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Green Cement Manufacturing in South Africa through Utilization of

Supplementary Cementitious Materials- Market Assessment

Conference Paper · February 2024

DOI: 10.46254/AU02.20230102

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

Green Cement Manufacturing in South Africa through

Utilization of Supplementary Cementitious Materials-
Market Assessment
Asser Letsatsi Tau, Emmanuel Innocents Edoun, Charles Mbohwa and Anup Pradhan
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment,
School of Mechanical Engineering and Industrial Engineering
Department of Quality and Operations Management
University of Johannesburg, 55 Beit St, Doornfontein, Johannesburg, 2028, South Africa
gobetse.t@[Link], edounsen@[Link], anupp@[Link] and cmbohwa@[Link]

Abstract

The continued increase in economies in most developing countries is associated with the requirements for construction
materials such as cement and concrete. Globally, cement production continues to increase further into year 2030 with
expected increase to level that is 5 times year 1990, which is close to about 5 billion tones. Manufacturing of cement
is associated with emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) during the clinker production process stage. There is further
expectation that the cement industry is most probable to exceed the total amount of emissions of CO2 of the emission
standards. The industry in then under pressure to deploy strategies aimed at reduction of carbon dioxide and South
African cannot afford to be left behind in reducing the CO2 emission levels. Utilization of Supplementary Cementitious
Materials (SCMs) (fly ash, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag and limestone) has been proven as one of strategic
levers in manufacturing of cement at lower CO2 emissions. To assess the South African industry’s implementation of
this strategy, the types of cements being manufactured as guided by SANS 5097-1 2013 and with respect to product
offering to the market in terms of the formulation using raw materials in the manufacturing process were used for the
evaluation purpose. The South African cement industry indicated to have 7 manufacturers that have integrated plants
for producing cement thus associated with clinker production and 10 cement producers who manufacture cement by
commencing the manufacturing process at the blending process stage. Based on the market survey for the cement
types being supplied in the market, the product offering ranged from CEM I, CEM IV and CEM V which made use
of fly ash, GGBFS and limestone for reduction of clinker factor. The percentage clinker substitution was as high in
the range of 6 to 62. This indicated a potential CO2 reduction of between 0.054 ton and 0.558 ton per 0.94 ton and
0.38 ton of clinker utilized in producing the cement respectively. Although utilization of SCMs alone cannot be enough
to reduce the emissions to 100% acceptable limits, the manufacturers were advised adopt additional potential
decarbonization options such as decarbonization of the heat of burning through and Carbon capture, utilization, and
storage as additional CO2 reduction strategies.

Keywords
SANS 5097-1 2013, CO2, clinker, and formulation

1. Introduction
As the economies grow and get wealthier, cement and concrete as construction materials increase in demand and this
is particularly evident in emerging economies. Globally, the cement industry in facing challenges in business
sustainability while reducing its carbon intensity from processes of production, uses of fuel and its end use of product.
The world must reduce the greenhouse emissions by 80% below the 1990 levels.

Utilization of waste process streams from other industries such coal fired Power Stations which releases fly ash, steel
industry which releases Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) from and Limestone from quarry have been
used as Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) mainly as the “nice to have” raw materials for producing
cement. Their use has been to reduce the cost of manufacturing cement and for enhancement of properties of cement
for suitability in different applications.

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

However, the call for Sustainable development goals (SDG), 7 and 8 calls for climate change and responsible
production has propelled manufacturers of cement in South Africa to be more innovative in reducing emissions of
CO2. Over the years, this has been striven to be achieved through efficiency improvements on rotary kiln operations
and through utilization of SCMs as strategic achievements. Typically, the production of 1 ton of clinker is associated
with emission of 0.9 ton of CO2.

As the production of cement is expected to increase until the year 2050 for developing countries (Scrivener 2014).
The need for continuous cement production indicated that annually, every individual requires about 1 ton of cement
(Cembureau 2012). The South African cement industry cannot afford to be left behind in contributing to the Paris
Agreement commitment target where reduction of emissions of greenhouse gas to about 1.7Gt by year 2050 by the
cement sector is required globally.

