REPUBLIC OF KENYA

LEARNING GUIDE

FOR

PLUMBING

LEVEL 3

TVET CDACC
P.O. BOX 15745-00100
NAIROBI
First published 2020
©Copyright TVET CDACC

All rights reserved. No part of this learning guide may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods without the prior written permission of the TVET CDACC, except in the
case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-commercial uses
permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the Council Secretary/CEO, at the
address below:

Council Secretary/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
P.O. Box 15745–00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Email: info@[Link]
Website: [Link]

1
 FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in
education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training
in Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change
in the design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(TVET) which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy
requires that training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led,
certification be based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery allows for
multiple entry and exit in TVET programs.

The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan
labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the
need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique
needs of the industry.

This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Plumbing level 3 and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning process. It is my
conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting the development of
competent human resource for construction sector’s growth and sustainable development.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

2
 PREFACE
Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-income
country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable Development
Goals (sdgs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of
lifelong learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important driver to economic
development for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human
resource base to meet the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.

TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm
shift to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between
skills acquired through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global
competitiveness of Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No.
29 of 2013 and the Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya,
emphasizes the need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the
unique needs of the industry.

To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Plumbing level 3, this learning guide has been designed
and organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome of every unit of
learning. The guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools, equipment,
supplies, and materials necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at imparting the
relevant knowledge, requisite skills and the right attitude for work.

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

Prof. CHARLES M. M. ONDIEKI, phd, FIET (K), Con. Eng Tech.

CHAIRMAN, TVET CDACC

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and
right attitude needed for work in the Construction sector.

DR. LAWRENCE GUANTAI M’ITONGA, phd

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET CDACC

4
 ACRONYMS
BC Basic Competency

CDACC Curriculum Development, Assessment and

Certification Council

BIM building information modeling

CR Core Competency

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

CAD Computer Aided Design

CM Common Competency

PP Polypropylene

CON Construction Sector

PL Plumbing

SDG Sustainable Development Goals

KNQA Kenya National Qualifications Authority

NEMA National Environmental Management

Authority

OS Occupational Standard

OSHA Occupation Safety and Health Act

PPE Personal Protective equipment

TVET Technical and Vocational Education and

Training

5
TABLE OF CONTENT

6
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

7
Background Information

This learning guide will enable the trainee to acquire competencies to undertake various
processes in plumbing technology. It provides practical and theoretical learning activities,
simplified content, illustrations and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning
process of identification of piping materials, measurement, fitting and connection of pipe work.

Layout of the Trainee Guide

Performance standards: These are obtained from the performance criteria statements in the
related unit of competency of the Occupational Standards (OS)

Information Sheet: This section covers information relating to the specific learning outcome.
This information should include but not limited to meaning of terms, methods, processes/
procedures/ guidelines, Illustrations (photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content
links, simulations links) and case studies. This section also provides additional information
sources relevant to the learning outcome e.g. Books, web links

Learning activities: This section covers practical activities related to the Performance Criteria
statements, Knowledge in relation to Performance Criteria as given under content in the
curriculum Special instructions related to learning activities

Self-Assessment: This section must be related to the Performance Criteria, Required Knowledge
and Skills in the Occupational Standards. This section requires the trainee to evaluate their
acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude in relation to the learning outcome. A variety of
assessment items such as written and practical tests which emphasizes on the application of
knowledge, skills and attitude is recommended

The self-assessment items should be valid, relevant and comprehensive to the level of
qualification in the learning outcome

Tools, equipment, materials and supplies: This section should provide for the requirements of
the learning outcome in terms of tools, equipment, supplies and materials. The section should be
adequate, relevant and comprehensive for the learning outcome.

References: Information sources should be quoted and presented as required in the APA format

The units of learning covered in this learning guide are as presented in the table below:

8
Common Units of Learning
Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title

CON/CU/PL/CC/01/3 Environmental Literacy

CON/CU/PL/CC/02/3 Occupational Safety and Health Practices

Core Units of Learning

Unit of Learning Code Unit of Learning Title

CON/CU/PL/CR/01/3 Installation of Pipes in Buildings

CON/CU/PL/CR/02/3 Installation of Sanitary Appliances
CON/CU/PL/CR/03/3 Installation of Storage and Pumping System
CON/CU/PL/CR/04/3 Maintenance of Plumbing Systems

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CHAPTER 1: Installation of Pipes in Buildings
Unit of learning code CON/CU/PL/CR/01/3

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Install pipes in buildings

1.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to install pipes in buildings. It involves
identification of piping materials, measurement, fitting and connection of pipe work as it applies
in the construction industry.

1.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Interpret drawings

2. Use piping tools and equipment

3. Quantify materials requirements

4. Fit-up domestic pipe work

5. Test functionality of pipe work

1.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Interpret drawings

[Link] Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit specifies the competencies required to interpreting drawings involved in installing pipes in
buildings. The plumber will be able to convert imperial and metric measurements, use different types
of scales, identify and interpret piping symbols, position the different pipes in a working drawing.

Performance Standard
1.1 Drawings are differentiated based on type of drawing
1.2 The scale of the drawing is read based on the provided key.
1.3 Imperial measurements are converted into metric measurements based on
conversion table.
1.4 Symbols are identified based on internationally accepted codes.
1.5 Isometric piping drawings are drawn based on internationally accepted codes.

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 [Link] Information Sheet
 Terms and Concepts
i. Working drawing; is a drawing or blueprint based on explanations. It is
completed with a thorough plan and views (details, notes, and dimensions) to
ensure the product construction or replication without any additional information.
It may include title blocks, dimensions, notation and symbols. It is important that
these are consistent with industry standards so that their precise meaning is clear
and can be understood

ii. Construction drawing?

Construction drawing is a set of drawings utilized for displaying the relation
between varied parts of the project. In construction, the drawing will display all
the axes of columns, all the dimensions including the ones needed to relate or
assemble all the parts altogether or locations such as in between the walls,
openings, and components. The consultants produce these.
iii. Symbol
Is a simplified image of component or things they represent.
iv. Blueprint
A reproduction of a technical drawing or engineering drawing using a contact
print process on light-sensitive sheets.

v. A plan

A view from above showing the arrangement of spaces in building in the same way as
a map, but showing the arrangement at a particular level of a building

Block plan used in identifying the site and locate the outline of the building in relation
to the surrounding.

vi. An elevation

Is a view of a building seen from one side, a flat representation of one front of a
building
vii. Cross section, also simply called a section,
It represents a vertical plane cut through the object, in the same way as a floor plan is a
horizontal section viewed from the top
viii. Detail drawings
Show a small part of the construction at a larger scale, to show how the component
parts fit together.
ix. Ancillary equipment
Is machines and other technical things which are used with the main items of
equipment to create a complete system.

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 Types of Working Drawing (In Construction)
What is working drawing in construction cannot be understood without knowing about its
types. In construction, working drawing is further of 5 types. These include the following
a) Architectural Drawing

An architectural drawing offers a complete view of a building. It exhibits the location of a

building and all the parts of a building where they will be seen. Different architectural drawings
are known by different names such as elevation, section, plan, and so on

Figure 1.1
b) Structural Drawing
This kind of working drawing provides all the information regarding the structure such as
the strength of various structural components, grade, size, structural materials, placement
of reinforcement, etc.

Figure 1.2

c) Electrical Drawing

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 This type of working drawing offers details and the location of electrical wiring, sub-
station, fixtures and so on. The electrical load calculation is also provided in the drawing.

Figure 1.3
d) Plumbing and Sanitary Drawings
This type of working drawings provides the location of piping for water supply, sanitary,
fixture and every process that connects it to every fixture and so on.

Figure 1.4

e) An Isometric Drawing
Is drawing details representing pipes, fittings, and fixtures at a 45° angle, in plain terms
it’s the plumbing drawing scheme. The goal is to represent three-dimensional designs on
two-dimensional drawings as shown in the figure below

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 Figure 1.5

DRAWING SCALE

The scale is a ratio of the size of the drawing to the size of the original object being drawn.
This may be referred to as a scale ratio.

For example, if the scale is 1 cm : 3 cm, then the length of 1 cm in the drawing represents 3 cm
in true size (or original size).

A scale drawing is a drawing where the dimensions are proportional to the actual size of the
object being drawn in a predetermined ratio.

The term scale factor is the ratio of a measurement of the drawing compared to the
corresponding measurement of the original figure.
A scale factor is a number used as a multiplier in scaling. (Units are not mentioned in a scale
factor.)

Example: A sidewalk 20 feet long is drawn on a map as 4 inches in length.

The scale factor of 1/60 tells us that the map is 1/60 times the size of the actual sidewalk.

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 If the scale factor is < 1, the created object is smaller. (reduce)
If the scale factor is > 1, the created object is larger. (enlarge)

Remember that the scale factor is the number you multiply times the initial object's
measurements to get the new, created object.

Scale drawings are used in a variety of fields: art, cartooning, design, advertising, construction,
architecture, floor plans, mapping, geography, landscape, cellular biology, geometry, physics,
astronomy, engineering, chemistry, aerospace, archaeology etc.

Reducing and Enlarging Scales

Objects which are very big in size can’t be represented in drawing to full size. In such cases the
object is represented in reduced size by making use of reducing scales. Reducing scales are used
to represent objects such as large machine parts, buildings, town plans etc. A reducing scale, say
1: 10 means that 10 units length on the object is represented by 1 unit length on the drawing.

Similarly, for drawing small objects such as watch parts, instrument components etc., use of full
Scale may not be useful to represent the object clearly. In those cases enlarging scales are used.
An enlarging scale, say 10: 1 means one unit length on the object is represented by 10 units on
the drawing.

The designation of a scale consists of the word. SCALE, followed by the indication of its ratio
As follows:
Scale 1: 1 for full size scale
Scale 1: x for reducing scales (x = 10, 20 ...... Etc.,)
Scale x: 1 for enlarging scales.

Representative Fraction
The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the
Representative Fraction (RF).

RF = Drawing size of an object (in same units)

Its actual size

For example, if an actual length of 3 meters of an object is represented by a line of 15mm length
on the drawing.

RF = 15mm = 15mm = 1 or 1:200

3m (3x1000) mm 200

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If the desired scale is not available in the set of scales it may be constructed and then used.

Types of Scales
The types of scales normally used are:
1. Plain scales.
2. Diagonal Scales.
3. Vernier Scales.

1. VERNIER SCALES.
The vernier scale is a short auxiliary scale constructed along the plain or main scale, which can
read up to two decimal places.

2. DIAGONAL SCALES.
Plain scales are used to read lengths in two units such as meters and decimeters, centimeters and
Millimeters etc., or to read to the accuracy correct to first decimal.

Diagonal scales are used to represent either three units of measurements such as meters,
decimeters, centimeters or to read to the accuracy correct to two decimals.

Principle of Diagonal Scale

1. Draw a line AB and erect a perpendicular at B.
2. Mark 10 equi-distant points (1,2,3, etc.) Of any suitable length along this perpendicular and
Mark C.
3. Complete the rectangle ABCD
4. Draw the diagonal BD.
5. Draw horizontals through the division points to meet BD at l' , 2' , 3' etc.

Figure 1.6
Principle of Diagonal Scale

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Thus, the lines 1-1', 2 - 2', 3 - 3' etc., measure 0.l CD, 0.2CD, 0.3CD etc. Respectively. Thus,
CD is divided into 1/10 the divisions by the diagonal BD, i.e., each horizontal line is a multiple
of 1/10 CD.
.
Note: B C must be divided into the same number of parts as there are units of the third
dimension in one unit of the secondary division.

