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Sets

sets notes

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ih Set Theory rt-1. Introduction Aas Sgriacs Conable Set is a basic and unifying idea of mathematics. Infact all mathematical ideas can be expressed in terms of sets. In almost whole of the business mathematics, the set theory is applied in one form or the other. fef. of a Set Gast set is a collection of well-defined ‘and dif ifferent objects. i By the words * ‘well'defined? ‘we mean that we are given a rule with the help of which wwe can say whether a particular object belongs to the set oF not. The word “different” implies that repetition of objects is not allowed. The words ‘family’, ‘class’, ‘collection’ are also used as synonyms for the word set ; when the elements are'themselves sets. Element ofa Set . LAA { x { Each object of the set is called an element Of the set. Examples of Sets (0 The set of days of a week... (ii) The set of integers from 1 to 100000. (ii) The set of even integers. (iv) The_set of al states of India. sors] (9) The set of all solutions of equation x?=1. i ‘tations j Sets are generally denoted by capita letters A, B, C,.. f ; The elements of sets are denoted mostly by small letters a, ib C. i Some Standard Sets, Bet of all natural numbers 1, 2:3; ‘ — AWE Set of all whole numbers 0,1, 2,3, 4, | Aer L= Set of all integers - | /2= Set.of all rational numbers Set of all real numbers o Scanned with OKEN Scanner 2 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Pot, Methods of Designating a Set A set can be specified in two ways: (1) Tabular, Roster or Enumeration Method : ‘When we represent a set by listing all its elements within curly brackets 1} separated by commas, it is called the tabular, roaster of enumeration method, i () Aset of vowels : A= {a, ¢, 4,0, }, (i) A set of positive even integers upto 10: B= (2, 4, 6,8, 10) Gi) set of odd natural numbers : C = (1,3, 5.. @ Selector, Set-builder or Rule Method : In this method, we do not list all the elements but the set is represented specifying the defining property. ee For example, A={x 2 isa vowel in English alphabets } xx isa positive even integer up to 10 } C= {x/x is an odd positive integer } Here (:) or (/) means such that. Note 1. The order of elements in a set is immaterial. Thus {2, 5,9, 11}, {2,9 5, 11}, {11, 5, 2, 9} represent the same set, 2. Repetition of elements is not allowed in a set. Membership of a Set If an object x is a member of the set A, we write x © A, which can be read as ‘x belongs to A’ or ‘A contains x’. Similarly we write x ¢ A to show that x is not a member of the set A. Example, Let A= {1,2, 5, 7,9, 10}. Here 5 € A, but 6 ¢ A. TYPES OF SETS © FINITE SET A set is said to be finite if it has finite number of distinct elements. Examples : A=(2,4,6,8} B = {x: 2x isa student of Modi College, Patiala} Set of months of the year Set of even natural numbers less than 100, INFINITE SET A set is said to be infinite if it has an infinite number of elements. Examples : A*{1,2, 3.00.0} B= {xx is an odd integer } C= x:xis a multiple of 6 } © scanned with OKEN Scanner Ser THtory 3. EMPTY SET A set which cot denoted by ¢ (read sept semen, is called a null set ot void set-or empty set- Examples : A = ‘ ples: A fos is.a positive integer satisfying vail ear cen 22 is a fraction satisfying x? = 9} ‘set containing only single element i called a singleton set of a unit et Example: A= (x. is. perfect square and 30 xB, then Aisa subset of B and B is a super set of A. (P.T.U.B.C.A. 12004) We write these as A € Band B > A. Thus A C B