data); 3, Vardenis; 4, Syunik. New data for this study are from volcanic highlands 3 and
4. These volcanic highlands are close to parallel to major tectonic boundaries in the collision zone.
Volcanic rocks from NW Iran referred to in the text are from the region labelled at the bottom of the
map. Contours of lithospheric thickness from Priestley et al. (2012) are shown in red; numbers give
lithospheric thickness in kilometres. The ‘Zagros Core’ refers to the region of maximum lithosphere
thickness in the collision zone.
Volcanic rocks from the SE of this transect, where the lithosphere is thought to be thicker, are
known to be more potassic than volcanic rocks from the NW (Meliksetian, 2013). This study
provides the first complete geochemical dataset for volcanic rocks from the SE of the Lesser
Caucasus. This dataset includes a complete range of compositions from basanite to rhyolite,
which are used to evaluate the extent to which crustal contamination is an important
component of magma petrogenesis. We then compare the geochemistry of the more primitive
mafic volcanic rocks between the NW and SE of the Lesser Caucasus, and the mechanisms by
which thicker lithosphere in the SE might influence the geochemistry of volcanic rocks found
there. To indicate how thicker mantle lithosphere might influence the composition of magmas,
volcanic rocks from a region of very thick lithosphere (>200 km) in NW Iran (Fig. 1; Allen et al.,
2013) are used as an end-member comparison of melting in a thick lithosphere regime.

Pre-collision geological history

The evolution of the Arabia–Eurasia collision zone, as a part of the Alpine–Himalayan orogenic
belt, is a consequence of the closure of the Neotethys Ocean (Rolland, 2017, and references
therein). The pre-Miocene geology of the territory of Armenia and the Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 2),
like much of the interior of the Anatolian–Armenian–Iranian Plateau, is a complex
amalgamation of a series of terranes (microplates), which accreted to the Eurasian continental
margin during the closure of the Tethys Ocean (Hosseinpour et al., 2016; Rolland, 2017). The
north and east of Armenia include rocks associated with the Mesozoic to early Cenozoic
volcanic arc of the Lesser Caucasus (Mederer et al., 2013), an eastern continuation of the
Pontides of Anatolia. The Pontide and Lesser Caucasus arcs together formed the active
southern margin of the Eurasian Plate (Yilmaz et al., 2000). Figure 3 illustrates the various
stages of closure of the Neotethys Ocean. During the Mesozoic there were probably several
subduction zones that contributed to the closure of the northern and southern Neotethys
Basins.
Fig. 5

Geological map of the major geological units of the Lesser Caucasus mountains within the
territory of Armenia. After Kharazyan (2005), Mederer et al. (2013) and Neill et al. (2015). The
volcanic highlands that form the focus of this study are numbered: 1, Shirak and Lori; 2,
Gegham; 3, Vardenis; 4, Syunik. The bold black line shows the Pambak–Sevan–Syunik strike-
slip fault zone.
Fig. 6

Illustration of the progressive closure of the oceanic domains that separated Arabia from Eurasia
during the Mesozoic, after Rolland (2017). SAB, South Armenian Block; SAB–BP, South Armenian
Block–Bitlis Poturge terrane. The movement of the Bitlis Poturge terrane from Arabia to the South
Armenian Block is not shown in these figures but occurs between panels 1 and 2.

GEOLOGY AND GEOCHRONOLOGY OF COLLISION-RELATED VOLCANISM IN THE LESSER CAUCASUS

Three major styles of volcanic activity can be observed in the Lesser Caucasus. The first of these is
relatively low-volume eruptions from mostly small eruptive centres in monogenetic volcanic fields.
In both the north and south of the Lesser Caucasus, this style of volcanism becomes increasingly
dominant in the most recent eruptive products . Second, large composite volcanoes are also found
throughout the Lesser Caucasus. In the central Lesser Caucasus, such a volcano is Aragats , and in
the south the smaller stratovolcanoes Tskhouk and Ishkhanasar dominate the landscape. Such
large volcanoes (4090 m altitude, ∼70 km diameter in the case of Aragats), capable of generating
many caldera collapse eruptions, are required to produce the ignimbrites that are widespread
throughout the Lesser Caucasus. Finally, large fissure-fed ‘flood basalt’ style lava flows are found
predominantly in some of the older (∼3–2·05 Ma) volcanic successions (Sheth ET AL., 2015).