3. PLAIN SCALES
A plain scale is simply a line which is divided into a suitable number of equal parts, the first of
Which is further sub-divided into small parts. It is used to represent either two units or a unit and
its fraction such as km and Dm, m and dm, cm and mm etc.

Examples
1. On a survey map the distance between two places 1 km apart is 5 cm. Construct
The scale to read 4.6 km.

Solution:

RF = 5 = 1
1x1000x100cm 20000
If x is the drawing size required x = 5(1000) (100) x 1
20000
Therefore, x = 25 cm

CONVERSION OF MESUREMENT

IMPERIAL AND METRIC MEASUREMENTS

 Imperial units of measurement is traditional system of weights and measures used

officially in Great Britain. Which include Miles, feet, ounces, pints, inches as units of
length

 Metric units of measurement is a system of measurement that succeeded the decimalised

system based on the metre introduced in France.

The metric system is a system of measurement that uses the meter, liter, and gram as
base units of length (distance), capacity (volume), and weight (mass) respectively.

LINEAR MEASURE

1 Centimeter = 10 Millimeters

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1 Decimeter = 10 Centimeters

1 Meter = 10 Decimeters

1 Decameter = 10 Meters

1 Hectometer = 10 Decameter

1 Kilometer = 1000 Meters

METRIC CONVERSION IN TERMS OF LINEAR

1 inch = 25.400 millimeters

1 mm = 0.03937 inch

1 inch = 2.54 cm

1 cm = 0.3937 inch

1 foot = 12 inches

1 inch = 0.08333 foot

1 foot = 0.333 yard

1 yard = 3 feet

1 foot = 0.30481 meter

1 meter = 3.2809 feet

1 yard = 36 inches

1 yard = 91.44 centimeters

1 centimeter = 0.9144 meter

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PLUMBING SYMBOLS
Plumbing symbols are used when drawing house plans and plumbing diagrams. The purpose of
these symbols is to indicate where the different elements of your plumbing system are located.
The table below shows some of the plumbing symbols as applied on fixtures, fittings, pipe, and
valves

Table 3: Plumbing symbols

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20
Table 1.1

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[Link] Learning Activities
Practical activities
 Make a detailed architectural plan of a 3-bedroomed house drawn to a scale of 1:100
 From the plan, make an isometric layout of the piping system in the kitchen and the toilet
area.

[Link] Self-Assessment
a. What is a tool often kept on a plumber's tool belt? It is used to take and make
measurements.
b. What are any THREE classes of pencils used in building drawing?
c. I. Which are four sizes of the drawing papers
[Link] the dimensions of the above papers in mm
d. Why is isometric drawing highly recommended in architectural works?
e. What are the THREE functions of plumbing drawings?
f. What is the type of scale in which the representative fraction is 1:1?
a. Enlarged scale
b. Reduced scale
c. Full size scale
d. Graphical scale

g. The scale used in micrometer is _____________

a. Plain scale
b. Comparative scale
c. Diagonal scale
d. Circular Vernier scale
h. Elevation drawings will include information about
a. Roof pitch
b. Siding
c. Window style
d. All the above

i. 100kg is known as what?

a. A tonne
b. A centogram
c. A centigram
d. A quintal

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

22
Tools/Equipment:
• Drawing boards
• T square
• Set square
• Blueprint machine/printer
• Steel rule
• Lettering stencil
• Scale rule

Materials:

• Drawing papers
• Drawing pencils
• Drawing sets
• Masking tape
• Construction drawings
• Classroom and classroom resources

23
[Link] References

Black & Decker (2008). The Complete Guide to Plumbing (4th ed). Minneapolis: Creative
Publishing international, Inc. Retrieved from [Link]

Chudley, R.G (1988). Building Construction Handbook (4th ed). MA: Reed Educational
and Professional Publishing Ltd.

Muscroft, S. (2005). Plumbing Book (2nd ed). MA: Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

American Society of Plumbing Engineers (2012). Plumbing engineering design

handbook (vol. 4). Retrieved from [Link]

Treloar, R.D (2012), Plumbing book (4TH ed). Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell ltd. Retrieved from

24
 APPENDIX 1

Responses
1. What is a tool often kept on a plumber's tool belt? It is used to take and
make measurements.
 Tape measure
2. What are any THREE classes of pencils used in building drawing?
Class H: these are hard textured pencils
Class B: these are soft textured pencils
Class HB: these are medium textured pencils

3. I. Which are four sizes of the drawing papers

 A0

 A1

 A2

 A3

 A4

Ii. Give the dimensions of the above papers in mm

A0 – 1197 x 840mm

A1 – 840 x 594mm

A2- 594 x 420mm

A3 – 420 x 297mm

A4 – 297 x 210mm

4. Why is isometric drawing highly recommended in architectural works?

 Its easily understandable since it is three dimensional
 It’s easy to interpret

 It gives a quick visual of what is required

5. What are the THREE functions of plumbing drawings?

 To develop a design idea into a coherent proposal,

 To communicate ideas and concepts,

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 To convince clients of the merits of a design,

 To enable a building contractor to construct it,

 As a record of the completed work

6. What is the type of scale in which the representative fraction is 1:1?

a. Enlarged scale
b. Reduced scale
c. Full size scale
d. Graphical scale

7. The scale used in micrometer is _____________

a. Plain scale
b. Comparative scale
c. Diagonal scale
d. Circular Vernier scale
8. Elevation drawings will include information about
a. Roof pitch
b. Siding
c. Window style
d. All the above

9. 100kg is known as what?

a. A tonne
b. A centogram
c. A centigram
d. A quint

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 Learning Outcome 2: Use piping tools and equipment

[Link] Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit specifies the competencies required to install pipes in buildings. It involves
identification of piping tools and equipment, maintenance of the tools and PPE used
during pipework.
[Link] Performance Standard
2.1 Piping tools and equipment are identified based on the requirements of the job.
2.2 Piping tools and equipment are cared for and maintained based on manufacturer’s
manual and workplace place policy.
2.3 Piping tools and equipment are used based on manufacturer’s instructions.
2.4 Piping tools and equipment are stored based on manufacturer’s instructions.
2.5 Personal Protective Equipment is used in line with occupational safety and health
regulations

[Link] Information Sheet

PLUMBING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

A plumber requires several tools for the fitting work for plumbing, fixing a tap or to carryout
repairs. These tools help the plumber in performing his/her work properly, and therefore it is
important that the tools are used systematically and handled carefully to avoid any damage.
Some of the tools include:

Figure 2.0

27
a. Tape Measure
This is a simple equipment which all the plumbers have. A metallic measuring tape rolled
inside a small, compact, plastic case is used to measure the dimensions of plumbing
system and components.

Figure 2.1
b. Hacksaw: - Used for steel, copper and PVC-pipes.

Figure 2.2

c. Pipe cutter: - For steel, copper and PVC pipes. Pipe cutters do not remove any metal.
The wheel squeezes the metal and forces it ahead of the cutter until the pipe is cut
through the wall thickness.

Figure 2.3

d. Self-locking, hinged pipe vice: - For steel pipes only. Pipes to be cut or threaded must be
held steady and prevented from rotating by holding them in a suitable vice.

28
 Figure 2.4

e. Chain pipe vice: - For steel pipes only. These vices are made to hold pipes with outside
diameters up to 8" (200 mm). They are mounted on solid benches.

Figure 2.5

f. Pipe reamer: - For steel-pipes only.

To remove internal burrs caused by cutting pipes. Several types of tapered reamers are available
from ½" to 2" with a cross handle.

Figure 2.6

g. File: - File off all the outside burrs of the galvanized steel pipe with a flat bastard file or
with a half-round bastard file.

29
 Figure 2.7

h. Stock and die:

- For steel pipes only.

These are stock and dies for cutting external threads on bars and small pipes up to 1".

- The stock is a suitable frame with handles to hold and rotate the die.

Figure 2.8

- These dies are used to cut external threads.

Figure 2.9

- The die must be set exactly at an angle of 90 degrees to the bar or pipe-end and is pressed
firmly against the end while rotating the stock clock wise until -the length of the thread is cut.
- Reverse and rotate the stock carefully anti-clock wise. Then repeat to clean out the thread.

30
 Figure 2.10

i. Ratchet stock and die:

- For steel pipes only. It works in the same way as the other model but is adjustable from ½" to
2" and the single cutter can be exchanged.
- It has only one handle and when reversing, the knob has to be turned around.

Figure 2.11

31
 Figure 2.12

j. Stillson pipe wrench:

- It is used for all types of pipes with ½" to 2" diameters.

- The stillson pipe wrench is designed as a heavy-duty tool to withstand rough handling and
heavy work. The jaws give an immediate and positive grip.

Figure 2.13

K) Adjustable spanner: - For tightening or loosening connectors. Available in different sizes

for pipe fittings up to 2".

Figure 2.14

L) Tube flaring tool set:

- Only for copper pipes. Copper pipe-ends must be flared to fit with the copper ring used by
connectors which are tightened with a nut to the pipe.

- The flaring tool consists of two parts. The part in which the pipe is fastened, and the sharp
pointed inserter which is forced with a hammer, or with a spindle into the end of the pipe to
widen it.

32
 Figure 2.15

- This job must be done with accuracy to ensure a sealed joint.

Figure 2.16

Https://[Link]/plumbing-tools-and-equipment-a-professional-plumber-uses/

EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
Equipment maintenance: is any process used to keep a business's equipment in reliable
working order. It may include routine upkeep and corrective repair work.

33
 Equipment may include mechanical assets, tools, heavy off-road vehicles, and computer
systems.
TYPES OF EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
The general types of maintenance are; corrective, preventive, risk-based and condition-
based maintenance.

1. Corrective maintenance; Maintenance is carried out following detection of an anomaly and

aimed at restoring normal operating conditions. This approach is based on the firm belief that the
costs sustained for downtime and repair in case of fault are lower than the investment required
for a maintenance program. This strategy may be cost-effective until catastrophic faults occur

2. Preventive maintenance; Maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or according to

prescribed criteria, aimed at reducing the failure risk or performance degradation of the
equipment. The maintenance cycles are planned according to the need to take the device out of
service. The incidence of operating faults is reduced.

3. Risk-based maintenance; Maintenance carried out by integrating analysis, measurement and

periodic test activities to standard preventive maintenance

4. Condition-based maintenance; Maintenance based on the equipment performance

monitoring and the control of the corrective actions taken as a result.

REPAIR WORK

For pump repair, depending on the type and size, plumbers will need:

 open-end wrenches
 packing tools to replace the packing
 ratchet wrenches
 sockets
 allen wrenches to remove the coupling, casing, bearings or rotating element
 a gasket cutter for split-case pumps
 a lathe to turn packing sleeves
 brazing equipment for impeller buildup and leak repair
 a lathe to finish turn the impeller and packing sleeves
 balancing wheels for final balancing of the impeller and rotating element
 calipers, dial indicator, feeler gauges or laser alignment tools for aligning the rotating
assembly and coupling during re-assembly.

Steps of a Maintenance Program

When setting up a maintenance plan, companies are likely to focus on major breakdown issues
whilst ignoring smaller problems. This isn’t advisable in the long-term. Even the least harmful
problem areas can eventually lead to production errors, asset damage and injuries at work if not
resolved in time.