means A’is contained in B or B contains A. E€ Note 1. Since every element of A belongs A — ACA > everysetis subset of itself S 2. The empty set ¢ is considered to be a Subset of every set cf pty set nyse yO 3, If'set A has n elements then number of subsets of A is 2”. Example, Let A = {1, 2,3, 4, 5,6, 8, 10) and B= {2,4,6,10},C={1,2,7,8},D={27,81)} Now every element of B is an element of A BCA Again 7 €C, but 7 €A - ow CG Aie, Cis nota sub-set of A. Now every member of D is a member of C and every member of C is a member of D, CcDandDCC In this case we can also write CG D and D&C. . PROPER SUB-SET ‘A non-empty set A is said to be a proper subset of B if A C B and A # B. , EQUAL SETS ‘Two sets A and B are said to be equal if both have the same elements. In other words, two sets A and B are equal when every element of isan element of B and-¢ element of B is an element of A. ind every ie, IfA C BandBC A, then A=B, i Vn 1. @ and A are called improper subsets of A, © scanned with OKEN Scanner Example. A= (1,2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,8,9, 10) Be fxr Here A=B. 8. EQUIVALENT SETS Two finite sets A and B are said to be equivalent sets if the total number of elements in A is equal to the total number of elements in B, Example, Let A= {1, 2, 3, 4,6), B= {1,2,7, 9, 12} A and B are equivalent sets. We write the above fact as A ~ B Note : Equal sets are equivalent but equivalent sets are not always equal, \_ 9} POWER SET (P.TU. B,C.A-1 2004; B.Tech, Dec. 2003; Pi. U. M.Sc. 2011) The power set of a finite set is the set of all sub-sets of the given set. Power set of A is denoted by P(A). Example. Take A= {1,2,3} P(A) = {¢, {1}, (2) {3), (1, 2) {1,3}, {2,3}, (1,2,3)} Note : If set A has 7 elements then P(A) has 2” elements. 10, DISJOINT SETS Two sets A and B are disjoint if they have not element in common. Example, Let A = Set of odd numbers B = Set of even numbers Then A and B are disjoint sets. 11, UNIVERSAL SET (P.T.U.B.C.A. 12004) If all the sets under consideration are sub-sets of a fixed set U; then U is called universal set. Example, In Plane geometry, the universal set consists of points in a plane. 12, COMPARABLE AND NON-COMPARABLE SETS (“two sets are sai to be comparable ifone ofthe two ses isa sub-set ofthe other. Example . Let A= {2,3, 5}, B= (2,3,5,6},C={1, 5} Hee ACB A and B are comparable sets, On the other hand A C,CZA A, Care Non-comparable. 13. ORDER OF A FINITE SET The number of different element of a finite set A is called the order of A and is denoted by O(A). 14/CARDINALITY ‘Number of different elements in a set is known as its cardinality, Example If A = (2, 3, 6,8), then O(A)=4 © scanned with OKEN Scanner 5 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Example 1, List the ¢ vere necessary \"* eM in each of the following sts using braces and loo oe @ {vy isanatual number divisible by 5} eae o a ‘ 7 Negative odd integer} isan even prinie number)’ o e * ; ‘ = Integer avisibe by 4} : leger divisible by 2 and by 5) Sol, (a) Let A = (x: is aatural number divisible by 5}, (5.10 () Let A = (x:xis a negative odd integer) = (-.1)- 3. 5:—7 (©) Let A’ = {x:x is an even prime number} = {2) (@) Let A = fx: 2-1 isan integer divisible by 4} F oe = T23)1,5,95 yesveed (©) Let A = {x:.xis an integer divisible by 2 and by 5} 20, - 10,0, 10, 20,..-++.} Example 2, Write the following sets in Roster form : : () (221s a vowel before g in the English alphabet} AC (i) (& EN :xisa prime number between 6 and 30} (ii) ( EN:3x+5<31} (iv) (12+ 5x46=0} Sol. (i) Letters before g in the English alphabet are @, b,c, d, e. Out of these a and e are vowels. 