The Draft Manuscript Edition

Copyright © 2021 Gordon Adomdza & Craig McCarthy

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced transmitted or stored in a
retrieval system, in any form or by any means without permission of the authors.

Publisher
Ashesi University
1 University Drive
Berekuso, Eastern Region, Ghana
PMB CT3, Cantonments, Accra

Authors’ Contact

gadomdza@[Link] or +233547047047

Cover Design
Jay-Ford Company

Ghana Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Adomdza, Gordon
Design thinking, project guide: the whys and the hows / Gordon Adomdza &

Craig McCarthy. – Accra: Ashesi University, 2021. 1. Design 2. Graphic Arts

I. Title
DDC 741.6 - - dc 20

ISBN: 978-9988-3-1189-6 GLCN – 19

 Dedication

This project guide is dedicated to all the pioneering students, teaching assistants and faculty of the
Foundations of Design and Entrepreneurship class, which provided opportunities to contextualize the
content for the book
 Acknowledgements
Special acknowledgement goes to the following faculty who provided useful comments, insights,
illustrations etc. that helped improve on the original manuscript.

Sena Agbodzah Agyepong (PhD)

Yaw Dankwah Osseo-Asare
Nepeti Nicanor
Rose A. Dodd
Dahlia Nduom
Keren Arthur (PhD)
Victor Randolph
David Hutchful
Kwami Justina Morris (PhD)
Abdul-Nasser Alidu
Theodore Philip Asare
Jewel Thompson
Eugene Eluerkeh
 1

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Problem Festival 2
Chapter 2: Innovation 14
Chapter 3: Creativity 32
Chapter 4: Chasing Mysteries 47
Chapter 5: Intro to Design Thinking 60
Chapter 6: Reframing 67
Chapter 7: Ethnography 73
Chapter 8: Lean Research 85
Chapter 9: Analysis Frameworks 95
Chapter 10: Ideation Techniques 127
Chapter 11: User Requirements, Value Fulfillment Blueprint and Dark Pattern Design
140
Chapter 12: Wireframing and Prototyping 156
Chapter 13: Business Model Canvas and Minimum Viable Product 165
References 194
 156

CHAPTER 12: WIREFRAMING AND PROTOTYPING

design thinking process. Prototyping is the
Chapter Description fourth stage of the design thinking process.
At the end of this chapter, one should be After the ideation stage, you have a lot of
able to define prototyping, understand the ideas and you may like to pursue some of
prototyping process, gain insights on how these ideas. Prototyping is the process of
they can design a prototype, understand producing an early, less expensive, and
why it is important to come out with a simpler version of the product in order to
prototype for the final product and, be able reveal any problems with the current
to differentiate between a wireframe and a design.
prototype. Additionally, one will learn and Closely linked to prototyping; wireframing.
get to explore the various tools used for A wireframe creates the structure and
wireframing either manually or using online backbone of your entire project making it
apps/tools. Also, one will understand what easier to, later on, build individual parts. In
to keep in mind while wireframing or simple terms, a wireframe is a low-fidelity,
prototyping. How can team members in simplified outline of your product stripped
different locations prototype or wireframe? of any visual design or branding features.
This chapter introduces the topic of remote Wireframes can be compared to skeletons;
prototyping which is suitable for such team they loosely shape the final product thereby
members. Finally, one will understand giving you a fair idea of how the final
which kind of venture or project needs a product will be. A wireframe is like a
prototype or wireframe. And which tools blueprint in the design process that should
will be favorable in developing such a not be skipped, just as you would not build
prototype or wireframe. a house without a blueprint (Yadav, 2019).