34
Steps to follow to help design a proactive maintenance routine
1. Create a team
First, you need to create the right maintenance team. Recruit maintenance managers, technicians
and relevant people from the operations department. Then lay down the goals you want your
team to achieve. These might include minimizing corrective repair costs and reducing downtime
of the equipment. Motivate your team members to make the maintenance program a success!
2. Record your equipment
Documenting your assets is necessary. You need to have an accurate asset count in order to
know how many require maintenance. Add asset information like make/model, manufacturer ID,
asset specification, and location. It is easy to update prerecorded data, and it also allows you to
prioritize maintenance activities.
3. Establish maintenance procedures
Once you have a well-grounded inventory list, you need to determine how frequently you should
service the assets. This can be done on a weekly, monthly, quarterly or a semi-annual basis
depending on the item type.
Additionally, you need to outline the procedures for repair including the standard operating and
repair guidelines or safety measures. Finally, prepare a list of internal or outsourced maintenance
tools that you need.
4. Prioritize maintenance tasks
For seamless daily operation, you need to categorize high, medium and low-priority repair tasks.
Service sessions can take a lot of time so you need to choose your battles wisely. Start off with
high value equipment and begin scheduling maintenance tasks with longer intervals first (annual
then bi-annual) as they take up the most time and resources. You can then focus on low-priority
items that require less effort.
5. Train your team
Developing and implementing a maintenance system is a lengthy process and proper adoption of
the program is key! To optimize their management strategy, companies should devise training
schedules so that their team knows exactly how to deploy repair practices within different
departments. Optimal use of the restorative plan will eventually lead you to higher return on
investment.
6. Seek improvements
Businesses evolve along with their assets over time. Due to this constant transition, it is
important to analyze progress for future growth.
You might notice that some equipment gets checked-in for maintenance more often than others.
This can be concerning if the repair and replacement costs of the item exceed its actual worth. To
tackle such incidents, assess your maintenance plan after regular intervals, and make any
changes as necessary.

35
Why is it important to use the correct tools and equipment?
Each tool is precisely designed for a specific purpose, so choosing the correct tool will also
decrease the amount of effort required to get a job done right without causing damage to either
the equipment or the surface being worked on

Why should tools and equipment be securely stored?

The EHP-environmental health practitioner is responsible for making sure that all tools and
equipment are well organized and maintained in good working condition. They should be stored
in a separate secure place so that they are safe and easy to find. This is usually best done in a
place which is separate from the office.

Figure 2.17
STORAGE OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Delegate a portion of your garage, shed or basement closet as a place to store tools. Clean out
the junk and clutter and make a space only for tools. Figure out how much space is needed for
the number of tools you have. Sweep away cobwebs, dirt and other foreign matter.
Here are some tips on how to get your workshop organized to let you work on your
projects without clutter.
1. Start with a Clean Slate.
2. Build Your Shelves.
3. Open Shelving.
4. Budget Conscious Shelving
5. Get Creative with Gutters
6. Pegboard
7. Organizing Cords.
8. Copper Tubing

36
 Figure 2.18
Source: [Link]

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

PPE is the equipment that will protect the user against health or safety risks at work. It can
include items such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, high-visibility clothing, safety
footwear and safety harnesses
Some examples of personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as “PPE”, is equipment worn to minimize
exposure to a variety of hazards. Examples of PPE include such items as gloves, foot and eye
protection, protective hearing devices (earplugs, muffs) hard hats, respirators and full body suits.

Types of personal protective equipment

PPE can be considered in the following categories, based on the type of protection afforded by
the equipment:
• Respiratory protection - for example, disposable, cartridge, air line, half or full face
• Eye protection – for example, spectacles/goggles, shields, visors
• Hearing protection – for example, ear muffs and plugs
• Hand protection – for example, gloves and barrier creams
• Foot protection – for example, shoes/boots
• Head protection – for example, helmets, caps, hoods, hats
• Working from heights - for example, harness and fall arrest devices
• Skin protection – for example, hats, sunburn cream, long sleeved clothes
• Other personal protective equipment: This may include PPE for specific tasks such
disposable clothing for working with chemicals, radiation hazards, welding, painting. Examples
include: lead aprons for x-ray protection; sleeve protectors, aprons, coveralls when using
chemicals; leather jackets, trousers and spats for welding; thermal and cold protective clothing
for work near furnaces and cool rooms

37
[Link] Learning Activities
a. you are required to identify some different pipes types in your plumbing
workshop.
In small groups, practice cutting each pipe type with its appropriate cutting tool
and then write advantages and disadvantages of each tool.

b. Research what plumbing tools you currently have at home, then write a paper
about how each tool can be used, and what tools would still need to be purchased
to complete an ideal plumber’s toolbox.

c. Investigate the kinds of plumbing tools that are available for purchase from
various retailers, e.g., your local hardware store, a larger home center, and a
plumbing specialty e-store on the Internet. What plumbing tools are available in
one outlet that are not available in the others?

[Link] Self-Assessment

1. Apart from the maintenance discussed earlier above which other three types of
maintenance are there?
2. Why is it important to use the correct tools and equipment?
3. How do you store your tools?
4. Which are four safety risks a plumber faces on places of work?
5. What is the name of the severing tool below?
a. caulking gun
b. pipe cutter
c. slip joint pliers
d. pipe bending spring

6. Which tool used to clear blockages in sinks

a. hacksaw
b. faucet handle puller

c. sink plunger

38
d. utility knife

39
 [Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools/Equipment:
 Pipe wrench
 Pipe cutter
 Hacksaw
 Pipe Threading Equipment
 Vise - Bench
 Tap and Punch
 Files
 Screwdrivers
 Drill with various sizes of bits
 Mallet
 Ball hammer
 Masonry chisel
 PPR machine / Heat Fusion
 Equipment
Pipe bender
Materials
 Hard hat
 Gloves
 Dustcoat / overall
 Safety shoes / boots
 Various types of pipe support
 Sandpapers
 Threading oil
 Thread tape

40
 [Link] References

Black & Decker (2008). The Complete Guide to Plumbing (4th ed). Minneapolis: Creative
Publishing international, Inc. Retrieved from [Link]

Chudley, R.G (1988). Building Construction Handbook (4th ed). MA: Reed Educational
and Professional Publishing Ltd.

Muscroft, S. (2005). Plumbing Book (2nd ed). MA: Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

American Society of Plumbing Engineers (2012). Plumbing engineering design

handbook (vol. 4). Retrieved from [Link]

Treloar, R.D (2012), Plumbing book (4TH ed). Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

Https://[Link]/environment/eia/joshi/Annexes/Appendix%20C%20UT-IJP
%20OSHA%[Link]

Https://[Link]/Publications/OSHA2236/[Link]
Https://[Link]/plumbing-tools-and-equipment-a-professional-plumber-uses/
Https://[Link]/environment/eia/joshi/Annexes/Appendix%20C%20UT-IJP%20OSHA
%[Link]
Https://[Link]/2016/08/18/25-brilliant-tool-storage-solutions/

41
 APENDIX 2

Responses
7. Apart from the maintenance discussed earlier above which other three types of
maintenance are there?
Planned maintenance
It refers to scheduled maintenance to cope with equipment failures before they actually occur. It
can be further broken down into preventive and predictive maintenance.
• Preventive maintenance is carried out at predetermined intervals by following a
prescribed criterion. It is time-driven and based on the assumption that usability of a mechanical
component will decline over its useful life-cycle. It includes activities like regular equipment
inspection, partial or complete overhauls, oil changes and lubrication etc.
• Predictive maintenance is different from preventive maintenance such that it depends
on the working condition of the machinery rather than its average life expectancy. It requires
monitoring equipment during its normal operations to see if it’s working at its best. Some
companies use periodic vibration analysis to continuously monitor high value assets and simply
check them in for maintenance when their vibration fluctuates.
2. Corrective maintenance
This type of maintenance restores any failed pieces of equipment. It is typically performed at
irregular intervals since technicians don’t know when a certain machine will break down. The
main aim here is to fix a problem in the shortest possible time using three steps: diagnosis, repair
and verification.

3. Routine maintenance
Not dependent on any broken parts or downtime, it includes some necessary activities such as
cleaning, lubricating and replacing batteries on small-scale assets or equipment. This is generally
performed on a weekly basis.
8. Why is it important to use the correct tools and equipment?
Each tool is precisely designed for a specific purpose, so choosing the correct tool will also
decrease the amount of effort required to get a job done right without causing damage to either
the equipment or the surface being worked on
3. How do you store your tools?
 Keep Power Tools Clean. Dust and grime can bring your power tools to a grinding halt if
left unchecked over time.
 Store Power Tools Correctly.
 Inspect for Wear or Damage.

42
  Lubricate Moving Parts.
 Keep Batteries in Shape
4. Which are four safety risks a plumber faces on places of work?
• Exposure of hazardous substances like lead, sulphur dioxide
• Exposure to combustible and flammable materials
• Working in awkward positions
• Lifting of heavy objects
• Risks of eye injuries from flying particles
• Burns from hot equipment or steam lines
• Risks of electric shocks while working for ground water pipes

5. What is the name of the severing tool below?

a. caulking gun

b. pipe cutter

c. slip joint pliers

d. pipe bending spring

6. Which tool used to clear blockages in sinks

a. hacksaw
b. faucet handle puller

c. sink plunger
d. utility knife

43
 Learning Outcome 3: Quantify materials requirements

[Link] Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit specifies the competencies required to install pipes in buildings. It involves
identification of piping materials, supplies and preparation of schedule of materials based
on the drawing. It applies in the construction industry.
[Link] Performance Standard

3.1 Materials required for piping are identified based on the drawings.
3.2 Supplies are identified based on specifications.
3.3 A schedule of materials is created based on the drawing.

[Link] Information Sheet

Defination
 material schedule
is a detailed list of construction material required for a specific job.
 cost estimate
is the service provider's approximation of what the job is likely to cost. The purpose of cost
estimation is to predict the quantity, cost, and price of the resources required to complete a
job within the project scope.
How to choose piping material
The piping material chosen depends on the application and the water quality. For example,
heating systems often employ steel pipe because of its low cost, strength, and resistance to heat-
while pure water systems are likely to use virgin polypropylene (PP) or polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) pipe.
Materials are selected based on the following specifications
 Manufacturers specification
 Clients specifications based on economic and ergonomic factors
 Standard specifications; these are from the industrial experts i.e. Experienced

The most common pipe material

Of these the most commonly used materials for drinking-water supply piping are galvanized
steel or iron, copper, polybutylene, unplasticized polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated
polyvinylchloride (CPVC) and polyethylene (PE).

Choosing a Plumbing Supplier – Things to Consider

Selecting the right plumbing supplier can be awkward. When choosing the ideal plumbing
supplier for your needs, whether they’re home plumbing or commercial, larger scale projects,
you need to weigh up the differences, options and benefits between various plumbing suppliers.]

Identifying your needs is crucial, if you need plumbing parts for a larger, commercial plumbing
business, you’re going to want a supplier that caters to businesses and offers significant bulk
44
discounts. If you’re a DIY plumber, or a small business, and just need a few parts and bits then
you can afford to look at and use smaller, more local suppliers

Types of Pipe Fittings/ supplies

 Adaptor
 Barb
 Coupling
 Cross
 Double Tapped Bushing
 Elbow
 Mechanical Sleeve
 Nipple
 Plug and Cap
 Reducer
 Tee
 Union
 Valve
 Wye

1. Adaptor

Adaptors connect pipes that are not the same type. Because an adaptor can be male or female on
one end, it can turn a pipe male or female.

Fig.3.1
If ends are non-threaded, they are left to be welded, soldered or glued to the pipe. Adaptors are
used for PVC and copper piping.