CONCLUSION:

It appears that a melt source exists at somewhat less than 100 km depth regardless of the
lithospheric thickness across the Anatolian–Armenian–Iranian plateau. This is consistent
with the geophysical observations of Maggi & Priestley (2005), which show a low shear
wave velocity at around 100 km depth below the entire plateau. Further work on
understanding the interplay between lithospheric thickness and melt generation in
continental collision zones would benefit from detailed tomographic work in the critical
region of the Lesser Caucasus to help us better understand how the thickness of the
lithosphere varies along this mountain range. Investigations of the petrogenesis of
primitive magmatic rocks from NW Iran could elucidate whether thermal relaxation of a
kinked geothermal gradient is a viable mechanism to generate magma in the mid-
lithosphere. Studies of stable fluid-sensitive isotope systems such as O and B would help
decipher the nature and role of inherited subduction components in the generation of
collision-related magmas.
Indian continental lithosphere and related volcanism

Holocene volcanism of the Monywa volcano (MWV):

Magmatic processes that occur during the transition from oceanic to continental subduction and
collision in orogens are critical and still poorly resolved. Oceanic slab detachment in particular is
hypothesized to mark a fundamental change in magmatism and deformation within an orogen. Here,
we report on two Quaternary volcanic centres of Myanmar that may help us better understand the
process of slab detachment. The Monywa volcanic rocks are composed of low‐K tholeiitic, medium‐K
calk‐alkaline, and high‐K to shoshonitic basalts with arc signatures, while the Singu volcanic rocks show
geochemical characteristics similar to asthenosphere‐derived magmas.

An important tectonic magmatic change during a Wilson cycle is expected to occur at the transition
from oceanic to continental subduction and continental collision. Various segments of Tethyan orogen
formed as the result of the Tethyan Ocean consumption from western Europe into Asia are great
examples of areas that underwent such a transition at one time or another during the Cenozoic or
Mesozoic. Not all segments were magmatically active through this transition, but those who were
provide the geologic record of major changes in the convergence process. Unlike the oceanic crust,
which is easily subducted along most convergent margins, the continental crust is generally more
buoyant and thus resists subduction. However, ultrahigh pressure metamorphic terrains demonstrate
that continental crust can, at minimum, partially subduct to depths of 150–200 km and seismic
observations strongly suggest that they can be buried to >300 km. The buoyancy forces during
continental subduction and strength limits of the lithosphere favor a scenario in which the oceanic
lithosphere detaches from the neighbouring continental lithosphere. Slab detachment results in
asthenosphere upwelling through the newly developed slab window and a perturbation to the thermal
structure of the preexisting mantle wedge. This results in a source change from melting the
predominately metasomatized mantle wedge of the overriding plate to melting the asthenosphere
itself. This change in magmatism is widely used to delineate the timing and spatial distribution of slab
detachment in the Mediterranean region. The slab detachment model also has been applied to explain
the early Cenozoic tectonic and magmatic evolution in the India‐Asia collision zone. When invoking
“slab detachment” as a trigger, however, caution must be exercised without convincing geophysical
and geological observations.
By looking at an example from an active slab detachment, it is possible to critically evaluate ancient
ones; unfortunately, very few modern or very young such transitions exist. The Burmese microplate is
an exception located above a transition from oceanic to continental lithosphere of the subducting
Indian plate (Figure 1). Continental lithosphere of the Indian plate is being (partially) subducted
beneath the Himalayan‐Tibetan orogen of the Eurasian plate, whereas oceanic lithosphere outboard
of the Indian plate is subducting along the Andaman‐Sunda‐Java trench to the east. Because of this
favorable along plate transition, slab detachment is postulated and, at some point, expected beneath
the Burmese microplate (Figure 1)