Introduction Prototype

Imagine after your intensive research A prototype is a simple experimental model

process, you design an amazing product and of a proposed solution used to test or
send it to the market absolutely positive validate ideas, design assumptions and
that it is going to satisfy the needs of your other aspects of its conceptualization
users only to realize that they do not like quickly and cheaply so that the designer/s
the product features. That will be a lot of involved can make appropriate refinements
time and resources wasted! This loss would or possible changes in direction.
have been avoided by Prototyping. A common characteristic of most
Remember we saw prototyping in the prototypes is tangibility. They can take so
many different forms. They can be just
 157

about anything. Examples could be simple Importance of Prototyping

sketches or storyboards used to illustrate a
proposed experiential solution, rough paper 1. To back up early research
prototypes of digital interfaces, and even
You may be wondering why you need to do
role-playing to act out a service offering an
a prototype when you already did research
idea. They need not to be complete
at the early stages of design thinking. The
products: You can choose a part of your
truth is research carried out at the early
solution and prototype it (like testing the
stages of your Design Thinking project does
steering wheel of a car alone) to test that
not inform you enough in order to create
specific part of your solution.
the optimal solution. Irrespective of
whether you have researched thoroughly
Prototyping comes in here to provide a set
and gathered a large body of information,
of tools and approaches for properly testing
or whether your ideation sessions have
and exploring ideas before too many
resulted in what many perceive as a mind-
resources get used. Most people can trace
blowing solution, testing is still important
the art of prototyping back to childhood, we
for success. Design teams may become too
replicated real-world objects with simple
focused on the research artefacts they have
materials such as paper, card, and
gathered during the earlier phases of
modelling clay or just about anything else
exploration thereby creating a bias towards
we could get our hands-on. This is the same
their ideas. Creating and testing your
as the early rough prototypes we come up
prototypes can reveal assumptions and
with at the early stages of testing (Dam &
biases you have towards your ideas and
Siang, 2019).
uncover insights about your users that you
can use to improve your solutions or create
“If a picture is worth a thousand words,
new ones (Dam & Siang, 2019).
then a prototype is worth a thousand
meetings.”
(Kelley, 2018). 2. To Empathise, Define, Ideate, and
Test
Prototypes can take two dimensions: You can and should prototype at various
stages of the design thinking process.
1. Quick and rough - Usually used for
Prototyping can serve as an ideation
early-stage testing.
method since it allows you, as well as users,
2. Fully formed and detailed- This is
to explore alternative solutions.
commonly used for pilot trials or testing
This is because prototypes are physical
towards the end of the project (Dam &
representations of your solutions, and thus
Siang, 2019).
prototyping allows you to think by doing.
 158

“Thinking by doing” helps in deriving more Design Thinking Bootcamp Bootleg Toolkit
value from research, ideation, testing lists bias towards action as one of the
among others (Dam & Siang, 2019). essential mindsets for Design Thinking.
“Design thinking is a misnomer; it is more
Purposes of prototypes: about doing than thinking. Bias toward
doing and making over-thinking and
● Exploring and Experimentation meeting.”– d. school
Prototypes can be used to explore
problems, ideas, and opportunities within a With design thinking, you cannot over
specific area of focus and test out the analyze or over think the problem because
impact of little and progressive or radical it requires that you investigate each
changes (Dam & Siang, 2019). assumption through active testing, instead
● Inspiring and Motivating of theoretically thinking it through.
Prototypes help you to sell new ideas, Controlled experiments help to prove or
motivate internal or external stakeholders disprove your assumptions (Dam & Siang,
to buy-in or agree with your idea, or inspire 2019).
markets toward radical new ways of
thinking and doing (Dam & Siang, 2019). Creative Serendipity
● Engaging, Testing, and Experiencing In their book Creative Confidence, David
You can use prototypes to engage with end- and Tom Kelley, founders of international
users or stakeholders, in a manner that design firm IDEO discuss the importance of
opens you up to deeper revelations, insights cultivating creative serendipity. They
and more valuable experiences, to inform encourage the adoption of approaches that
design decisions going forward (Dam & help create an epiphany-friendly
Siang, 2019). environment within oneself. What happens
● Learning and Understanding is this: when you deeply immerse yourself
Prototypes can help you better understand within your subject of interest, you open up
the complexities of a problem, product, or opportunities for happy accidents. The
system by physically engaging with them Kelleys bring out instances of people who
and identifying what makes them work or made breakthroughs not by thinking
fail (Dam & Siang, 2019). through solutions but by trying things and
figuring them out. One of the best ways to
learn about the positive and negative
How Prototyping Works
dynamics of your solution is to take physical
Bias Towards Action action, by experimenting with and exploring
components of the potential solutions.
Prototyping helps you bring your ideas into
 159