2. Barb

45
 Fig.3.2

A barb connects hoses to pipes. It is usually male at one end. The other has a barbed tube, which
is a ridged and tapered cone.

It may also have a type of clamp to keep it secure. Barbs are made of plastic if they carry cold
water and brass if they carry hot water.

3. Coupling

Fig.3.3

A coupling makes it easy to connect two pipes that have the same diameter and are the same
type. It’s also used to repair a broken or leaking pipe. Along with a normal coupling, two other
types are the compression coupling and slip coupling.
The compression fitting is connected between two pipes via rubber seals or gaskets on both sides
which prevents leaking. A slip coupling includes two pipes, one of which slides out of the other
pipe to a various length, to repair a specific length of damaged pipe.

4. Cross

46
 Fig.3.4

A cross fitting has openings on all four of its ends and can connect four pipes. Cross fittings
come with three inlets and an outlet or three outlets and an inlet.

Because they are the connecting point for four pipes, they are under more stress than other types
of fittings and typically built tougher than other fittings.

5. Double Tapped Bushing

This is a type of nipple, but it has threading on both the inside and the outside. Because this
center hole is threaded (tapped) from both top and bottom, it’s referred to as double-tapped.

Fig.3.5

A double tapped bushing is also a type of reducer, but does not have a reducer’s flexibility. A
double tapped bushing is usually female.

6. Elbow

Not surprisingly, this sort of fitting has a bend that reminds you of the arm joint. They help the
flow of water change direction. Elbows come in several degrees, including 22.5, 45, and 90
degrees.

47
 Fig.3.6

Reducer elbow variations also exist for when the piping diameters being connected are different.
Elbow fittings can be made of different materials, and most are female.

7. Mechanical Sleeve

This connects two pipes through the use of a screw or other device. This makes the fitting easy to
install. The mechanical sleeve or coupling is usually made of rubber that is inserted inside a
metal jacket (stainless steel clamp).

Fig.3.7

When the clamp is tightened, it compresses the rubber inside to make a tight seal. Because this
fitting can be slightly flexed, it can accommodate small misalignments in hard to install
locations.

8. Nipple

This is a short fitting that can be made of metals such as copper, brass or steel or chlorinated
polyvinyl chloride (CPVC). Instead of connecting two pipes, a nipple connects two fittings.
If it has a continuous threading, it is a closed nipple.

48
 Fig.3.8

They are usually male and come in varying lengths.

9. Plug and Cap

Plugs and caps are both used to close up pipe openings during inspections and repairs. The main
difference is that a plug is male while a cap is female. Most often, caps and plugs are threaded.

Fig.3.9

Plugs and caps are made of several materials, including metal, plastic or rubber and can be
welded, soldered, glued, or threaded into the pipe.

10. Reducer

This fitting makes a flow smaller and thus reduces it. Reducers come in two types. The
concentric reducer joins two pipes on the same axis, and the eccentric reducer is used to join
pipes of different diameters.

Fig.3.10

49
The concentric reducer looks like a cone, while eccentric reducers look somewhat like bells
with offset center lines. They prevent air bubbles in the pipes.

11. Tee

A tee has an inlet and an outlet and is shaped like the letter “T.” These fittings come in different
sizes and are considered sturdier than the cross fitting.

Fig.3.11

A diverter tee is used in heating systems that use water. They come with directional markings
and need to be installed correctly for the system to operate.

12. Union

Unions can have either male or female threads. They are similar to couplings, but the difference
is unions are easy to remove making them convenient for maintenance or a planned future
replacement.

Fig.3.12

A coupling, on the other hand, is more permanent and needs to be cut out. A union contains three
parts: nut, male end, and female end. The nut is used to join the male and female ends.

50
 13. Valve

Valves allow the flow of fluids to be adjusted. There are different types, including throttling,
non-return and isolation. Non-return valves only allow the liquid to flow in one direction and are
often found in drains. They’re also called check valves.

Fig.3.13
Isolation valves sequester a part of the plumbing system so that the system can be serviced or
maintained. These valves are either left open or left closed all the time. However, because they
may need to be used in a emergency, they should be checked now and then to see if they’re
operational.
Throttling valves control the pressure and amount of a fluid. Because this stresses the
mechanism, they tend to wear out faster than other valves. They are usually installed near
isolation valves.
14. Wye

Built in the shape of the letter “Y,” this fitting is made to connect three pipes. Y fittings allow the
pipes to change their elevations and to branch out into fresh water lines or drains.

Wyes are similar to tee fittings but the smoother angling reduces friction and turbulence in the
water. This fitting is most commonly used to connect a vertical drainpipe to a horizontal one.

Commonly Used Waterworks Fittings

The functions of some
commonly used
waterworks fittings are
described below:Fitting Function

51
Anti-vacuum Valve a valve in a water service that opens to admit air if the pressure
within the water service falls below atmospheric pressure.
Ball Valve a valve that controls the entry of water into a storage cistern or
flushing cistern, closing off the supply when the water level in the
cistern has reached a predetermined level. It is sometimes called a
ball cock or float-operated valve.
Boiler an enclosed vessel in which water is heated by the direct
application of heat
Butterfly Valve a valve in which a disc is rotated about a diametric axis of a
cylinder to vary the aperture. It is used where space is limited or
more sophisticated control is required.
Calorifer a storage vessel, not open to the atmosphere, in which a supply of
water is heated. The vessel contains an element, such as a coil of
pipe, through which is passed a supply of hot water or steam, in
such a way that the two supplies do not mix, heat being
transferred through the walls of the element.
Expansion Vessel a closed vessel for accommodating the thermal expansion of water
in a pressurized hot water heating system
Float Switch a device incorporating a float that operates a switch in response to
changes in the level of a liquid.
Gate Valve a valve that provides a straight-through passage for the flow of
fluid and in which the passage can be closed by a gate. It is used
where the water pressure is low and on distribution pipework from
a storage cistern. This valve is sometimes referred to as a fullway
gate valve because when it is fully open, there is no restriction of
flow through the valve.
Loose Jumper Type a screwdown pattern valve with horizontal inlet and outlet
Stopcock connections. It incorporates a loose jumper valve permitting flow
in one direction only. It is used for isolating the supply of water in
a high pressure pipeline. In case the supply main is shut off and
drained down for any reason, the ‘non-return’ action of the loose
valve plate will stop any backflow from the service pipe.

CREATING MATERIAL SCHEDULES USING A DRAWING.

You can opt to use one of either method while creating the schedule of material;
• Using a cutting list: this is where all the material required are broken down and the units
put in a table
• Using a drawing; here, all the items including length, size and specifications are listed in
the drawing as shown in the figure below.

52
material schedule format

53
 [Link] Learning Activities
Practical activities
Use the figure given below to come up with the schedule of material.

54
 [Link] Self-Assessment

1. Explain what is Angle Stop?

2. Explain what is Pipe Dope?
3. Which THREE valves are used in plumbing?

4. What are the steps in selection of valve?

5. What are functions of valves?
6. What materials are used for construction of valves?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools/Equipment: Materials:
 Drawing boards  Gloves
 T square  Dustcoat / overall
 Set square  Safety shoes / boots
 Blueprint machine/printer
 Drawing papers
 Steel rule
 Drawing pencils
 Lettering stencil
 Masking tape
 Scale rule
 Construction drawings
 Classroom and classroom resources
 Calculator

[Link] References
55
  Treloar.,R.D( 4TH Education 2012).Plumbing book. Blackwell publishing ltd

 Muscroft.S,(1ST Edition 2005).Plumbing [Link] publications

 Chudley. R,Greeno.(4th edition 1988). Building Construction Handbook. Butter-

Heinemann

 Black & Decker .The Complete Guide to Plumbing_ Expanded 4th Edition - Modern
Materials and Current Codes - All New Guide to Working with Gas Pipe ( pdfdrive ).pdf.

 Plumbing engineering design handbook _ a plumbing engineer's guide to system design

and specification. 4, Plumbing components and equipment (pdfdrive).pdf

Responses
1. Explain what is Angle Stop?
Angle stop is a shutoff valve between the water supply pipe and the fixture it supplies. It
is used to shut off water to a fixture in case of failure, repair or leakage
2. Explain what is Pipe Dope?
A pipe dope is a pipe joint that is used to create a watertight seal
3. Which THREE valves are used in plumbing?
• gate valve
• stop valve
• drain valve
• waste valve
• ball valves

4. What are the steps in selection of valve?

 What to handle, liquid, gas or powder,
 fluid nature
 function
 construction material,
 disc type,
 stem type,
 how to operate,
 bonnet type,
 body ends,
 delivery time,
 cost,

56
 warranty.
5. What re functions of valves?
 Isolation,
 regulation,
 non-return and special purposes.
6. What materials are used for construction of valves?
 Cast iron,
 bronze,
 gun metal,
 carbon steel,
 stainless steel,
 alloy carbon steel,
 polypropylene and other plastics,
 special alloys.

57
 7. Learning Outcome 4; Fit-up domestic pipe work

[Link] Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit specifies the competencies required to install pipes in buildings. It involves
threading of pipes ie GI ,pvc copper……,joining of pipes, fitting, bending of the pipes
and installation solar water heater system. It applies in the construction industry.
[Link] Performance Standard

4.1 Galvanized Iron pipes are threaded based on international codes.

4.2 Thermoplastic pipes are joined in accordance with international piping code.
4.3 Poly Vinyl Chloride pipes are joined as per manufacturer’s instructions.
4.4 Pipes are fitted based on drawing specifications.
4.5 Pipe bending is done based on type, drawing specifications and requirements of the job.
4.6 Solar water heater system is installed based manufacturer’s instructions.

Information Sheet

Definitions

The definitions used in

this booklet are as A person who is approved under Section 7 of Waterworks
follows:-Agent Ordinance as an agent of a communal service.
Authorized Person An Authorized Person registered under the Buildings Ordinance.
Communal Service That part of a fire service or inside service which is used in
common by more than one consumer in the same premises.
Connexion to the Main The pipe between the main and the control valve which is nearest
to the main and which regulates the flow of a supply from the
main into a fire service or inside service, such control valve and
all fittings between such control valve and the main.
Consumer A person who is approved under Section 7 of Waterworks
Ordinance as a consumer of a fire service or inside service.
Direct Supply System A plumbing system which conveys water directly from the
government water mains to the point of usage without any transit
water storage tanks.
Fire Service The pipes and fittings in premises, and any pipes and fittings
between the premises and a connexion to the main, which are used
or are intended to be used for a supply solely for the purposes of
fire fighting.
Fitting Any apparatus, cistern, cock, equipment, machinery, material,
tank, tap and valve; and any appliance or device other than a
meter, which is installed or used in a fire service or inside service.
Indirect Supply System A plumbing system which conveys water from the government
water mains to the point of usage through a transit water storage
tank.
Inside Service The pipes and fittings in premises, and any pipes and fittings
between the premises and a connexion to the main (other than the
58
 pipes and fittings forming part of a fire service) which are used or
are intended to be used for the purposes of a supply.
Licensed Plumber A person licensed under the Waterworks Ordinance to construct,
install, maintain, alter, repair or remove fire services or inside
services.
Components of pipe networks

The following terms are used to describe the pipes in a This takes water from the storage tank or
distribution system. Trunk main source to the rest of the pipe network. Trunk
mains are not normally used to supply
consumers directly.
Distribution main This is the general collective term for the
delivery system to the individual customer
service connections. It also provides water
to fire hydrants, where applicable.
Water main Water mains are pipes 100 mm diameter or
more that connect to the trunk main. Water
mains are often used to supply service
connections directly.
Rider main These pipes are smaller than water mains
(generally around 50 mm in diameter) and
supply two or more service connections.
Rider mains are used in situations where
they are more cost-effective than connecting
all service connections directly to the water
main.
Service connection Service connections are the pipes that
connect individual households to the water
main or rider main.