15, 20, required set is {a, ¢} (i) Prime numbers between 6 and 30 required set is (7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29} are 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 26 2 2 3x xsd 9 -x=1,2,3,4 B= {1,2,3,4} Gi)x?-3x4+2=0 > @-1)@-2) & x=1,2 C= {1,2} (iv) Since x is a positive multiple of 3 and 7 x isa multiple of 21 D=@21} Example 4, Redefine each of the following sets, using set builder notation : @ ©2,-4,- 6.0.05 (©) {0,3,-3, 6, -6,9.....-} (c) {2,3, 4,6, 8,9, 10, 12, 14, 15,......} i @ ft.4, + ~ (© (01,2. Sol. (a) Let A= {-2,-4,-6,. ={-2x:xE]} (B) Let A=(0,3,-3,6,-6,9. =x: xEl} (c) Let A = {2,3,4, 6, 8,9, 10, 12, 14, 15,... = (eix=2nor x=3n:n EN} +5 99, 100} (@) Let A= {0,1,2, ={r:x€I st 0Sx< 100} Example 5. Define geometrically, the following set : @ (ER: |x| <3} ® (EZ,:|x| $3} () EN, |x| $3} @ {my ER +y¥=25} Sol. (a) Let A= {x ER: |x| $3}=(eER:-3 Sx 53} © scanned with OKEN Scanner ————_—_—_—_——=— }» a nn sims ‘The set A is represented by : — Q 2 2 , by the points on the ti Pol 1 Pe ‘ine from P to Q including the points P and Q. peeve ia! faery Pp Presented by the points marked by dot on the line PQ. a linneengeiiclaemepaean® Q SiS Peel G. 1 oie 3 @LetA= (EN, |x] <3) = (1 2,3} : 2, e set A is represented by the points marked by dot on the line PQ Poe T 2 3° @ LetA=((,y);x,yER; 2 +)?=25} The set A is represented by all the points which lie on the circle whose centre 1S at the point (0, 0) and radius as shown below : Example 6. Determine which of the following pairs of sets are equal : (a) $= {x:x is an integer divisible by both 3 and 2} and Q~= {6, 12, 18, 24, (6) X= {x-xis real and x? 47243 Alsox@—3x+2=0 @(x-1)@-2)80 xh? there isa value 2 of x which satisfies 2° $x-+6= 0 andx?~3x+2=0 A={2} > Aisnotan empty set. Example 8. Find the cardinal number of each set : Let () A= {xix =25, 3.x = 6} (ii) Power set P(B) of B= {1, 4, 5, 9} (iif) A= (xix EN,x?=5} (is) B (67,8, a (PbiLU., B.C.A. 200 Sol. (i) A= {xix =25,3x=6} Since 2=25 2 x=25 and 3x=6 > 2=2 A= Card (A)=0 ie, #(A)=0 (i) Here B={1,4,5,9} P(B)= (0, {1}, {4}, (53, (9), {1,4}, (1, 5}, (1, 9}, 4,5} {4,9}, {5,9}, {1,4, 5}, (1,4, 9}s £4, 5,9}, (1, 5, 9} (14, 559 Cardinal number of (P (B)) = 16 (ii) Asx? =5 2 xtV5eN Cardinal number is @ (iv) Cardinal number is Example 9. List all the members of the power set of each of the following sets : (a) A= (a,b,2,3}, © C= {ia}, (}},- © D={G, OH Sol. Here A= {a, b, 2,3} P(A)= {4 {a), {5}, (23, (3), {0 6}, (042), {443}, (6,23, {0,3}, (2,3 {a, b, 2}, {a, b, 3}, {b, 2, 3}, {, 2,3}, {a, b,2,3 (0) C= {{a}, {0} P(C)= {p, {Hab}, ((0}), (lah, (0))} © D=%, P(D)= {G, 16}, {O}}s (9, (OD) \ © scanned with OKEN Scanner th © Power set ofthe set A= (1, 2,6). (Pbi, U. MCA. 2007) Sol. P(A)= {@, Example 1 Fi a, * ©). 16).(,2}, 0,9), 0.9), 201) ind the power set of A = 45; B.C.A. 2 Ne Power set of A= (1,2, 3, 4,5}. 2845 : 010) (Pbi, U. BCA. 201 Sol. P(A) = {9, {8519623 (9), 4), (5), 1,2), 1,3} {hdl (15h 23) (2,4), (2,5), 8,4), (3,5), (4h 5) (1, 203} (1, 2,40 (209) (1, 3,4}, (13,5), (154, 5}s (2, 3¢4Ds (223+ 5)» , 5) Bs 4s 5D < & 8523,4, (1,2,3,8), (12,4, 5), (3 5} od SH 23:4 51 sage fet A ths 4 vn), B= toss 2h C= bz FD (HN , u} and F = {s}. Let X be an unknown set. Determine which sets A, B, C, D, E or F con equal X if we are given @ XCAand xcB (i) XG¢Band xcc (i) XGA and x¢C (iv) XCB and Xe, Sol. (i) The only set which is a subset of both A and B is D, Notice that C, E, not subsets of B sinces EC, E,Fands@B. ©” ‘/ (Pbi.U. B.C.A. 2000) and F are (i) Set X can equal C, E or F since they are subsets of C and these are not