a tangible plane, which will help you and the form of sketches on a napkin, role-
your team to see and discuss the playing or anything that allows turning your
advantages and disadvantages, to learn ideas into tangible and testable (Dam &
from users’ feedback, and to create Siang, 2019).
opportunities for creative serendipity
(Kelley & Kelley, 2013). Types of Prototyping
There are basically two types of
Learning by Doing
prototyping.
According to Dam & Siang (2019), Design
Thinking allows you to explore unknown
Low Fidelity Prototyping
possibilities and uncover unknown insights.
As a result, design thinking emphasizes the This involves using an incomplete model of
importance of learning using activities that the final product with just a few features
increase the learning potential of the team. that will be found in the final product. It
It will help you boost action-oriented may be made out of materials not intended
learning by experimenting and exploring for the finished product like wood or paper.
the proposed solutions in order to Examples of low fidelity prototypes are
understand what problems may exist with storyboarding, Sketching, card sorting, and
the assumptions behind those solutions. As wizard of Oz. Low fidelity prototyping has
such, your team can iterate rapidly, the following advantages
modifying your test models and moving you ● It is easy to make.
closer and closer to the goal. ● It is inexpensive.
● Enables the designer to get an
The Take-Away overall view of the product using minimal
time and effort.
Sometimes we forget to establish a
● Users find it easier to interact with a
connection between our ideas and the user
low fidelity prototype.
and only focus on brainstorming, planning
and implementing our ideas. We then
Disadvantage
realize that the assumptions upon which we
Since Low fidelity prototyping lacks more
based our solutions might have been
features of the final product, it may not
wrong. This leads to significant wastes of
properly inform the designer (Dam & Siang,
time and resources. Prototyping helps
2019).
prevent this. Prototyping quickly, and
frequently, is the best way to test your
High Fidelity Prototyping
assumptions, learn about users, and
improve on your ideas. Prototypes can be in High fidelity prototyping involves using a
prototype that has most of the features and
 160

functionality of the final product. It allows Do not place too much value on your
users to interact with the prototype in a prototype so that it becomes difficult to
similar way they will interact with the final change its features or discard it when
model. An example of a high-fidelity necessary. Remember it is just a prototype
prototype could be creating a 3D model of a and not a final version of the product. It is
car (Dam & Siang, 2019). subject to changes and even thrashing. To
High fidelity prototyping is advantageous in avoid this, it will be better to start with
that cheap and fast prototypes. Preferably low
● It is engaging because users can fidelity prototypes. This reduces the
have a feel of exactly what the final product chances of you putting a lot of value on the
will look like, and the designer will be able prototype.
to judge how well it meets the wants,
needs, and expectations of the user. Avoid wasting time on pitching your
● It also allows the designer to get prototype
feedback with a high level of validity and Avoid explaining a lot when presenting your
applicability. prototype. If you have to explain a lot of
High fidelity prototyping is disadvantageous things about your prototype, your user will
in that not be interacting well with the product
● because you will be interrupting their
It is expensive to create.
interaction. As a result, you will not be able
● Coming up with a high-fidelity
to get the insights that you had to get from
prototype is time-consuming (Dam & Siang,
the user's interaction with the prototype. If
2019).
you find out that you have a lot of
explaining to do about your prototype, then
What to Avoid During Prototyping? that should already tell you that the
Avoid diving into the first promising idea prototype has issues. Have a bias towards
you come up with during prototyping. action, instead of telling them what to do,
Test many options within your idea, do not create a prototype that allows them to do
throw away any ideas until you have tested what they want to do.
them. This gives you room and inspiration
to create more ideas or merge a few Avoid Prototyping without a purpose
solutions into a better and more successful Even though the overall objective of
one, by testing alternative ideas and making prototyping is to test the viability of a
quick and dirty prototypes. product when it is important to ask yourself
“Why am I creating this prototype” during
Avoid getting too attached to your prototyping. Have a purpose. It may be to
prototype. test an assumption, test the usability of
 161