Selection of Pipe Size and Material

The distribution system is normally the most expensive part of a new water supply. This is
particularly true of communities where the water source is located some distance from the water
users, and where households are widely spaced. Choosing the best pipe size and material can
help to minimise costs while still providing the design life and level of service the community
requires.
Pipe sizes
In general, the cost of piping increases as the size goes up, but it also depends on the size of the
order and how common the pipe size is. It may be more cost-effective to use a larger, more
commonly available pipe size for longer lengths rather than using the smallest size that will
achieve the required flow.
Pipe sizes are normally quoted as nominal diameter, sometimes abbreviated to DN. The nominal
diameter is approximately equivalent to the outside diameter for polyethylene pipes. The

59
nominal diameter for most other types of pipes is approximately equivalent to the inside
diameter. The pipe dimensions should be confirmed before ordering.
In order to determine the required pipe size, you need to know the pressure that is available to
drive the flow, the required flow rate, the elevation of the land over the length of the pipe, and
the required pressure at the point of supply. A topographical survey of the area may be required
to work out accurate land elevations.
If water is to be provided for fire-fighting, the large volume of water needed within a short time
is likely to have a big influence on the size of the pipes.
Network analysis programmes can be used to calculate the effect of different designs on flow
capacity. Obviously these are a specialist tool. What does thread pipe mean?
A threaded pipe is a pipe with screw-threaded ends for assembly
How far does a pipe thread into a fitting?
If you are using 1/2-inch pipe, add 7/16 inch per end; and add 1/2 inch per end for 3/4-inch pipe.
Therefore, if you plan to use 3/4-inch pipe to join two fittings 36 inches apart, you would need a
pipe 37 inches long (adding 1/2 inch on either end to allow for penetration into the fittings
Thermoplastic Pipe Types and Use

PIPE TYPES
For plumbing and water supply, some of the commonly used and best pipes are as under:

1. Cast iron Pipe.

2. G.I Pipe.
3. Wrought Iron Pipe.
4. Steel Pipe.
5. Copper Pipe.
6. Plastic Pipe.
7. Asbestos Cement Pipe
8. Concrete Pipe.
9. Vitrified Clay Pipe.

1. Cast Iron Pipe:

Cast Iron pipe is widely used for city water-distribution systems because of its high resistance to
corrosion and consequent long life.
Cast iron pipe is made from pig iron. Such pipes are normally made from 5 cm to 120 cm in
diameter.
Under normal conditions, a cast iron pipe can be expected to last 100 years.

60
 Fig.4.1

The usual length of a pipe section is 12 ft, but lengths up to 20 ft can be obtained.

Cast iron pipe is made in several thickness classes for various pressures up to a maximum of 350
psi.

Cast-iron pipes are usually dipped in a bituminous compound for protection against corrosion
and to improve their hydraulic qualities; larger sizes may be provided with a lining of cement
mortar.

The cast iron pipes are generally cut with chisel and hammer, but for a better cutting cutter and
hack saw can be used.

Following methods are used to join a cast iron pipe.

(i). Bell and Spigot Joint.

(ii). Hanged Joint.
(iii). Expansion Joint

2. Galvanized Iron Pipe (G.I).

G.I pipes are made of mild steel sheet. Its length-wise joint is Welded Seam Type. G.I pipe is
used to supply water, gas or any other liquid inside the building.
These types of pipes are prepared from 12 mm ( 0.5 inches) to 15 cm ( 6 inches) in diameter.
They are available in 6 meters ( 20 feet) length.

Fig.4.2

61
The thickness of the wall of its sheet is different according to their diameters. After preparing
this pipe, it is dipped in zinc solution. This action is known as Galvanizing. In this way, the pipe
is saved from rusting.

The average age of this pipe is 10 years. They can be joined easily, cutting, threading, and
bending them is also an easy task. They are joined with the help of a socket.

3. Wrought Iron Pipe.

These types of pipes are like G. I. Pipes. They are also used to carry water, gas or certain other
liquid from one place to another.

The only difference between wrought iron pipe and G.I is that wrought iron pipes are prepared
by welding wrought iron sheet. In addition, seamless pipes are also made.

The weight of such pipe is less. Cutting, threading, and bending of this pipe is quite easy. To join
such pipes following joints are used:

Fig.4.3

(i) Socket Joint

(ii) Flanged Joint
(iii) Welded Joint
Wrought iron pipes are made from 12 mm(0.5 inches) to 15 cm (6 inches) in diameter.

4. Steel Pipe.
Steel pipes are used to carry water, gas or certain other liquid from one place to the other under
pressure. These pipes are made from steel sheets.

Small pipes have welded joint along the length which is not visible. Large pipes have riveted
joint or welded joint.

After making such pipes, they are dipped in Zinc solution. This action is called Galvanizing and
is used to prevent the pipe from rusting. The average age of such pipes is from 25 years to 50
years.

62
 Fig.4.4

These pipes are light in weight. They can be joined by a welded joint. They are placed on Open
Supports. They are also joined by Flanged Joint.

Such pipes can be bent easily. Acidic water and alkaline water can rust these pipes. Repair of this
type of pipe is difficult. They can also be pressed by external pressure due to their less wall
thickness.

5. Copper Pipe.
Copper pipes are made of small diameter. Since copper does not admit rust, so these pipes are
durable. However, as copper is costly, therefore, they are used in limited places.

These types of pipes are generally used to carry hot water or steam. They do not bend or sag
even at high temperature.

Fig.4.5

Copper is a mild metal. Therefore, copper pipes can be bent easily. They are joined by Flanged
Joint and Union Joints.

6. Plastic Pipe.
These pipes – which includes rubber and P. V. C. pipes – are used for the supply of water, acidic
water, and alkaline water. Hot water should not be carried out.

These pipes are joined using a thread joint or socket is joined with a solution. Such pipes are not
rusted. They are light in weight. Cutting, bending, and jointing are easy for these pipes.

63
 Fig.4.6

These types of pipes have good resistance against electric current. They become useless on
increasing temperature. They also become useless on being tempered by nail, etc.

7. Asbestos Cement Pipe.

The asbestos pipe is made from asbestos, silica, and cement converted under pressure to a dense,
homogeneous material possessing considerable strength.
The asbestos fiber is thoroughly mixed with the cement and serves as reinforcement.
This type of pipe is available in diameters of from 4 to 36 inches in 13-ft lengths. The pipe is
made in various grades, the strongest being intended for internal pressures up to 200 psi.

Fig.4.7

The asbestos pipe is assembled by means of a special coupling which consists of a pipe sleeve
and two rubber rings which are compressed between the pipe and the interior of the sleeve.

The joint is as resistant to corrosion as the pipe itself and is flexible enough to permit as much as
12° deflection in laying pipe around curves.

An asbestos-cement pipe is light in weight and can be assembled without skilled labor. It can be
joined to cast-iron pipe with lead or sulfur-base compounds.

It is easily cut and can be tapped and threaded for service connections. The hydraulic efficiency
of an asbestos pipe is high.

8. Concrete Pipe.
The Pre-cast Concrete pipe is available in sizes up to 72 inches diameter, and sizes up to 180
inches have been made on special order.

Precast Concrete pipes are reinforced except in sizes under 24 inches diameter. The
reinforcement may take the form of spirally wound wire or elliptical boom.

64
In large pipes, the reinforcement usually consists of two cylindrical cages. The precast concrete
pipe is usually made by rotating the form rapidly about the pipe axis.

Fig.4.8

For low heads, the concrete pipe is usually joined with a mortar caulked bell-and-spigot joint, but
for high pressures, the lock joint or some other special joint is required.

For heads above 100 ft, a welded steel cylinder is often cast in the pipe for water-tightness.

Because of the better control in its manufacture, a pre-cast concrete pipe is usually of higher
quality and not need to be so thick as a cast-in-place pipe of the same size.

9. Vitrified Clay Pipe.

Vitrified Clay Pipe is not often used as pressure pipe, but is widely used in sewerage and
drainage for flow at partial depth.

Fig.4.9

The main advantage of vitrified clay pipe is that it is virtually corrosion-free, has a long life, and
its smooth surface provides high hydraulic efficiency.

Use of vitrified clay pipe under pressure is usually prevented by its low strength in tension and
the difficulty of securing watertight joints.

The most common joint for vitrified clay pipe is the bell-and-spigot flexible compression joint in
which precision mated surfaces are in tight contact with one another.

65
66
The following table lists a variety of pipe materials and the welding processes that can be
used.

Butt Socket Hot Solvent

Electrofusion IR BCF
fusion fusion gas cement

PP Y Y Y Y Y

PE Y Y Y Y
PB Y Y

PVC Y Y

PVDF Y Y Y Y

ABS Y
Y = welding process that can be used

In addition to fusion welding techniques, there are a number of mechanical methods that may be
used for joining thermoplastic pipe. These include:
• Compression fittings
• Flange and gasket assemblies
• Push-fit sockets

How is HDPE pipe joined?

HDPE pipe can be joined by butt welding, electrofusion welding, socket welding, or extrusion
welding. These joints heat the pipe during the joining process, creating a completely
homogenous joint so the weld becomes as strong, or stronger than the existing pipe on either side
of the weld

What is polyvinyl chloride used for?

PVC is used to make pipes, polyvinyl flooring and siding, hoses, cable coatings, medical
devices, and plumbing and automotive parts. It is used to make material for upholstery,
housewares, shower curtains, raincoats, toys, school supplies, food packaging, and shoes.

The rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe and in profile applications such as doors
and windows.
It is also used in making bottles, non-food packaging, food-covering sheets, and cards (such as
bank or membership cards).
PIPE JOINING
Joining pipes is one of the most vital aspects of completing any plumbing job, whether it's new
or a rehabilitation. The pipe joints must withstand the pressure from each line going through the
joint.

67
different joining methods are:

a. Threaded

If you have a low-pressure system, using a simple threaded joining method is best. The threaded
joint is exactly what it sounds like: One component has internal threads while the connecting
piece has external threads. All manner of piping is available with threads: PVC, copper, cast
iron, and GI pipes. They have a diameter range of 6 mm to 300 mm.

b. Stab-Type Fittings

These coupling methods are used for pipe diameters with a 2-inch or smaller diameter. While
there are several styles of stab fittings, they all have a similar design that includes an elastomer
seal, a gripping device for effective pressure sealing and a self-contained stiffener.
With a stab-type fitting, the union between pipe ends is stronger than the pipe itself, making it
ideal for polyethylene pipes, especially heating, ventilation and air conditioning applications.
Stab-type fittings must be ASTM International D2513 Category I rated to ensure a complete seal
and full pullout restraint.

c. Soldered

One of the more common types of pipe joining methods is the heat fusion method. There are
several ways to fuse by heat, with soldering being one of the first choices for many plumbers.
Solder melts using temperatures below 840 degrees C.
When soldering, the skilled technician should use a paste which keeps the fittings from
oxidizing. This pipe joining method is used for copper and copper alloy pipes. It is best for pipes
used at a lower temperature such as home water lines.

d. Brazed

Brazing is the second type of heat fusion. This heating method differs from soldering by using
temperatures above 840 degrees C to melt the filler material. Like soldering, workers typically
use brazing methods on copper or copper alloy pipes.
The filler material used to seal the connection between the two pipes often consists mainly of tin.
However, since tin is a weaker metal, it is combined with copper, bismuth, silver or nickel to
strengthen the filler and help it maintain structural integrity. Brazed joints work well for pipes
transporting material of moderate temperatures.

e. Welded

There are two main types of welds used to connect pipes: the butt weld joint and the socket weld
joint. Both methods require a skilled worker to install the fittings.