Figure 1. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) map of the NE Indian plate and the Eurasian plate (www.geomapapp.org). The blue solid line
delineates the lowest edge of the subducted Indian ocean lithosphere beneath the Sunda‐Andaman arcs, whereas the orange solid line
delineates the Indian continental lithosphere subduction front beneath northern Tibet at depths of 100–200 km. The Indian lower crust
subduction front is denoted by the green dashed line. Orientations of Tibetan mantle flow (pink arrow) is marked by yellow lines from seismic
anisotropy measurements. Surface displacements obtained from GPS observations are marked by dark blue arrows. Distributions of the
Pliocene‐Quaternary volcanic centers are marked by filled circles in central and northern Tibet, Tengchong in SE Tibet, Myanmar, Andaman‐
Sunda arcs, and Khorat Plateau, Thailand.
Understanding the different mantle melting processes (i.e., fluid fluxing and decompression) and
determining their relative importance in the generation of primary basalts is important for geodynamic
research. Quaternary volcanic rocks in central Myanmar are compositionally different from similar age
volcanic rocks along the Andaman‐Sunda‐Java arc to the S‐SE (Figure 1) and have noticeably low
production rates and lack a well‐defined volcanic belt (Figure 2a).

Figure 2. (a) Schematic map of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and central Myanmar. The approximate axis of the Wuntho ‐Monywa‐Popa
(WMP) arc is shown by a green dashed line. The red line indicates the location of the cross section in Figure 2a. (b and c) Simplified geological
maps for the Monywa and Singu volcanic centers, respectively.

For one reason, they are basaltic, thus representing ideal candidates to study mantle melting
processes. In order to better understand mantle melting processes during oceanic to continental
subduction transition, we investigated the chemical evolution of Quaternary volcanic rocks in the
Burmese microplate. Our new results support a hypothesis of active slab tearing in the inferred
transitional zone between oceanic and continental subduction on the Indian plate.
At most “typical” subduction zones, mantle wedge melting is generally induced by fluid fluxing and
decompression. However, subduction beneath the Burmese microplate is highly oblique according to
geophysical, geodetic, and geological data below. Tomographic images suggest an eastward
subduction of a high velocity anomaly beneath the Indo‐Burmese Ranges, while the Burmese
microplate is mechanically driven northward with the Indian plate. The state of stress inferred from
earthquakes does not support eastward relative motion of the Indian plate but rather northward
motion with respect to the Sunda plate. Global positioning system results indicate that northward
motion of the Indian plate relative to the Sunda plate is accommodated primarily by slip on the CM
and Sagaing right‐lateral strike‐slip faults. Pull‐apart basins developed, and E‐W shortening is
dominantly produced by strain partitioning of the major right‐lateral shearing deformation rather than
thrusting. These observations above indicate that subduction beneath the Indo‐Burmese Ranges has
stopped and thus the E‐W corner flow of convective mantle wedge is almost stagnated or “locked” as
a result of this unusual highly oblique subduction(fig. Therefore, both fluid‐fluxing and decompression
of peridotite within a typical mantle wedge would be suppressed or ineffective for causing melting
beneath Myanmar. In this scenario, additional heating would be required to trigger mantle melting
beneath Myanmar; however, the precise trigger for melting is unclear. Two distinct models for
generation of the Quaternary volcanic rocks in Tengchong (Yunnan, China) and Myanmar were
proposed: subduction of the 90°E ridge and the roll‐back followed by slab “break‐off”.

Figure 3. Southward slab tearing between Indian oceanic and continental lithosphere as the trigger for Quaternary volcanism
in central Burmese microplate.

If the 90°E ridge model is considered, thick oceanic plateau would be more buoyant than the adjacent
oceanic lithosphere and thus promote tearing of the down‐going slab with possibly flatter subduction
along the ~410 km discontinuity where the melts of the Tengchong volcanic rocks may have originated
from. However, much of the 90°E Ridge is probably covered by Bengal turbidites (Figure 1). The
bathymetric expression of the 90°E Ridge can be observed on the floor of the Indian Ocean.
Multichannel seismic studies indicate that the 90°E Ridge is present below the thick marine strata of
the Bengal Fan between 15°N and 21°N. Furthermore, the 90°E Ridge as a result of the Kerguelen
plume magmatism can be traced through the Rajmahal and Sylhet Traps of northeastern India and
Cuomei of the Tethyan Himalaya. Therefore, there is little evidence supporting the notion that the 90°E
Ridge has been subducted beyond the Burmese microplate for generating the Tengchong volcanic
rocks because of orientation and long horizontal distance (~500 km) to the Kerguelen trace (Figure 1).