your product or some other purpose. the process because it gives you the
Having a purpose for your prototype opportunity to see exactly what your final
informs you about what kind of prototype product will look like. If you cannot build
you will be making. your prototype on your own, you may seek
professional help to do it. Remember it is
Stages of Prototyping okay to make mistakes and correct them
along the way.
Now that you are all warmed up to build
your prototype, find below some steps you
can follow to help you come up with a good
Remote Prototyping
prototype This refers to creating prototypes by teams
who are in different locations and are not
Create a sketch of your concept on paper able to meet physically. Working remotely
Sometimes, you may get amazing ideas but has become the new norm because of the
because you failed to write them down, you COVID19 pandemic. Team members who
realize that you later forget what you had in are in their respective homes because of
mind or maybe you will not be able to situations like COVID19 can prototype by
remember all about it at a later date. It is following the steps below.
therefore important to visualize your ideas ● After coming up with the idea for
on paper. It gives you room to put down as your prototype. Discuss and assign among
many ideas as you want and at a faster team members who will be responsible for
pace. building the various parts of the prototype.
● Each team member should
Develop a virtual prototype physically build the assigned part of the
Now that you have your paper prototype, prototype and take pictures to share with
transfer and create a digital sketch of the the group.
same concept. A digital representation of ● Photoshop all the images of the
your prototype makes it look more real and
different parts of the prototype together to
makes it easier for you to have a better
create a complete design. Use platforms
view of what the final prototype will look
like; online collaborative tools like Google
like. You could do this by sketching your
Slides, Mural and Miro, design online tools
prototype on the computer or creating a 3D
like SolidWorks and AutoCAD and also,
print of it.
remote applications like TensorFlow for
JavaScript using Lego Mindstorms and
Build a physical prototype
TechViz. These platforms can both be used
Now you are ready to build your physical
on laptops and mobile phones if given
prototype. This is the most exciting part of
 162

access to the camera, accelerometer and ● If you want to easily make changes
other sensors. to your wireframe, then it is advisable to
draw it with paper and a pencil, or at a
whiteboard. This helps you to make early
adjustments after feedback is given.
WIREFRAMES ● Paper-prototypes can help you test
with end-users at every stage of ideation
Similarly, to a prototype, a wireframe is a
and design because it is easier and cheaper
low-fidelity, simplified outline of your
to make changes at this stage than changes
product stripped of any visual design or
whose necessity is first discovered after
branding features.
coding is underway.
● After using paper wireframes,
The three main Purposes of progressing to software wireframes enables
Wireframes you to keep track of more detailed actions
● Presents the information that will be (Allabarton, 2019).
expected on the page
● Gives an outline of the structure and Deciding on your Wireframe Process
layout of the page Different UX designers approach the task of
● Conveys overall direction and wireframing in different ways. Some use
description of the user interface online apps or tools while others draw by
(Fanguy,2018). hand. Most times, the decision to either use
hand or online apps and tools depends on
Examples of Wireframes requirements of a particular approach and
not the UX designer’s individual preference
It will be helpful to look at some examples
(Allabarton, 2019).
of wireframes before you start designing
your own wireframe. This will give you
Below are steps different designers
some inspiration for your own wireframes
structure the wireframing process from
and also open you up to a variety of ways of
design to implementation (Allabarton,
creating them. Some people draw their
2019):
wireframes by hand, others feel more
comfortable using software like
1. Wireframe - Interactive Prototype -
InvisionApp, or Balsamiq. You should
Visual – Design
choose whichever works for you. However,
2. Sketch – Code
keep the following in mind when deciding
3. Sketch - Wireframe - Hi-Def
on your wireframe creation process
Wireframe - Visual – Code
(Allabarton, 2019):
 163