This is because the cement industrial sector contributes 12% to 16% on average of the energy within the industrial
sector and CO2 emissions of 6% to 8% globally (Fry 2013). In addition to the environmental crisis that are associated
with emission of CO2, the energy requirements and consumption to produce cement is critical in a country such as
South Africa where load shedding is a continuous challenge.

About 1.5t of limestone is needed to produce 1 ton of cement with thermal energy requirement of between 2.93GJ and
6.28GJ, and electrical energy requirement of between 65kWh and 141 kWh (Huntzinger and Eatmon 2009; Madlool
et al. 2011; Valderrama et al. 2012). Energy security is a critical issue to various stakeholders, including policy makers,
businesses which are particularly consumers and the community in general whose life quality depends on supply of
energy which is uninterrupted (Ang et al. 2015). The South African industry consists of cement suppliers ranging from
manufactures having integrated plants, that is, from limestone quarrying, pyro-processing in rotary kilns up until
finishing milling and dispatch as shown on Figure 1.

Figure 1. Cement manufacturing by dry method

Source: Mohsen and Al-Farayh (2015)

Other cement suppliers start the cement manufacturing process from the blending operations.
In South Africa, there are seven cement manufacturers with integrated plants and ten cement suppliers that start cement
manufacturing from the blending operations process stage. There is a forecast of about less than five cement
manufacturers to enter the market within the cement blending operations in the next coming five years.

© IEOM Society International

Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

The cement supplier market assessment in terms of product offerings at the perspective of cement product formulations
for the contribution to reduction of CO2 is required to be conducted. This is to further evaluate the carbon neutrality
transition by each cement supplier in South Africa as part of their strategic green manufacturing for striving to meet
the CO2 emissions target by year 2050.

1.1 Objective
The objective of the study was to investigate types of cement being manufactured in South Africa in accordance to
SANS 50197-1 2013 in response to reduction of carbon dioxide emissions.

2. Literature Review
The South African National Standards (SANS) 50197-1 (2013) guides the cement manufacturing processes with
respect to composition, specifications and conformity of cement being produced. The specification with respect to the
quality performance of cement is also outlined which aids with enforcement of compliance to manufacturers based on
the standard. Figure 2 shows a section within the SANS 50197-1 standard that indicates 27 cement types 27 available
in the family of common cements.

Figure 2. Cement types available in SANS 50197-1 2013 for manufacturing

Source: South African National Standards ( 2013)

The production of cement is associated with emissions of greenhouse gasses that are high. Cement can contain
numerous constituents including clinker, gypsum, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash ,
blast-furnace slag and other materials that occur naturally such as limestone and clay which can be converted to
metakaolin. Out of these constituents, about 65% to 85% contribution of the global cement mass is by clinker and
90% to 98% of cement Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The clinker manufacturing through calcination process
produces calcium oxide (CaO) and CO2. The further heating process of raw materials to a temperature of about 1400
°C for the formation of chemical clinker species such as calcium silicates requires this high level of energy inputs and
further results with additional emissions of GHG (Miller et al. 2016). The calcination chemical reaction process is

© IEOM Society International

Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

represented by the following reaction equation where calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and silicon oxides (i.e. SiO2) are
heated on high temperature scale thereby releasing CO2.

Clinker formation reaction equation: 3CaCO3 (s) + SiO2 (s) → Ca3SiO5 (s) + 3CO2 (g)

The emissions of GHG associated with the calcination process can be in the range of 45% to 60% of the total cement
being produced depending on the efficiency, fuel being used in the kiln, mixes of energy, and other materials being
used in the production process (Miller et al. 2016). Imbabi et al. (2013) indicated that in a typical Portland cement
manufacturing process, the emissions of CO2 contributed from process of grinding, quarrying and transportation which
makes 15%, meanwhile 85% is resulted from pyro-processing. Figure 3 further indicates CO2 total share across
production lines in cement manufacturing.