68
Butt Weld

A butt weld is the most common type of pipe joining welding method. Workers use this method
to join two pipes of the same diameter. Generally, these joints are most prevalent in commercial
or industrial pipe systems.
Joints sealed with a butt weld are not accessible for maintenance as they are a fixed joint.
However, these welds provide additional strength in the joint and allow the seal to resist high
pressure if sealed with filler only. Welds using an internal backing ring to reduce the amount of
filler and lower the overall cost of the project may not tolerate the same pressure and may crack
under heavy stress.
While welding is used for copper pipes, butt fusion is used for connecting polyethylene and high-
density polyethylene pipes. Instead of using a filler to combine the two pieces, workers heat the
pipe pieces by holding them against a heated plate until there is a proper melt. Once the melt is
achieved, they remove the plate, push the two pieces together and hold them in place until they
cool, forming one solid pipe piece. (For more on butt fusion, see Butt Fusion & Polyethylene
Pipe: How to Effectively Use This Trenchless Method.)

Socket Weld

Plumbing experts tend to use a socket weld when they determine there is a higher chance of
leaking from the welded joints. Instead of butting the two pieces together, one portion is inserted
into the other and then welded together. This weld works best with pipes of two different
diameters. Pipelines with the same diameter can also use a socket weld with fittings employed.
As with butt welding, socket welds are used with copper or other metal pipes. This method can
also be used with high-density polyethylene pipe, which is called a socket fusion. As with butt
fusion, the process heats the outer surface of the tube and then the interior of the fitting. Once
achieving the proper melt on the two surfaces, workers join the parts by inserting the line into the
joint. The two pieces solidify together as the surfaces cool.

f. Saddle Fusion

While the saddle fusion technique is not technically a weld, it is like the socket and butt fusions
performed on high-density polyethylene pipes. Workers use this method to install a saddle fitting
into the line seamlessly. As with other fusion methods, both the base of the fitting and the
surface of the pipeline are melted with a heating plate. Once the appropriate melt occurs, they
join the two pieces and allow them to cool while applying force to solidify the parts as one.
When appropriately performed, each of these pipe joining methods should connect the lines
without any leaks. Testing should occur once the joints are connected to ensure a correct seal
before project completion.
ADHESIVES

Industrial PVC bonding and properties of the adhesive

In industrial applications PVC is most commonly used in pipeline installations such as disposal
systems. The installation requires PVC bonding to create strong and watertight joints and seams
as well as fill in gaps and cracks. The applications of PVC adhesive glue include high pressure

69
and drainage pipes as well as potable and wastewater pipelines. Pressure joints and press fits
commonly require these adhesives.

Depending on the application, the industrial adhesive systems should be:

 Waterproof: it goes without saying that the adhesive bonding together two pieces of
pipe containing liquids, should not let any of it through.
 Chemical resistant: depending on the purpose of the installation, the PVC bonding
should be resistant to the feed including all chemicals it may be exposed to. For example, the
horticulture industry installations used for delivering fertilizers, must not let the fertilizer
affect the pipes and bonds.
 Resistant to high pressure and discharge: some industrial pipeline installations are
used for delivering and discharging fluids in high pressure conditions. Therefore, the PVC
adhesives used in these, must not be affected by the process and vice versa.
 Safe to use with potable water: many PVC pipelines are designed to deliver drinking
water. Adhesives used for these pipes must comply with food and safety regulations to make
sure no residue will end up in the potable water.
In case you have a PVC application that requires special property adhesives or sealants, contact
us and share your project details to get tailored advice.

About applying PVC adhesive

The materials most commonly used in industrial pipeline installations are UPVC (unplasticized
polyvinyl chloride), CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) and ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene). Each of the materials has their own properties and requirements regarding adhesives.
However, there are also products that can be universally used for all three materials.

Before PVC bonding, the surface must be prepared prperly to allow PVC adhesive form bonds.

Below you can find some general information on applying PVC adhesives and preparing the
substrate.

 Surface preparation: a clean substrate is the foundation of successful PVC bonding.

The substrate must be free of oils and grease prior to application. Many adhesives
manufacturers also offer PVC cleaning agents which clean the substrate without damaging it.
For example acetone can be too strong a detergent and cause damage.
 Protection: in general PVC bonding involves materials which contain substances that
may be hazardous to health when inhaled or touched. Therefore, it is advised to at least wear
protective clothing, mask and gloves. Always see the manufacturer’s advice on required
protection.
 PVC primer: especially when working with solvent cement, a PVC primer may be
needed to start the chemical reaction softening the PVC pipe and making it ready for the
adhesive to adhere to.
Note: PVC bonding often takes place in critical parts of pipe installations which is why it is
paramount that the PVC adhesive glue used for the installation is certified according to relevant
standards as well as has a declaration of performance (DoP) provided by the manufacturer to
guarantee performance.

70
What are different types of pipe fittings?
 Tee, Wye, Cross and Elbow Fittings. Tee & Wye Fittings – Tees and wyes are used to
connect three pieces of pipe.
 Coupling, Adapter, Bushing and Union Fittings.
 Trap and Flange Fittings.
 Cap, Plug and Nipple Fittings

What is the main purpose of pipe bending?

The main objective of a pipe bender is to bend the pipe without any buckling (collapsing under
pressure), and with as little crimping and flattening as possible. It is important that the pipe keeps
its shape as deformed pipes can break under pressure, crack and generally look less appealing

How to bend a pipe without a pipe bender

Block one end of the pipe with material, such as scrunched up newspaper or cloth. Then fill
the pipe with sand—ensure that the sand is tightly compacted. Block the other end of
the pipe and then heat the bend area. When it's red hot, gently bend it by hand.
Bending methods
 Bending machines for GI pipes
 Burning for PVC pipes
 Sanding for PVC pipes
Bend radius, which is measured to the inside curvature, is the minimum radius one
can bend a pipe, tube, sheet, cable or hose without kinking it, damaging it, or shortening its life.
Cold bending of pipes
Cold bending is referring to all types of bending that does not use any added heat
to bend the pipes. The procedure is usually performed by wrapping a pipe or other material
around a die or shape that causes the pipe to bend

Hot Forming Pipe (Bending Pipe Without a Bender)

Https://[Link]/watch?V=4qdej3er4zm
Active solar energy systems
Active solar energy systems use various electrical and mechanical components to capture and
convert the sun's energy. These systems typically include photovoltaic panels, collectors, voltage
controllers, blowers and pumps that work together to process the sun's usable heat.

71
How a passive solar water heater work
In active solar water-heating systems, pumps circulate water from the storage tank to the
collector. Passive systems do not use a pump. In an indirect system, either water or another heat-
conducting liquid runs through the collectors and then passes through a heat exchanger to heat
the water used by building occupants.

Https://[Link]/rpures/library/[Link]

72
The solar water heating system (SWHS) is one of the most common application of solar energy
utilization system. The usage of solar water heating system is not commonly employed
throughout the globe, due to its high initial cost. The advancement in SWHS will lead to be
beneficial over conventional system over the long span of time. The eco-friendly.

Solar energy can also be integrated into the materials used for buildings. Not long ago Sharp
introduced transparent solar energy windows.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 Renewable Energy Source
 Reduces Electricity Bills
 Diverse Applications
 Low Maintenance Costs
 Technology Development

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

 Cost. The initial cost of purchasing a solar system is fairly high.
 Weather-Dependent
 Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive
 Uses a Lot of Space
 Associated with Pollution

73
 [Link] Learning Activities
You are required to Fit/install the pipe and fittings as per diagram in figure 1.

74
 [Link] Self-Assessment

1. wat are some of the Types of Fittings used in pipework

2. When a piece of pipe is threaded on both sides what is it called?
3. Is polyvinyl chloride toxic?
4. How do I identify pipe threads?

5. Can you over tighten pipe threads?

6. There are 3 types of solar hot water system to choose from:

7. What is a plumbing static test?
8. Which of the following is incorrect regarding cast iron pipes?
a) They are non corrosive
b) They are durable
c) They can be produced by centrifugal process
d) Their length varies from 80-100cm

9. The enlarged end of a cast iron pipe is called ________

a) Lead
b) Socket
c) Hemp
d) Spigot end

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools/Equipment: Materials:

 Pipe wrench  Hardhat

 Pipe cutter  Gloves
 Hacksaw  Dustcoat / overall
 Pipe Threading Equipment  Safety shoes / boots
 Vise - Bench  Various types of pipe support
 Tap and Punch  Sandpapers
 Files  Threading oil
 Screwdrivers  Thread tape
 Drill with various sizes of bits  PPR-Poly propylene random
 Mallet  Pipes
 Ball hammer  HDPE-High density poly
 Masonry chisel  Ethylene pipes
 PPR machine / Heat Fusion
 Equipment

75
 Pipe bender

[Link] References

Black & Decker (2008). The Complete Guide to Plumbing (4th ed). Minneapolis: Creative
Publishing international, Inc. Retrieved from [Link]

Chudley, R.G (1988). Building Construction Handbook (4th ed). MA: Reed Educational
and Professional Publishing Ltd.

Muscroft, S. (2005). Plumbing Book (2nd ed). MA: Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

American Society of Plumbing Engineers (2012). Plumbing engineering design

handbook (vol. 4). Retrieved from [Link]

Treloar, R.D (2012), Plumbing book (4TH ed). Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

 Https://[Link]/watch?V=zyqhlwdxjp4
 Https://[Link]/watch?V=4qdej3er4zm
 Https://[Link]/rpures/library/[Link]

76
Responses

1. what are some of the Types of Fittings used in pipework

1. Collar 2. Elbow 3. Gasket 4. Union 5. Reducer 6. Tee 7. Nipple 8. Trap
2. When a piece of pipe is threaded on both sides what is it called?
A pipe has flanged ends on both sides of the pipe length. Both the ends of pipes are
joined at a proper level near one another. A hard rubber washer is placed between flanges
and bolted. Flanges are generally fixed to the pipe by welding or threading

3. Is polyvinyl chloride toxic?

PVC contains dangerous chemical additives including phthalates, lead, cadmium, and/or
organotin, which can be toxic to your child's health. These toxic additives can leach out or
evaporate into the air over time, posing unnecessary dangers to children

4. How do I identify pipe threads?

Thread dimensions are based on the ID of the pipe. Use a caliper, measuring tape, or ruler
to measure the thread diameter of a male thread or female thread. Measure the inner diameter
(ID) of the female thread and the outer diameter (OD) of the male thread. This number will
help determine the thread dimension

5. Can you over tighten pipe threads?

If you tighten the fittings too much, you may strip the threads inside the fitting or on the
outside of the pipe. As with any household screw, once the threads are stripped it's nearly
impossible to get the fitting to tighten on the pipe

6. There are 3 types of solar hot water system to choose from:

• Flat plate collector.
• Evacuated tube collector.
• Heat pump systems

7. What is a plumbing static test?

This is a water test that allows each branch line to be filled up and monitored to ensure
there are no leaks. This test simulates a sewer stoppage, and if it passes, your drains are
good to go

77
8. Which of the following is incorrect regarding cast iron pipes?
a) They are non corrosive
b) They are durable
c) They can be produced by centrifugal process
d) Their length varies from 80-100cm

9. The enlarged end of a cast iron pipe is called ________

a) Lead
b) Socket
c) Hemp
d) Spigot end

78
Learning Outcome 5; Test functionality of pipe work

[Link] Introduction to the learning outcome

This unit specifies the competencies required to install pipes in buildings. It involves
conducting hydrostatic test, air test and identification of faults in piping system. It applies
in the construction industry
[Link] Performance Standard

5.1 Hydro static test is conducted based on international pipe testing codes.
5.2 Air test is conducted based on international pipe testing codes.
5.3 Faults in pipe work functionality and leakage are corrected based on workplace policy.