4. Sketch - Wireframe - Visual -Code ● The intended user and business

goals when interacting with this page?
Which Tools Are Best for ● How can the content be organized
Wireframing? to support these goals?
● Where should your main message
According to Allabarton (2019), there are so
many free tools for creating wireframes and and logo go?
● What should the user see first when
prototypes. Try out as many as you can to
find the ones that will work for you. arriving at the page?
Remember you can also use a pen and ● Where is the call to action?
paper. Below are examples of these tools ● What will the user expect to see in
certain areas of the page? (Allabarton,
UXPin 2019).
It has a wide range of functionalities and
facilitates the creation of responsive Filling in The Details
clickable wireframes directly in your
Now that you have got blocks of your
browser.
wireframe in place, it’s time to key in the
details. We would advise working from top
InVision
to bottom and then left to right.
It allows you to get feedback straight from
It is also important to define the following
your team and users through clickable
elements in your wireframe:
mock-ups of your site design.
● Usability conventions, such as
[Link] putting the navigation at the top next to
Provides you with the technology to create your logo, having a search box on the top
wireframes quickly within your browser, the right, and so on.
online version of pen and paper. ● Spacing and layout.
● The hierarchy of the information:
Building the Blocks of Your What’s more important than what?
● What are your calls to action?
Wireframe
● Images: Where and what size?
If you are wireframing with an online tool,
● Trust-building elements: What do
the same principle applies, get the blocks of
you need to build trust in your customers
your wireframe on the page first before
and where would be the best place to put
thinking about anything else.
these elements? (Allabarton, 2019).
To do this, think about:
 164

Key principles of wireframing the public, unlike the wireframe which is

most often used by the designer (Hannah,
● The wireframe should provide clarity
2019).
on what the what that site page is about,
what the user can do there, and if it
satisfies their needs.
Conclusion
● Easy navigation through the How you prototype/wireframe or what you
wireframe. The calls to actions should be choose as your prototype/wireframe
clear on your wireframe as it will help users depends largely on the kind of venture you
build confidence about your brand. are operating or on the kind of project you
● Avoid too much noise on your are working on. Most times, your
wireframe. It can be distracting to have too prototype/wireframe will provide you with
much information, copy, links among others valuable insights which will go a long way to
(Allabarton, 2019). inform the features of the final product.
When in doubt about any feature of your
desired final product, make it part of the
Difference between a wireframe and
prototype/wireframe to test it. Remember
a prototype
not to limit yourself to any tools, try as
If you have already done prototyping, you many as possible to achieve a good
might be tempted to think that there is no prototype/wireframe for your idea. While
difference between a wireframe and a doing this, keep in mind the needs of your
prototype. Both of them are parts of the user.
design process but they are not the same.
They both serve unique and distinctive Key Words
purposes in the design thinking process.
The difference often stems from how much Prototyping, Prototype, Low-fidelity, High-
they resemble the final product (Fanguy, fidelity, wireframing, wireframes,
2018). A wireframe is a skeleton of your
final product. It is the base that provides Problem Sets
you with a general idea of what you are
1. What do you understand by the
building. A wireframe makes it easier to
terms prototyping and wireframing?
transition to a prototype. Prototypes, on
2. Do you think prototyping and
the other hand, are a more visual
wireframing are important or not and why?
representation of your final product. Think
3. What do you understand by the
of them as nearly formed bodies with
phrase “If a picture is worth a thousand
moldable skin and facial features. They are
words, a prototype is worth a thousand
not the final product but may be shown to
pictures?”
 195