Figure 3. Total share of CO2 emission in Portland cement production process

Source: Imbabi et al. (2013)

There most common strategies for reduction of GHG emissions in manufacturing of cement include (i) substitution of
raw materials in cement (ii) utilization of alternative fuels during manufacturing (iii) improvement on the efficiency
of kiln and utilization of electricity, and (iv) development of carbon capture and storage (Muller and Harnisch 2008;
Sakai and Buffenbarger 2014). Every ton of Ordinary Portland cement produced clinker contributes to about 0.9 tons
of CO2 (Benhelal et al. 2012).

Furthermore, Pade and Guimaraes (2007) explained that the manufacturing of cement is associated with 50% emission
of CO2 being from burning of calcium carbonate meanwhile the other 50% emission is associated with fuels
combustion process steps with one ton of cement being produced releasing one tone of CO2 (Hannawi et al. 2010).
WBCSD-CSI (2009) also indicated that CO2 emission during limestone calcination is about 0.87ton for every 1 ton
of Portland cement clinker to environment. This emission quantity ranges between 0.77 tons for Japan as high
performers to 0.99 tons for China as poor performers. CO2 emission associated with cement is also dependent on the
region and process of manufacturing and infrastructure (Lowitt 2020).

WWF business case (2018) indicated that there are four available options to mitigate the emissions of CO2 in the
cement industry. These include adoption of new technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CSS), alternative
binders such geopolymers and limestone calcined clay cements (LC3), energy efficiency improvement, utilization of

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

alternative fuels in the kiln during pyro-processing and increase of substitution of clinker through utilization of SCMs
in Portland cement traditional mixes to produce eco-blended cements.
Blended cements are deemed to provide means that are attainable and effective whereby emissions of carbon can be
reduced (Lowitt 2020) and it is suggested that about 37% of reduction of carbon can be reduced by 2050 through
blended cements, meanwhile Leanne and Preston (2018) further indicated that blended cements can reduce emissions
by 70% theoretically.

Figure 4 further highlights some of sources of potential methods of reducing CO2 emissions thereby product slightly
green cement.

Figure 4. Potential sources of reduction of CO2 emissions in cement production

Source: Leanne and Preston (2018)

The negative effect associated with CO2 emissions when manufacturing of cement is taking place continuously lead
to more research for materials that are available locally from both natural occurrence and recycles, also from material
waste streams from other industrial processes for incorporation as cement raw materials inputs. This calls for
development of clinker by utilisation of minerals alternatives, low carbon cements and fuels that are less carbon
intensive. There are several methods that has been brought forward by many researchers on CO2 reduction in the
industry of manufacturing cement. These methods include carbon capture and storage which is associated with
capturing and storage of emissions from kiln operations, use of geopolymers which are produced at temperatures
which are low and obtained from wastes from other industries that are treated with heat (Shapakidze et al. 2019).
Introduction of alternative clinker free cements is also one of the methods that are still under research and
development.

The use of SCMs as alternative method are ideal as fly ash and slag has proven to be a good partial replacement of
cement yield acceptable results. This is one of the alternative methods to reduce high emission levels of CO2
(Onyenokporo 2021). SCMs are materials that are inorganic and contribute to cementitious mixture properties for
instance, in paste, mortar, concrete and grout through hydraulic reactivity or pozzolanic reactivity or combination of
both (ASTM C125-19 2019). (Celik et al. 2014) further indicated that elimination of 1 billion tons of CO2 would
require about 1.58 billion tons of SCMs during the processing of cement.

Onyenokporo (2021) studied the usage of SCMs for suitability as replacement of cement partially within the building
industry through critical review of literature. The findings that were concluded indicated that use of SCMs provided
solutions to avoid landfilling of SCMs as some of them are waste from other industrial processes which subsequently

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

results with environmental pollution due to disposal. Furthermore, it was found that benefits within the cement sector
is energy consumption reduction and reduction emissions of carbon as less clinker is utilised thereby reducing
environmental impact and foster sustainability.