Figure 4. (a) Inferred tectonic setting and melting model for the central Myanmar quaternary volcanism (E‐W section line
shown in Figures 1 and 2). (b) Tomographic image from Li et al. (2008); line of the section passes ~200 km north of the
Monywa‐Singu volcanic centers. In our opinion, this image indicates that the upwelling of the Indian asthenosphere is
probably triggered by the slab detachment where the Indian oceanic lithosphere is being detached from the Indian
continental lithosphere. Burmese microplate is wedged between India and Sunda plate and bounded by the CM and Sagaing
right‐lateral strike‐slip faults. Earlier subducted Indian plate of oceanic and continental crust provided fluxing fluids that
metasomatized the overriding Burmese mantle wedge. Exotic heat transferred by infilling of the Indian MORB asthenosphere
through a window where the slab tearing occurred between Indian oceanic and continental lithosphere. As melting depths
decrease, melting of the Burmese mantle wedge produced a variety of high‐K to shoshonitic, medium‐K calc‐alkaline, and
low‐K tholeiitic basalts in Monywa. This upwelling asthenosphere experienced decompression melting and also heated the
overlying asthenosphere layer, which flowed from SE Tibet. Mixing of these two isotopically distinct asthenospheric melts
explains the origin of the Singu OIB‐like rocks, which are in isotopic compositions distinct from those of the Khroat Plateau
(Thailand) OIB basalts. Sedimentary strata of Indo‐Burmese Wedge and central Myanmar basin are modified after Licht et al.
(2018).

The westward directed rollback of the Indian oceanic lithosphere has been invoked as the primary
causal of melting of the heterogeneous mantle beneath western Myanmar, although the
spatiotemporal relationship between magmatism and rollback is unclear. Associations of scattered
contemporaneous arc‐like and OIB‐like basalts have been ascribed to slab break‐off and the formation
of a slab window. However, it seems unlikely that slab break‐off following rollback of the Indian slab
occurred because the geodynamic processes usually result in broad mantle melting and a prolonged
magmatic “flare‐up” (e.g., 65–40 Ma Linzizong volcanic rocks and Gangdese batholiths, Chung et al.,
2005; Lee, Luffi, et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2015, and Neogene Mediterranean volcanic rocks, Dilek &
Altunkaynak, 2009; Prelević et al., 2015). This contrasts with the observations that the volume of
Quaternary volcanic rocks in central Myanmar is relatively low. Slab detachment is a migratory process,
nucleating in one location and then migrating laterally. The tearing process may accelerate as the slab
anchor force becomes focused over a decreasing area. The Burmese microplate is situated above a
subduction transition from ocean to continent for the Indian plate (Figure 1). Therefore, we propose a
southward propagating tear model in which the Indian oceanic lithosphere is being detached from its
continental lithosphere (Figure 3) to generate the variable geochemical compositions of the
Quaternary volcanic rocks described in this study (Figure 4a). This is consistent with the tomographic
images indicating fast anomalies in the mantle dipping at 50–60° in the north near the eastern
Himalayan syntaxis (Namche Barwa) and the subducted Indian lithosphere dipping at ~30° in the south
near the Bay of Bengal area. In this zone between the Namche Barwa and the Bay of Bengal, we
envision initiation of tearing along the subducting Indian plate and suggest that tearing may have
started near the transition between oceanic and continental lithosphere in part due to the buoyant
resistance to subduction of the latter (Figure 3). In this scenario the slab tearing facilitated some
transfer of fresh Indian asthenosphere through the developing tear window (Figure 4). The transfer of
this asthenosphere through the tearing window may have provided some additional heat to induce
small degrees of mantle melting beneath the Burmese microplate. We envision a scenario in which
upwelling of the hot Indian asthenosphere (Figure 4b) would heat up both the previously
metasomatized mantle wedge and the enriched asthenosphere layer sourced from the SE Tibet mantle
flow (Figure 3). Partial melting of the Myanmar mantle wedge by the juxtaposition of relatively hot
asthenosphere, previously metasomatized during earlier subduction of the Indian oceanic lithosphere,
produced the Monywa low‐K tholeiitic, medium‐K calc‐alkaline, and high‐K to shoshonitic basalts at
different depths. Partial melting of the isotopically enriched Tibetan asthenosphere mantle as well as
decompression melting of the upwelling Indian depleted mantle at garnet stability fields produced the
OIB‐like Singu magmas with Sr‐Nd isotope signatures mixed between the Indian and Tibetan mantle
sources. Slab tearing, unlike full detachment, can only provide limited heat, which would account for
the low degrees melting, low magmatic productivity, and the narrow but linear distributions of basaltic
rocks in central Myanmar. This would explain the relatively small volume of Quaternary volcanism but
would imply that mantle melting and thus volcanism could accelerate in the future. Furthermore, the
redistribution and concentration of the slab pull force due to slab tearing (Figure 4a) are expected to
affect the retreating migration of convergent plate margins, leading to an increase in arc curvature.
This provides an alternative model to explain the westward convex of the Indo‐Burmese Ranges (Figure
1), though this arc curvature may also be correlated with crustal flow from SE Tibet.