REFERENCES
Allabarton, R. (2019). The Definitive Guide: How To Create Your First Wireframe. Retrieved 5
September 2020, from [Link]
wireframe/
Artwork Archive. (2019). 7 Fun Exercises to Quickly Improve Creative Thinking. Retrieved from
[Link]
thinking
Ashesi University (2019). New Entrepreneurs Xchange for Transformation: Idea to Impact
project. Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]
Ayres, C. (2019). 16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research. Retrieved from
[Link]
Bank, C. (2014). 15 Ways to Test Your Minimum Viable Product. Retrieved 11 October 2020,
from [Link]
Barry, C. (2019). Retrieved from [Link]
[Link]/groups/k12/wiki/c0be1/[Link]
Berns, G. (2008). Neuroscience Sheds New Light on Creativity. Retrieved from
[Link]
Berns, G (2010). Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently by. Harvard
Berns, G. (2008). Neuroscience Sheds New Light on Creativity. Retrieved from
[Link]
Business ReviewPress; First Trade Paper Edition edition
Blaikie, N. (2003). Analyzing Quantitative Data. SAGE publications Ltd. BridgeInnovate. (2019).
Framing the challenge. Retrieved from
[Link]
Blank, S., 2005. The Four Steps To The Epiphany.
Bitner, M., Ostrom, A., & Morgan, F. (2008). Service Blueprinting: A Practical Technique for
Service Innovation | Request PDF. Retrieved, from
[Link]
nique_for_Service_Innovation
Cieplinska, A. (2019). 5 Common UX Dark Patterns — Interfaces Designed To Trick You!.
Retrieved from
[Link]
interfaces-designed-to-trick-you-61fdede9718c
Coley Consulting (2019). User Requirements- three areas to include and one to avoid. (2019).
Retrieved from [Link]
Christensen, C., Cook, S. and Hall, T., 2016. What Customers Want from Your Products. [online]
HBS Working Knowledge. Available at: <[Link]
want-from-your-products>
 196

Clayton, C. (2019). The Theory of Jobs To Be Done. (2019). Retrieved from

[Link]
Cowan, A. (2017). The 20 Minute Business Plan: Business Model Canvas Made Easy. Retrieved
26 September 2020, from [Link]
templates/
Coleman, S., & Simpson, B. (2019). Glossary of Terms. Retrieved from
[Link]
Cronin, M. What is customer development? — UpThink Innovation Agency. Retrieved 11
October 2020, from [Link]
model-innovation
Crossman, A. (2019). Ethnography: What It Is and How To Do It. Retrieved from
[Link]
Daly, S. R., Seifert, C. M., Yilmaz, S., & Gonzalez, R. (2016). Comparing Ideation Techniques for
Beginning Designers. Journal of Mechanical Design, 138(10), 101108.
[Link]
Dam, R., & Siang, T. (2019). Design Thinking: Get Started with Prototyping. Retrieved, from
[Link]
prototyping
de Bono, E. (1999) Six Thinking Hats, New York: Back Bay Books. Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link] Bootcamp Bootleg, (2013). Retrieved from: [Link]
content/uploads/2013/10/[Link]
Dudek, A. (2017). What is a Design Ethnographer?. Retrieved 3 September 2019, from
[Link]
Denzin, N. K. (1998). The New Ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 27(3), 405–
415. [Link]
Ethnographic Methodology. (2019). Retrieved from
[Link]
KateG/Ethnographic%[Link]#_Interviews
Fagerstrom, A. (2018). Dark Pattern Design — It’s Downright Unethical & Irresponsible.
Retrieved From
[Link]
Fanguy, W. (2018). Wireframing vs. prototyping: What’s the difference?. Retrieved 6 September
2020, from [Link]
difference/
Given, L. (2008). Participants as Co-Researchers - SAGE Research Methods. Retrieved from
[Link]
methods/[Link]
Frey, C. (2013). The 7 All-time Greatest Ideation Techniques | Innovation Management.
Retrieved from
[Link]
techniques/
 197