Celik et al. (2014) indicated that conventional ordinary Portland cement is manufactured by inter-grinding Portland
clinker and gypsum at 95% and 5% composition by weight respectively. The clinker factor thereof equates to 0.95. In
comparison to utilisation of 30% basaltic ash that is finely grounded from Saudi Arabia and 15% powdered limestone
for Portland clinker replacement, the clinker factor within the ternary blended Portland cement equated to 0.52 thus
avoiding 48% CO2 emission. This replacements with SCMs were further associated with enhancement on development
of strength and durability in the case of self-compacting concrete (SCC) where the cement is used.

Furthermore, the conventional SCMs such as fly ash and slag from blast furnace has been studied and empirical
experience provide confident for low-clinker cements production consisting of these materials (Juenger et al. 2019).
Similarly these materials are used to produce concrete that have improved physical properties and subsequently
lowering cement clinker usage thereby reducing CO2 as concrete is one of the largest consumed construction material.

The assessment of SCMs to mitigate the anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from concrete production which
contributes between 8% and 9% emissions on global scale has been studied by (Miller 2018). Utilisation of SCMs in
concrete production assist in offsetting cement clinker demand therefore leading to reduction of anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions. (Miller 2018) used quantitative analysis by utilizing environmental impact assessments
and comparison was drawn as a function of variation in emission of anthropogenic greenhouse gases for concrete
production. However, the type of SCMs and usage allocation, variation in transportation, and high levels of
replacement by SCMs in concrete does not always consequently reduce the emissions of concrete produced per unit
of strength achieved. Furthermore, the availability of these materials limits the full utilization of them in some
countries.

Similarly, the South African cement and concrete market is concerned about the future availability of coal fly ash due
to the call for green energy production and consistent loadshedding. These threatens availability of coal fly ash from
power stations due to potential reduction of coal usage for power generation because of its carbon and sulphur oxide
emission intensities. Although the power producer in South Africa have built state of the art power stations such as
Kusile and Medupi which incorporate flue gas desulphurisation technologies for sulphur oxides emission reduction,
lifespan would not sustain the South African market’s fly ash requirement even when each is operating at its 4800
MW installed power generation capacity. Also the interrupted steel manufacturing industry from production
perspective in South Africa due to influx of steel import from other countries threatens the availability of GGBFS.
The ripple effect of the steel import is potential GGBFS import also which has potential high costs than local GGBFS.

The need for SCMs in South Africa is vital in order to sustain the infrastructural development needs which requires
cement to achieve some of construction related projects. The South African cement industry was began by Pretoria
Portland Cement Company (PPC) in 1892 by producing Ordinary Portland Cement. In 1934, Afrisam, Lafarge and
Natal Portland Cement (NPC) formed part of the market. These companies were the only one manufacturing cement
until 2006 when Sephaku entered the market, then later in 2016 Chinese cement manufacturer Mamba Cement also
entered the market (Lowitt, 2020). In 2016, there six producers of cement in South Africa existed with an assumed
worth of R48 billion in year 2014 and had about 7000 employees (Arp et al. 2018). The market share of PPC, NPC,
Sephaku, Afrisam, Lafarge and Mamba cement are at 22%, 15%, 12%, 9%, 9% and 5% respectively. The outstanding
29% is being shared at 5% imports and 24% party blenders (Perrie 2014; Arp et al. 2018; Pretoria Portland Cement
(PPC) 2018). The local market constitute 91% of ordinary Portland cement. In 2006, about 52% of cement sales was
accounted to domestic sales, 15% to ready mix concrete manufacturers, 16% to manufacturers of concrete products.
Direct companies civil engineering associated 9% on sales of cement, 6% of cement sales was accounted by third-
party blenders and 2% was for others applications (Perrie 2014). However, it was reported that about 70% on estimate
was accounted for retail market in 2016 (Brown and Hasson 2016). Table 1 further indicates market share by product
where the cement clinkers, white Portland and other white cement has highest share respectively (WWF business case
2018).