[Link] Information Sheet

Definitions of terms

 Test - a procedure intended to establish the quality, performance, or reliability of a

system before it is taken into widespread use.
 Functionality - the quality of being suited to serve a purpose well
 Fluid - a substance, as a liquid or gas, that is capable of flowing and that changes its
shape at a steady rate when acted upon by a force tending to change its shape.
 Fault/defect - unsatisfactory feature in a piece of work.
 Workplace policy - course of action adopted by an organization.
 Leakage - escape of liquid or gas through a hole or crack.
 Outcome – the end result of an operation
 Commission - bringing a newly constructed system into working condition
 Waterproofing - applying a physical barrier to pipes and appliances to prevent
moisture penetration into a structure.
 Caulking – applying a waterproof filler and sealant building work and repairs

79
INTRODUCTION
Plumbing tests are usually done for the purpose of ensuring correct work, free from defects
arising after installation of components and systems. There are four different methods of testing
the plumbing systems which include;

1. water test
2. air test

3. peppermint test

4. smoke test

Of these, the water, peppermint, and smoke tests are most commonly used. The water and air
tests are chiefly used as the first test on new work. When it comes to the final test, either the
peppermint or smoke test may be applied. Each is thorough when properly applied.
Before the final test is applied, all fixtures should be in position and the system entirely
complete, and the traps filled with water.

1. WATER TEST

Is applied on new work where any defective leaks in joints will be readily detected when the
system is filled with water. The mode of applying the water test is to close up all openings in
pipes, either by soldering the ends shut or by plugs with caps. These plugs are made in different
forms to suit all the uses for which they may be called upon in testing a job. The water supply for
testing may be connected to the end of the test plug where capped, with a stop-cock to shut off
when necessary; and then the system is ready for filling. The filling should be done slowly, and
any leaks found should be immediately fixed. Where a leak occurs in a lead joint which only
requires a little more caulking, the water may be shut off until this is done.

Fig 2.4: Water test

Fig.5.1

80
 2. AIR TEST
The air test shall be made by attaching an air compressor testing apparatus to any suitable
opening, and after closing all other inlets and outlets to the system, forcing air into the system
until there is a uniform gage pressure of five (5) pounds per square inch (34.5 kPa. The pressure
shall be held without introduction of additional air for a period of at least fifteen (15) minutes.
The air test subjects all parts of the system to the same uniform pressure, while the pressure in
the water test varies from zero pressure at the top to a pressure at the bottom depending upon the
height of the stack. In applying the air test, all openings are closed. Through any convenient
plug, a gas pipe is connected, to which a mercury gauge is attached, and hose connection made to
the force pump. The air pumped into the system exerts a pressure on the mercury, forcing it
upward in the tube about two inches for each pound of air pressure.
3. SMOKE TEST.
The smoke test is another test that can be applied to roughed-in new work. It is used most
frequently, however, in testing old work, or in testing new work after the fixtures have been set.
The manner of applying a smoke test is to close all openings, the same as for the water test, and
also the openings at the roof. The testing machine, which is made especially for this purpose, is
then connected to the piping system, and the smoke turned into the pipes.
Fig 2.5: Smoke test

Fig.5.2

81
 4. PEPPERMINT TEST.

The peppermint test is applied by putting about two ounces of oil of peppermint into the system
at the roof, after all openings have been closed as with the other tests, and pouring about a gallon
of hot water into the piping, immediately closing the opening with a plug kept at hand for the
purpose. The fumes of the peppermint are supposed to travel throughout the system of piping,
and to penetrate any existing leaks, the presence of which can then be detected from the
characteristic smell. There being no pressure applied in this test, there is a possibility of the odor
not escaping through very small leaks; and this test, therefore, is not so reliable as the water or
smoke tests.

PLUMBING FAULTS IN PIPING SYSTEMS

Plumbing problems can spring up anytime in systems. Some of the issues are minor and can be
fixed without any professional assistance. However, there are problems that only an expert
plumber can resolve satisfactorily. Following are some of the common the plumbing defects that
can arise in water storage and pumping systems after installation:

1 Low water pressure

Poor water pressure is generally caused by blocked joints and elbows. It can be corrected through
repair and replacement of the affected joint

2 Clogged pipes

When a sticky or hard substance such as a stone or other foreign body passes through pipes it
causes obstruction or partially closing the valves and pipes. There are many techniques used to
clear the drain and sinks Using an appropriate chemical can fix the minor obstruction. However,
chemicals are not always safe.

3 Leaky pipes

Can be caused by pipe joint damage, excessive water pressure, cracked pipes and incorrect pipe
laying. This leaking water dampens the walls, making them look ugly and dirty. Damp or wet
walls cause unpleasant earthy odor and mold growth. Fix pipe leakages using a shark bite, rubber
and metal clamp or by sealing it with an Epoxy seal.

4 Pump Failure

Pump failures can be related to a problem with the unit or an external issue. Usually, the causes
of pump failures include:

82
 a) Stuck switches
b) An overwhelming amount of water(Due to high pressure)

c) Clogged pipes

d) Improper pump installation

5 Air locks
It occurs in plumbing systems when pockets of air in a pipe trap the water in the pipe, not
allowing the water to flow freely through the pipe. This problem usually occurs in hot water
pipes, since the water pressure from the hot water tank won't force the air blockage out of the
way. This can be solved by increasing the water pressure in the pipe to push out the bubbles
Waterproofing to plumbing appliances and fittings can be done using:
 Cement Waterproofing.
 Liquid waterproofing membrane..

 Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing Method.

 Polyurethane Waterproofing
 Teflon tape
 Caulking

COMMON CAUSES OF WATER LEAKS

 Broken Seals
 Clogged Lines
 Corrosion
 Damaged Pipe Joints
 Excess Water Pressure
 Intruding Tree Roots
 Loose Water Connectors
 Rapid Temperature Changes
 Incorrect Pipe Laying
 Underground Movements
 Fixture Cracks

How to stop leakage

What to Avoid to Prevent Plumbing Leaks
1. Check Your Water Pressure. High household water pressure —may trigger or
exacerbate leakage.
2. Replace Washing Machine Hoses. Cold and hot water supply hoses that connect
to your washing machine are usually rubber with a life of only about 5 years.
3. Soften the Water.
4. Don't let them freeze

83
 How to Unclog a Sink Drain Using Chemicals
• Be sure to follow all the directions on the packaging and make sure not to use too
much.
• Wear gloves and goggles for safety.
• Don't mix chemicals. This can produce poisonous gas.
• Pour chemicals down the drain.
Note: Chemicals can cause damage to your drainage pipes if used repeatedly, so I would
recommend not resorting to this method lightly.
How do I stop my plumbing from leaking?
What to Avoid to Prevent Plumbing Leaks
1. Check Your Water Pressure. High household water pressure — may trigger or
exacerbate leakage.
2. Replace Washing Machine Hoses. Cold and hot water supply hoses that connect
to your washing machine are usually rubber with a life of only about 5 years. ...
3. Soften the Water.
4. Don't Let Them Freeze

The Most Common Plumbing Issues

1. Dripping faucets.
2. Slow draining sink.
3. Clogged bath or shower drain.
4. Clogged toilet.
5. Running toilet.
6. Faulty water heater.
7. Low water pressure.
8. Jammed garbage disposal.
9. Leaky pipes.
10. Sewer system backup.
How to Unclog Your Shower Drain Using a Plunger

 Adding petroleum jelly to the edge of the suction pad will improve the seal.
 Make sure there is enough water in the shower so that the end of the plunger is
submerged.
 Plunge vigorously.
Common Plumbing Problems in Old Houses
In addition to the plumbing issues founds in homes generally, older houses can present
some particular challenges. Below are five common plumbing problems i've encountered
when living in and managing older properties.

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 1. Galvanized pipes. These were commonly used in American houses built before the
1960's. Galvanized pipes are made from iron and coated in zinc. Over time, the zinc
erodes, leading to corrosion and breakages. Once the pipes are compromised, water
pressure and quality deteriorates. The solution is usually to replace the damaged sections
of piping.
2. Polybutylene pipes. These were common in homes built from the late 70’s to early 90’s,
due mainly to their affordability. However, these pipes have the tendency to react with
oxidants in water over time, causing them to weaken and fail.
3. Previous bad repairs. When you get an old house, you are basically inheriting it from
one or more previous owners. The quality of earlier repairs and plumbing work can
therefore be variable. Due to previous owners avoiding the expense of employing a
professional plumber, it is not unusual for to discover inadequate or bungled plumbing.
4. Pipe bellies. The earth underneath houses is rarely completely static. Over time, the
shifting around can cause the house's pipes to buckle or bow. These bends are known as
"pipe bellies" and can interrupt the flow of water causing blockages.
5. Old fixtures. Original fixtures such as faucets, valves, spigots, and handles are often
compromised in an old house, due to years of wear. This can result in leaks, bad smells,
and inflated utility bills.

Common Reasons Why Pipes Leak:

 Excess pressure. When too much pressure is applied to pipes, it can easily cause them to
spring a leak. While yes, plumbing materials are designed to be able to withstand
pressure, keep in mind that they really can only handle so much.
 Cracks. Although cracks aren’t experienced as commonly due to new advances in
plumbing technology, they’re certainly still possible. For those pipes that do crack, the
water has to go somewhere as it travels through, so it’s only natural that a bit would begin
to seep out.
 Corrosion. Corroding pipes can absolutely lead to a leak as well, and corrosion can be
caused by a number of factors – these factors include the chemicals in your water, the pH
in your water, the temperature of your water, the water pressure and velocity, and the
oxygen content of your water. The most common causes of pipe corrosion are almost
always directly related to water quality. As a result, having your water treated is one of
the best ways to prevent leaks from forming in your pipes. Read more about our water
treatment services.

How Do You Know if You Have a Leak in Your Home?