Gardiner, H. (2013). 8 Awesome Creative Thinking Techniques | Koozai. Retrieved, from

[Link]
techniques-plus-tools/
Interaction Design Foundation. ( 2019). Shadowing in User Research - Do You See What They
See?. Retrieved from
[Link]
what-they-see
Interaction Design Foundation. (2019). What are Wicked Problems? Retrieved from
[Link]
Interaction Design Foundation.(2018). What is Design Thinking?. (2018). Retrieved from

[Link]

Hannah, J. (2019). What's The Difference Between A Wireframe, A Prototype, And A Mockup?.
Retrieved 6 September 2020, from [Link]
design/difference-between-wireframes-prototypes-mockups/
Hooks, I. (1993). Writing Good Requirements. Retrieved from
[Link]
Hucki, Z. (2017). Beyond the data: five important lessons we can learn from Hans Rosling. The
Conversation. Retrieved from [Link]
important-lessons-we-can-learn-from-hans-rosling-72810
Kelley, T., & Kelley, D. (2018). A Prototype Is Worth 1000 Meetings. Retrieved 4 September
2020, from [Link]
Kelley, T., & Kelley, D. (2013). Retrieved 5 September 2020, from
[Link]
Within/dp/038534936X
Kihn, M. (2005). “Outside the Box”: The Inside Story. Retrieved from
[Link]
Lavrakas, P. (2008). Diary. Retrieved from [Link]
Saleh, N. (2019). 10 Medical Reversals: When the Research Was Wrong. [online] Psychology
Today. Available at: [Link]
district/201907/10-medical-reversals-when-the-research-was-wrong
Liedtka, J., & Ogilvie, T. (2011). Designing for growth. New York: Columbia Business School Pub.
Madsen, S., & Madsen, S. (2019). How to Prioritize with the MoSCoW Technique -
[Link]. Retrieved, from
[Link]
Lohr, S. (2015). IBM’s design-centered Strategy to Set Free the Squares. Retrieved from
[Link]
[Link]
 198

Linke, R. (2017). Design thinking explained | MIT Sloan. Retrieved from

[Link]

Luenendonk, M. (2016). 18 Best Idea Generation Techniques. Retrieved from

[Link]
techniques/#:~:text=To%20get%20started%20with%20using,the%20image%20in%20th
eir%20possession.
Mattimore, B. (2013). Idea stormers. San Francisco, Calif.: Jossey-Bass.
Muehlhauser, M. (2009). Intro to Logic: Abductive Reasoning. Retrieved from
[Link]
Nelson, C. (2019). 4 Steps to Build Your Product’s First Prototype | Athgo Corporation.
Retrieved from [Link]
Ortonn, K. (2017). Desirability, Feasibility, Viability: The Sweet Spot for Innovation. Retrieved 11
October 2020, from [Link]
feasibility-viability-the-sweet-spot-for-innovation-d7946de2183c
Peterson, C. (2010). First, Think Inside The Box. Retrieved from
[Link]
the-box
Polczynski, M. (2016). Ideation Techniques [Ebook] (p. 16). Retrieved from
[Link]
Ruijter, J. (2017). How Walt Disney Fixed The Brainstorm - HatRabbits. Retrieved 2 September
2020, from [Link]
Shostack, L. (1984). Designing services that deliver.. Boston, MA : Harvard College, 1984.
Seelig, T. (2013). How Reframing A Problem Unlocks Innovation. Retrieved 7 September 2020,
from [Link]
innovation
Sermsiri. (2014). Social business-model-canvas-example. Retrieved 11 October 2020, from
[Link]
Schmookler, J . (1966). Invention and Economic Growth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press.
Stierand, M. (2005). Rothwell ' s five generations of innovation approaches. Retrieved from
[Link]
approaches-Own-figure-adapted-from-Perunovic_fig1_240233014
Stigliana, I. (2019). Design thinking — the skill every MBA student needs | Financial Times.
Retrieved from