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

Table 1. Product type market share

Type of product Share of market (%)

Aluminous cement 1.90
Hydraulic cement 1.10
Cement clinkers 6.10
White Portland 8.50
Other Portland cement 82.40

In comparison to Europe and most parts of Asia, the South Africa’ share of market in the bagged cement differs were
the ready mix segment is mainly dominant. Meanwhile, in the United States, Australia and South Africa, the segment
of ready mix is small on market share and bagged cement dominates the market due to distances that are extensive
which impedes the ready mix site deliveries to be feasible (Lowitt 2020). The Concrete Institute indicated South
Africa’ s actual demand of cement sales and imports as shown on Figure 5 and was noted that cement demand has
been increasing year on year on average.

Figure 5. Cement sales and import from year 2011 to 2019

Source: (Lowitt 2020)

The manufacturing of cement in South Africa contributed 1% on country’s net emissions from greenhouse gases
during year 2010 according to Association of Cementitious Materials Producers (2011). This was an increase of 27%
between year 2000 and 2010, from emission of 3.3MtCO2 to 4.2MtCO2 (Department of Environmental Affairs 2014).
However, there have been reduction in emission per ton of cement produced year on year since 2008 due to increased
substitution of clinker (Lowitt 2020). The substitution of clinker was 12% in 1990 and increased by 11% in 2000 and
to 41% in 2009 (Association of Cementitious Materials Producers 2011), while mitigation potential analysis calls for
further substitution increase to 60% by year 2030 (Lowitt 2020) as the cement demand in South Africa is anticipated
to increase as illustrated on Figure 6. The figure shows cement demand trend from 1996 to 2022 and this further
illustrates the need to subsequently mitigate the carbon dioxide emissions.

© IEOM Society International

Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

Figure 6. Cement demand trend from 1996 to 2022, modified from PPC (2018) publication
Source: (Lowitt 2020)
3. Methods
The Portland cement producers having integrated cement plants and those commencing cement production process
from the blending operations (also known as third party cement blenders) have been identified. The suppliers were
engaged and feedback with respect to the type of cement classes or types they are producing was supplied to the
researcher.

The qualitative information shared on their manufacturing process from the perspective of raw materials was being
presented in the form of a rubric. The researcher then conducted data analysis by representing the data in terms of
tables and graphs to arrive at an informed cement industry conclusion. This was based on potential reduction of carbon
dioxide emission because of types of cement being manufactured.

4. Results and Discussion

The available Portland cement types in South Africa as produced by manufacturers with integrated cement plants
indicated manufacturers’ commitment to reduction of CO2 through the use of SCMs as by products from other
industrial processes. The percentage clinker substitution with SCMs was as high as on a range of 36% and 55% as
noted on cement type CEM IV/B as shown on Table 2.

Table 2. Cement types supplied by manufacturers with integrated cement plants

Integrated cement Cement type being % Supplementary Cementitious Material on clinker

plant: manufactured substitution
Manufacturer Fly Ash (V) GGBFS (S) Limestone (L)
CEM I 0-5
Manufacturer A CEM II/A-L 6 - 20
CEM II/B-M(V-S) 21-35
CEM II/A-S 6-20
CEM II/B-V 21 - 35
Manufacturer B CEM I 0-5
CEM II/A-V 6 - 20
CEM I 0-5
CEM II/A-M(V-L) 12 - 20
CEM II/B-L 21 - 35
Manufacturer C CEM V/A(S-V) 18 - 30
CEM III 66 - 80
CEM V/B(V-S) 36 - 55
CEM II/B-M(L) 21 - 35

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

CEM V/A(S-V) 18 - 30
Manufacturer D CEM I 0-5
CEM II/A-V
CEM I 0-5
Manufacturer E CEM II/B-M 21 - 35
CEM II/A-L 6 - 20
CEM II/A-S 6-20
CEM II/B-S 21 - 35
Manufacturer F CEM II/A-L 6 - 20
CEM III/A 6-20
CEM II/B-L 21 - 35
CEM I 0-5
CEM II/A-V 6 - 20
Manufacturer G CEM IV/B-V 36 - 55
CEM IV/A-V 11-35
CEM II/B-L 21 - 35
CEM II/B-M(V-S) 21-35