Although leaks can sometimes be tough for the eye to spot directly, if you’re on the lookout for
the warning signs listed below, you’ve got a better chance at catching a leak in time to have it
repaired before things get out of hand. For instance,

Warning Signs You Have a Leak:

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 A drop in water pressure
 Water stains on your ceiling, floors or walls
o In more obvious cases, you’ll want to look out for signs of water damage, mold,
warped floors or walls. A warped or discolored wall or floorboard may indicate
that water has pooled in this area and has already done damage, even if you don’t
see moisture at the [Link] are all signs that a hidden plumbing pipe is
leaking.
 A higher than usual water bill
o A higher than usual water bill is an easy way to tell that something is going on
within your walls. Unless you’ve had a sudden change in your water usage, your
water bill should be relatively consistent. If your water utility bills are
significantly and unexpectedly higher than past bills, it may indicate a leak. Also,
compare your water bills with those of your neighbors. If there’s a significant
difference, your home may be leaking.
 An increase in your home’s humidity
 Mildew formation
o Although it isn’t unusual for small amounts of mildew to grow in places where
water is constantly flowing (such as the corners of your shower), if it starts to
build up quickly, and in strange places, that’s a surefire sign that you have a leak
on your hands.
 Strange Noises
o One of the more obvious warning signs is noise. If you hear hissing or dripping
sounds near fixtures such as your toilet or sink, there’s a good chance water is
flowing somewhere that it shouldn’t be.
 Sudden Puddles
o Unless you’ve spilled something, your floor shouldn’t be wet — sort of a no-
brainer, right? So, if you notice damp spots on your carpet or your floor seems to
be discolored, something may be leaking beneath it.
 Rusty pipes
 Large wet spots in your yard
o To determine leaks outdoors, start by taking a look at your garden hose. When
turned on, there shouldn’t be any drips where it connects to the spigot, but if there
are, you may need to replace the hose washer and ensure that the connection is
more secure.
 Water usage readings that exceed 12,000 gallons per month
o During periods of colder temperatures, the EPA explains that a family of four
generally shouldn’t use more than 12,000 gallons of water per month. Thus, if

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 your water usage exceeds this (relative to the size of your family), there’s a good
chance you have a leak.

Additional Warning Signs and Tips for Detecting a Water Leak:

 Check your water meter!

o Check your water meter and record the level. Make sure no one uses any water
for a few hours, then go back and check the meter again (it’s easiest to record the
first level when everyone goes to bed, then check it again first thing in the
morning). If the level has changed, you probably have a leak.
 Check your toilet!
o Even a small toilet leak can lead to significant water waste over time. Remove
your tank lid and place a few drops of food coloring in the back of the tank. Wait
about thirty minutes and then come back to your toilet. Check the toilet bowl to
see if any colored water has leaked from the tank into the bowl. If you see the
color coming through, you have a leak.
 Check your washing machine!
o Regardless of its location in your home, your washing machine is an item that
needs proper care if you want to avoid major flooding. It is advisable to check the
hoses regularly for bulging, cracking, fraying, and leaks around the ends. You
should also make sure to leave at least 4 inches between the water connection and
the back of the washing machine to prevent kinks in the hose.
 Routinely check for leaks!
o You should routinely check for water leak warning signs to prevent major damage
to both your home and other valuable items. When one or more of these warning
signs are visible, chances are you have or are in danger of developing a leak.
Read more about The Benefits of an Annual Leak Detection Service Call.

Where Should You Look for Plumbing Leaks in Your Home?

If you suspect there is a leak in your kitchen, bathroom, or inside a wall – wherever it may be –
but can’t seem to find the source, do the following:

 Bathrooms:
o Start by checking the space under your sink for any sign of moisture. But, if the
leak isn’t coming from your sink pipes, you’ll need to move on to the shower. To
locate the source of a leak near the tub or shower, start by splashing some water
around the shower door to see if any spills out onto the floor. Additionally, you
should also inspect the caulking around your fixtures to see if there are any
cracks. If some are present, there is a good chance your leak is stemming from
them.

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  Kitchens:
o Similar to your bathroom, your first plan of action should be to check under the
sink. If the bottom of the P trap is moist or you notice water stains on the bottom
of your cabinets, you can bet that the leak is starting in your sink. Additionally, if
you notice any changes in your floor, such as laminate becoming loose, you may
be able to track the leak back to your sink too.
 Walls:
o Noticing a leak in your wall is pretty easy – those dark stains are hard to miss! In
this scenario, though, it’s finding the source that can be tricky. As soon as you
notice any sign of a drip, see if you can trace where it starts and ends. At this
point, you should at least be able to determine where the leak is based. Then, an
expert plumber like ourselves can come in and do the rest!

What Are Some Ways to Prevent Plumbing Leaks in Your Home?

 A crowded cabinet could cause a leak. Many people use the cabinet under their sink to
store cleaning supplies and other household items, but when this space is too stuffed and
things are hitting into your pipes, a leak is more likely to form.
 Sometimes replacing is better than repairing. Take your faucet, for instance. If it gets
to the point where it’s too corroded, it may be difficult for you to find the right parts if
repairs are necessary. When this happens, installing a new faucet entirely (even if you
really love your old one) may be the better option.
 You need to know where your main shutoff valve is. If you ever come across a leak in
your home, you’ll need to know where the main shutoff valve is, since the first step to
solving the problem is shutting it off. While you can’t turn off the water at your water
meter in a severe emergency, knowing where your main shutoff valve is can be much
simpler.

What Are Some Sneaky Sources of Water Leaks?

 Clogged Drain Lines – A clogged drain line can be more than an inconvenience.
More serious clogs can lead to overflows or even burst lines.
 Corroded Pipes – Over time, as your plumbing system ages, you may find that your
plumbing pipes become corroded. These are common sources of plumbing leaks at home.
Keep an eye on older pipes and have high-risk pipes replaced to prevent water damage.
 High Water Pressure – High water pressure may feel nice in the shower, but too much
pressure can put strain on your plumbing system and cause leaks.
 Tree Root Invasions – Trees are constantly seeking out water sources — and
unfortunately, if there is a crack in your plumbing pipe, tree roots may invade your
plumbing system. Keep an eye out for drops in water pressure or slow draining sinks.
 Pipe Joint Leaks – Leaky pipe joints are hidden deep within your walls, and are often
hard to spot until it’s too late. Keep an eye out for low water pressure!

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  Wear and Tear – Your kitchen faucet has a ton of moving parts and as a result, it is
prone to wear and tear over time. Fortunately, it’s easy to fix a leaky faucet!

What are the Dangers of Hidden Leaks?

Not only do leaks get larger with age, but they can also potentially cause damage to your home.
In addition to wasting water, a resource that we all rely on each and every day, household leaks
can also cause major water damage – damage that could be costly to fix. Not to mention, water
damage can also lead to health troubles for anyone in your home – here, we’re talking about
mold. Since leaks can cause structural damage to your home and potential illness to those who
live in it, it seems only obvious that you should have them repaired as soon as possible!

Leak detection and repair offers a number of benefits, including:

 Reduced or eliminated water loss

 Reduced risk of damage associated with leaks
 Reduced need for emergency repairs
 Reduced need for water treatment and pressurization

Can Leaks Get Bigger if They’re Ignored?

Yes. Just because a leak is small now doesn’t mean it won’t grow bigger over time. Water
leaking out of your pipes or fixtures will eventually cause enough corrosion that even a pinhole-
sized leak can grow and potentially cause damage to your home.

Many people believe that small leaks will stay small even if ignored for a while, but the truth is
that over time, they will get worse. That’s because the water from the leak will erode your pipes,
which ultimately makes a small leak grow in size. Small leaks can quickly turn into thousands of
dollars in repairs if you don’t repair them quickly.

Do All Water Leaks Rise to the Surface?

Unfortunately, not all leaks will rise to the surface, and in fact, many will stay hidden for quite a
long time. Common sources of hidden leaks include rainstorm pipes, sewer lines, stream
channels and deserted pipes. The easiest way to find these is by using sound amplification
equipment. Knowing this, it becomes essential for you to work with a plumber regularly to detect
any leaks you may be missing.

Additional Plumbing Leak Facts:

Check out the infographic below for a few more facts we’ve collected about leaks, courtesy
of EPA WaterSense:

 On a national scale, households can waste up to 1 trillion gallons of water per year, which
is enough to supply 11 million homes with running water all year long.
 On average, the typical household wastes more than 10,000 gallons of water each year on
leaks. That’s enough water to wash 270 loads of laundry!

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 Toilet flappers, dripping faucets, and leaky valves are the most common culprits when it
comes to plumbing problems. Fortunately, they can all be taken care of with just a quick
fix!
 Think your plumbing’s perfect? Consider this: 10% of homes have leaks that waste 90
gallons of water or more per day.
 Fixing your leaky plumbing can save you an average of 10% on your annual water bill.

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 [Link] Learning Activities

The two diagrams shown below represents the practical activity carried out previously.
1. Assemble all tools and materials required
2. Carry out the functionality of the system installed using water test and air test
3. Correct the faults that may arise after testing the system

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 [Link] Self-Assessment

1. How does plumbing leak detection work?

2. How do you know if a pipeline is leaking?
3. Can plumbers detect leaks?
4. How does smoke testing work?
5. How long should a smoke test take?
6. Is it safe to use chemical drain cleaners?
7. What skills does a plumber should have?

[Link] Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

Tools/Equipment: Materials:

 Pipe wrench  Hardhat

 Pipe cutter  Gloves
 Hacksaw  Dustcoat / overall
 Pipe Threading Equipment  Safety shoes / boots
 Vise - Bench  Various types of pipe support
 Tap and Punch  Sandpapers
 Files  Threading oil
 Screwdrivers  Thread tape
 Drill with various sizes of bits  PPR-Poly propylene random
 Masonry chisel  Pipes
 Equipment  HDPE-High density poly
 Pipe bender  Ethylene pipes

[Link] References

Black & Decker (2008). The Complete Guide to Plumbing (4th ed). Minneapolis: Creative
Publishing international, Inc. Retrieved from [Link]

Chudley, R.G (1988). Building Construction Handbook (4th ed). MA: Reed Educational
and Professional Publishing Ltd.

Muscroft, S. (2005). Plumbing Book (2nd ed). MA: Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

American Society of Plumbing Engineers (2012). Plumbing engineering design

handbook (vol. 4). Retrieved from [Link]

Treloar, R.D (2012), Plumbing book (4TH ed). Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell ltd. Retrieved from
[Link]

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Responses

1. How does plumbing leak detection work?

An acoustic leak detection device locates leaks by characterizing and differentiating leak sounds
from those of normal water flow through the distribution system. ... The technology measures the
actual strength of the pipe wall by placing a microscopic flex on the pipe walls using sound
waves

2. How do you know if a pipeline is leaking?

Sight: Liquid pools, discolored or abnormally dry soil/vegetation, continuous bubbling in wet or
flooded areas, an oily sheen on water surfaces, vaporous fogs, blowing dirt around a pipeline
area, or fire coming from the ground or appearing to burn aboveground can all be indicative of a
pipeline leak

3. Can plumbers detect leaks?

Plumbers have leak detection equipment that can quickly and accurately find the source of leaks.
Even if the leak is under concrete or behind a wall. Ground microphones or listening discs are
acoustic listening devices that a plumber uses to find leaks

4. How does smoke testing work?

Smoke testing forces smoke-filled air through a sanitary sewer line. The smoke under pressure
will fill the main line plus any connections and then follow the path of any leak to the ground
surface, quickly revealing the source of the problem.
5. How long should a smoke test take?
A. Approximately 15 minutes
B. While crews might be in your area for a few hours, each actual smoke test setup takes
approximately 15 minutes to complete. Most houses will only be within the testing area for one
or two tests
6. Is it safe to use chemical drain cleaners?
Drain cleaners are usually very toxic, not a good thing to keep around the home
especially if you have children or pets. These toxic chemicals also have a negative effect on your
pipes, causing deterioration from the inside out. When this happens, the drains lines will need to
be replaced. There are various products on the market that contain “friendly” bacteria and
enzymes. These work great for keeping drain sludge and grease from building up on the pipes.
For serious clogs contact a professional plumber at Daniels Plumbing.
7. What skills does a plumber should have?
• Problem solving
• Critical thinking
• Listening and paying attention to instruction
• Decision making

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• Co-coordinating
• Technical knowledge related to pipe fitting

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