[Link]

Spacey, J. (2017). What is Analogical Reasoning?. Retrieved from

[Link]
Spradley, J. P.(1979).The ethnographic [Link] York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
 199

Recknagel. J. (2019). Shadowing | Design Research Techniques. Retrieved from

[Link]
Tanner, R. (2019). Reframing for Innovative and Creative Problem Solving. Retrieved from
[Link]
solving/
Tadevosyan, G., & Schoenhuth, M. (2019). PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH APPROACH: PRINCIPLES,
CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES [Ebook]. Retrieved from
[Link]
Thompson, T. (2013). Building a Minimum Viable Product? You’re Probably Doing It Wrong.
Retrieved 11 October 2020, from [Link]
prod
The LeanResearch Framework. (2015). Retrieved 11 October 2020, from
[Link]
D-lab MIT (2018). The Lean Research Framework
Schellhase, J. (2015). 7 War-Time Inventions That You Use Every Day. Retrieved from
[Link]
Vivekanandarajah, A. (2019). What is customer journey mapping and why is it important? -
Hype Insight. Retrieved from [Link]
mapping-and-why-is-it-important/
Watt, A. (2012). Non-Functional Requirements. Retrieved from
[Link]
Verganti, R. (1994). About – Roberto Verganti. (2019). Retrieved from
[Link]
Wahl, D. (2017). Facing Complexity: Wicked Design Problems. Retrieved 30 August 2019, from
[Link]
ee8c7161896
Wong, V. (2009). Bloomberg - How business is adopting design thinking. Retrieved from
[Link]
design-thinkingbusinessweek-business-news-stock-market-and-financial-advice
About the Authors
Dr. Gordon Kwesi Adomdza, an Associate Professor of Business
Administration at Ashesi University and Adjunct Professor at
CEIBS Africa. Dr. Adomdza teaches courses that use design-
thinking in the development of innovative new idea concepts and
business models. His pedagogical philosophy of experiential
entrepreneurship leads him to continuously develop learning and
teaching materials that support experiential learning. Dr.
Adomdza encountered design thinking in 2009 working on
projects led by Craig McCarthy at Design Continuum, the
inventors of the award-winning Swiffer cleaner. Hence, prior to
Ashesi University, Dr. Adomdza taught courses that used the design thinking pedagogy he co-
developed with McCarthy, at the D'Amore-McKim School of Business, Northeastern University in
Boston for 7 years. As a researcher, he has written a number of teaching case studies and also
published papers in leading journals exploring the nexus between the entrepreneur and
opportunity, through the lens of the discovery and exploitation process for new ideas and
business models.

Craig McCarthy was the Director, Design Strategy Fidelity

Investments. Carig is a highly effective Design Strategy and
Innovation Leader with extensive multi-industry experience. He
has an exceptional record of success leading multi-functional to
highly profitable results by focused, actionable consumer-led
strategies grounded in consumer insights derived from a deep
understanding of the customer. He is recognized as a
collaborative and creative business partner with excellent
storytelling and problem-solving abilities with executive
presence. He is inspired by a curiosity of people to help clients
understand the world from their customer’s perspective to drive change in how businesses
interact with their customers. Craig is also an adjunct lecturer at the D'Amore-McKim School of
Business, Northeastern University where he teaches a course in innovation, that he co-created
with Dr. Adomdza, and which has grown from an experimental elective to a requirement of all
business majors at the business school. As part of his teaching, he explores design thinking, lean
startup and agile approaches to innovation and implementation.