The manufacturing of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), CEM I cannot be completely phased out of production due
to its specialized properties for use in construction segment. Although its production is associated with high CO2
emissions, the manufacturers need to find other alternatives to decarbonize the manufacturing processes apart from
utilization of SCMs as are not applicable in CEM I production or are in use as < 5%. Table 3 indicates the types of
cements as produced by manufacturers on blending operations, meanwhile Table 4 indicates potential CO2 reduction
related to cement type based on minimum end of clinker utilization.

Table 3. Cement types supplied by manufacturers of cement from blending operations

Integrated cement Cement type being % Supplementary Cementitious Material on clinker

plant: Manufacturer manufactured substitution

Fly Ash(V) GGBFS (S)

Manufacturer 1 CEM IV/B-V 36 - 55
CEM IV/A-V 11-35
Manufacturer 2 CEM V /A (S-V) 18 -35
CEM IV/B (V) 36-55
Manufacturer 3 CEM IV/A -V 11-35
Manufacturer 4 CEM V/B (S-V) 31 - 49

Table 4. Potential CO2 reduction per cement type on the minimum end of clinker utilization as per SANS 50197-1
2013

Cement type % clinker composition at % SCMs composition as % reduction in CO2

minimum level as per SANS per SANS 50197-1 2013 emission
50197-1 2013
CEM I 95.00 5.00 5.00
CEM II/A 80.00 20.00 20.00
CEM II/B 65.00 35.00 35.00
CEM III/A 35.00 65.00 65.00
CEM IV/A 65.00 35.00 35.00
CEM IV/B 45.00 55.00 55.00
CEM V/A 40.00 60.00 60.00
CEMV/B 20.00 80.00 80.00

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

Other Statistics
Average 55.63 44.38 44.38
Standard Deviation 24.99 24.99 24.99

NB: 1 ton of clinker utilization for cement production is associated with 0.9ton CO2 emission
XAmount of CO2 @ % clinker use =(% clinker composition0.9 Ton CO2)/1 Ton clinker
CO2 reduction (%) = ((0.9 ton CO2 X)/0.9 ton CO2)100
For CEM I production at 95% clinker and 5% SCMs:
XAmount of CO2 @ % clinker use =(0.95 0.9 Ton CO2)/1 Ton clinker
XAmount of CO2 @ % clinker use = 0.855ton
CO2 reduction (%)= ((0.9 ton CO2 0.855)/0.9 ton CO2) 100
CO2 reduction = 5%
Similar procedure was followed for other cement types for calculation of CO2 reduction.

20
35 40
45
% Clinker usage
65 65
80 % CO2 emission
95

80
65 60
55
35 35
20
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 7. Relationship between minimum clinker substitution with SCM and CO2 emission

Figure 7 graphically represents the findings as outlined on Table 4. It can be noted that the higher percentage
substitution of clinker through SCMs during cement manufacturing, was associated with reduction of CO2 and vice
versa as shown by Table 5 and Figure 8 which represents the maximum clinker substitution. In the case of lower
clinker usage as outlined on Table 4, it was noted that it subsequently resulted with reduced CO2 emission at the same
SCMs per-centage utilization. CEM I at clinker usage of 95% only reduces CO2 emission by 5%, whereby the high
supplementary cementitious materials extended cement, CEM V/B utilize 20% clinker and reduce CO2 by 80% on the
production line.