The Burmese microplate, associated with Quaternary volcanism in a highly oblique subduction setting,
is located above a transition from subduction of Indian oceanic lithosphere to continental lithosphere.
The short‐lived, low magmatic production of the Quaternary Myanmar volcanism as well as its nearly
linear spatial distribution is a function of its deep geodynamics and positions above a slab tearing
window where Indian oceanic lithosphere is being detached from continental lithosphere beneath
Burmese microplate at mantle depths.
Ocean-Ocean
Subduction Zone
The features of a subduction zone where
an oceanic plate subducts beneath
another oceanic plate are the same as a
continent-ocean subduction zone. An
ocean trench marks the location where
the plate is pushed down into the mantle.
In this case, the line of volcanoes that
grows on the upper oceanic plate is an
island arc.
 We continue our trip up western North America
to find a convergent plate boundary where
oceanic crust subducts beneath oceanic crust.
A line of volcanoes, known as the Aleutian
Islands, lie off the southwestern coast of Alaska
and extend across the northern Pacific Ocean
towards Russia. These islands are the result of
ocean-ocean convergence. In this satellite
image is an erupting volcano, topped by snow
or ice, and surrounded by seawater – a member
of the Aleutian chain. Let’s take a look at this
boundary and the volcanic arc.
What Is an Island Arc?

 Volcanic island arcs are major structures of

ocean basin features. They are long, typically
curved, volcanic island chains found on the
basin margins. Their shape is an important
feature. They are typically concave toward the
bordering continent and convex toward the
ocean basin. A deep trench is located on the
ocean basin side of the arc. A trench is a long,
narrow, and deep topographic low in the ocean
floor, which is typically located along a
converging plate boundary.
 Some well-known island arcs include
 Japanese Islands
 Aleutian Islands near Alaska
 Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean
 Mariana Islands
 Island arcs are formed due to subduction of
an oceanic plate beneath another.
Subduction is defined as the motion of a
plate as it slides beneath another plate.
 Island Arcs and the Ring of Fire

 The Ring of Fire is an island arc, or a chain of

islands that form as the result of volcanic activity
when one tectonic plate slides underneath
another. It is located in a region roughly
encircling the Pacific Ocean, where there is a lot
of tectonic activity that causes numerous
volcanoes, earthquakes, and island arcs. Most of
the world’s island arcs are in this region, like for
example, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska.
The majority of volcanic arcs are located within
the Ring of Fire, including:

Japanese Islands
Mariana Islands
Aleutian Islands
Indonesian Volcanic Islands
Kuril Islands
Philippine Islands
Solomon Islands
 Figure. Crustal structure of the Izu-Ogasawara arc
system (Takahashi et al., 2009). Crustal thickness
varies from 10 km west of the current volcanic arc to
24 km beneath the current arc (taking 7.9 km s−1 as
the top of mantle). Key: UC, upper crust. The lower
crust is 5–10 km thick and has a relatively high P-wave
velocity of 6.8–7.4 km s−1, indicative of a mafic
(gabbroic) composition. The crust-mantle transition
layer reaches a thickness of 5 km, has a P-wave
velocity of 7.5–7.6 km, and is likely composed of
interlayered mafic and ultramafic rocks. The
accretion of island arcs as depicted here will not
yield typical continental crust because the arc crust
is more mafic that continental crust which has a
more intermediate crustal composition.
 Summary
 If the two plates that meet at a convergent plate
boundary both are of oceanic crust, the older,
denser plate will subduct beneath the less dense
plate.
 The features of an ocean-ocean subduction
zone are the same as those of an ocean-
continent subduction zone, except that the
volcanic arc will be a set of islands known as an
island arc.
 The older plate subducts into a trench, resulting
in earthquakes. Melting of mantle material
creates volcanoes at the subduction zone.
Thank You