Table 5. Potential CO2 reduction per cement type on the maximum end of clinker utilization as per SANS 50197-1
2013

Cement type % clinker composition at % SCMs composition as % reduction in CO2

minimum level as per SANS per SANS 50197-1 2013 emission
50197-1 2013

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

CEM I 100.00 0.00 0.00

CEM II/A 94.00 6.00 6.00
CEM II/B 79.00 21.00 21.00
CEM III/A 64.00 36.00 36.00
CEM IV/A 89.00 19.00 19.00
CEM IV/B 64.00 36.00 36.00
CEM V/A 64.00 36.00 36.00
CEMV/B 38.00 62.00 62.00
Other statistics
Average 74.00 27.00 27.00
Standard Deviation 20.43 19.78 19.78

0 19
6
21
36 36 36 36

62 % Clinker usage
% CO2 emission
100
94 89
79
64 64 64 64

38

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Figure 8. Relationship between maximum clinker substitution with SCM and CO2 emission

Figure 8 and Table 5 represents the maximum utilization of SCMs on the cement types available in South Africa, thus
reducing the utilization of clinker which subsequently result with lower CO2 emissions per type of cement being
manufactured. Increase in usage of SCMs for cement types being manufactured, from CEM II/A to CEM V/B resulted
with reduced CO2 emission in the same quantity. That is, a percentage CO2 emission reduction of 6 and 62 with respect
to CEM II/A and CEM V/B cement type at clinker utilization of 94% and 38% respectively. Furthermore, CO2
emissions is reduced by 27.00% on average based on the total cement types being manufactured as less clinker is used,
this is further correlated by the achieved standard deviation of 19.78 which indicated less variability of each data point
from the mean.

6. Recommendations
It was noted that SCMs can be utilized as strategic raw materials for manufacturing of cement, however, they can be
used to a certain threshold, leaving behind the need for the cement industry to explore other strategic manufacturing
means for CO2 emission reduction. Furthermore, the introduction of South African National Standard (SANS) 50197-
5: 2023 for manufacturing of Portland-composite cement CEMII/C-M and composite cement VI can assist with further
reduction of CO2 emitted per clinker. This is because SANS 50197-5 2023 further recommends the use of SCMs to

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Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

produce the composites cement types. The benefits of manufacturing these cement types are due to potentially offer
further usage of lowest clinker of 50% and 35% for CEM II/C-M and CEM VI manufacturing respectively.

Evaluation of other cement manufacturing process technologies such as decarbonization of heat required for
calcination of limestone and carbon capture storage and utilization are still required to further reduce carbon dioxide
emission per ton of clinker produced. Furthermore, Limestone Calcined Clay Cement is a cement type that is gaining
traction within South African context due to its potential to offer acceptable performance with respect to quality and
reduced CO2 emission. This type of cement has a potential of being produced at lower clinker usage, lower temperature
requirement on calcination of limestone which is about 800℃ relative to 1450℃ for clinker production. However,
various quality clay deposits need to be identified, evaluated for lifespan so the sustainability of this option can be
quantified to attract the investment. The implementation of these strategic projects to re-engineer the existing plants
has a potential of improving employment rate in South Africa which was at 32.9% in the fourth quarter of 2023 as
reported by Statistics South Africa (2023).

7. Conclusion
Based on the conducted cement supplier market assessment in South Africa, the transition of CO2 emission reduction
through utilization of Supplementary Cementitious Materials was being fairly achieved. Though the percentage clinker
substitution with SCM is of a certain threshold as per SANS 50197-1 as it affects the properties of cement being
produced. There was a relationship between per-centage SCM usage for reducing clinker usage and CO2 emission.
The relationship was based on what was known that 1 ton clinker production produces 0.9 ton CO2, thus per-centage
amount of SCMs composition resulted with the same per-centage in CO2 emission reduction. The percentage clinker
substitution with SCMs was as high as within a limit of 36% and 55% which reduced the CO2 emission between 0.576
ton and 0.405 ton respectively. Most manufacturers with integrated plants had cement types ranging from Portland
composite cements (CEM II) to composite cements (CEM V), thus indicated the manufacturers’ commitment to reduce
CO2 emissions. The third party cement blenders are reliant on SCMs in order to manufacture eco-blended cement ,
thus contributing to lower CO2 emission in the cement value chain.

Conclusion was also drawn that other consumers of cement produced with the supplementary cementitious materials,
benefit in their final products quality improvements such as increased durability and strength, reduced alkali-silica
reactions and sulfate attack meanwhile reducing CO2 emission during production.

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Biographies
Asser L. Tau is currently a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) candidate in Operations Management at Department of
Quality and Operations Management within the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of
Johannesburg, South Africa. He earned a Bachelor of Technology ([Link]) Degree in Chemical Engineering;
Advanced Diploma and Postgraduate Diploma in Operations Management with all these qualifications obtained from
Vaal University of Technology, South Africa. He also earned a Master’s Degree in Operations Management (Cum
laude) from University of Johannesburg and Postgraduate Diploma in Business Administration from Wits Business
School. He further obtained a Master of Engineering in Chemical Engineering from Tshwane University of
Technology, South Africa. He has over eight years working experience in the Building and Construction materials
industry with specific experience in Research & Development, process engineering, and technical sales. He is a
registered Candidate Professional Engineering Technologist (Pr Tech Eng) with Engineering Council of South Africa
(ECSA). He is also a member for South African Coal Ash Association (SACAA). His research interests include
continuous improvement, simulation modeling, energy power generation, industrial solids and liquid waste
beneficiation, Life-Cycle Analysis, digitilitization for smart factory design, wastewater treatment and process &
environmental engineering.

Edoun E.I is an academic, he holds a PhD from the University of Witwatersrand in Johannesburg South Africa. He
has travelled widely between different countries in Africa while interacting with academic institutions, policy makers,
policy implementers and community members. He is industrious and has good conceptual and organizational skills.
He has consulted and spearheaded projects at the African Union, NEPAD , the Pan African Parliament ; AFRODAD.

© IEOM Society International

 Proceedings of the Second Australian International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations
Management, Melbourne, Australia, November 14-16, 2023

He has been involved as an academic at various University is South Africa and abroad. He has supervised more than
20 PhD Students, 30 full master’s and 100 MBAs students . He has attended many conferences, locally and abroad,
and has published many articles in the International accredited Journals.

Charles Mbohwa Professor Charles Mbohwa is a Senior Research Associate at the University of Johannesburg. He
was, previously the University of Zimbabwe Pro-Vice Chancellor responsible for Strategic Partnerships and
Industrialisation from 1st July 2019 up to 30th June 2022. Before that he was a professor of sustainability engineering
in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment at the University of Johannesburg. He was a mechanical
engineer in the National Railways of Zimbabwe from 1986 to 1991, and lecturer and senior lecturer at the University
of Zimbabwe. He was Senior Lecturer, Associate Professor and Full Professor at the University of Johannesburg. He
was Chairman and Head of Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Zimbabwe from 1994 to 1997;
Vice-Dean of Postgraduate Studies Research and Innovation in the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment
at the University of Johannesburg from July 2014 to June 2017 and Acting Executive Dean in the Faculty of
Engineering and the Built Environment from November 2017 to July 2018. He has published very widely. He holds
a BSc Honours in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Zimbabwe in 1986; Master of Science in Operations
Management and Manufacturing Systems from University of Nottingham; and a Doctor of Engineering from the
Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Technology.

Anup Pradhan is an Associate Professor in the Department of Quality and Operations Management at the University
of Johannesburg, South Africa. He received BSc in Agricultural Engineering from Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Bangladesh, ME in Agricultural Engineering and Systems from Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand,
and PhD in Biological and Agricultural Engineering from University of Idaho, USA. His research interests include
life cycle assessment, renewable energy, farm mechanization, smart factory, smart grid management, applied research
and optimization, organizational productivity, knowledge management. He has published several journal and
conference papers. He is a NRF rated researcher in South Africa and a registered engineer with Nepal Engineering
Council (NEC). He is a member of American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE), Engineering
Council of South Africa (ECSA), Nepal Engineer’s Association (NEA), Gamma Sigma Delta, Golden Key
International Honor Society.

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