subsets of B. (iii) Only B is nota subset of either A or C. D and A are s subsets of C. Thus X = B. * (iv) Both B and D are subsets of B and are not subsets of C. Hence X=BorX=D. = n=B and m=6. © scanned with OKEN Scanner 4 ha SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (PBI. U,) subsets: (Pbi.U. B.C.A. 1999) 10 Examplodg Prove that a set containing 7 distinct elements has 2" OR Find the number of subsets of a set A containing # elements. (P.T.U, B.Tech. May 2007) OR If| A| =n, then prove that | P(A)|= 2” (PbiLU. B.C.A. April 2008; M.Se. I.T. 2009) Sol. Let A= { 4) 449403 04 Aq} where a,'s are distinct. ” A selection of r objects from the elements of the set A can be made in: "C, ‘way. 0- empty ? Justify . = (x: xis rational and 0 < x <2} and let _ B= (e:xisratjonal and 1's $3)- Indicate whether each of the following is true or false (a) OSEA, () 2" EB () 26EA. or 26EB (@) Balke Aand xEB , 9, Let A= {0, 2, 3), B= 3) nd C= (1 5 9 Determine which of the following statements are true? Give reason for your answer (a) 3EA OBEA OG}SA MBSA @asB Y) eSC (ge) GEA 10, Find the cardinal number of each set = 3 () A={xix€ N,x?=5} (i) B={6,7,89 the power set of the integer. US se set builder 11, List some of the elements of notation for at least two of these elements. ANSWERS oO¢ © t-3 to 11} 1 @ {1,2} 2, (p (sx is positive integer from 5 (iy (erx= 2m, 2712345) (iii) (sis atwo digit number in hich the sum of two digits is 9} 3 @ (b+ 1: KET such that | s ks 39) _pex se@aee = xGA° (Ac) SA, ce Again, let y GA ea. = ye (aye Ac (A‘y® From (1) and (2), we have, (A°)° =A Art-9. If A, B are two sets, then prove that BA =B nae (P.T.U. B.Tech. May 21 Proof: LH.S.=B-A "= fe:xEB-A)} = (e:x @Bandx €A} ix €Bandx € A} B) = (rx (BNA) y =BNAS F =RHS. . B-A=BNAS Art-10. If A, B, C are any sets, prove that (@ A-@UC)H=(A-B)N(A-C) i) A-(BNO)=(A-B)U(A-O) Proof, (i) LH.S.=A-(BUC) =An(BuUCyY =AN@NC) =(ANBIN(ANC) =(A-B)N(A-C) =RHS. LHS. =RHS. A-(BUC)=(A-B)N(A~C) a © scanned with OKEN Scanner [- B-A=BN ent’ 19 ws SET THEORY posegree™ fs © LAS a-@no=aneno’ 4 =AN (BUC) =(ANB)U(ANC) =(A=B)U(A-C) A-(@NC)=(a-B)U(A-E) ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES versal set Example 1 Let A= {0, 2, 3}, B= (2,3) and C= (1, 5, 9) and let the unt U= (0,1,2,......, 9). Determine @ ANB ® AUB ( BUA (@AUC O A-B @ B-A @A ac Sol. (@) ANB ={x:x@A and x€B) = {2,3} (6) AUB = {x:x€A or xB} = (0,2, 3} © BUA={exEB or xEA}= {0,23}, (d) AUC ={x:x€A or xEC}= {0, 1,2, 3,5, 9} (2) ANC = {exe Aand xEC}={} orp (f) A-B =(:x@Aand x ¢B}= {0} (—) B-A ={e:x€Band x€A}= {foro (hy AS = Gerx @ Uand x EA}=(1,4,5,6,7,8,9) @ Co = {x:x © Uand x A} = (0, 2,3, 4, 6,7, 8}? @ ane Example 2. Let A= (x: is an integer) and let B = (i2¥%s an integer divisible’ by 6 }. Let C = {x: x is an integer divisible by 2 of'3), and let D = (x: is an integer divisible by 2 and 3}. Determine which of the following relations hold, If containment holds determine whether it is proper (@ ACB @BCCOCCB (pce @acp (npec. @ccp. Sol. Here A= {x :x is an integer) = (-....-3,-2,-1, 0, 1,2,3, 2: x is an integer divisible by 6} = {.....~ 12,—6,0, 6, 12,...}.\ C= {x:x is an integer divisible by 2 or 3) 6,-4,-3,-2,0,2 3,4, 6, © scanned with OKEN Scanner 20 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (PDI. U) (a) ACB doesnot hold as -3 € A but ~3 ¢B (b) BC Cholds as any integer which is divisible by 6 is also divisible oy te or3, (©) CCB does not hold as 2 € C but 2¢ B. (d) DC Bholds since D=B (e) ACD does not hold as 1 € A but! ¢D () DCC holds as any integer which is divisible by 2 and 3 is also divisible by 2or3. (g) CCD does not hold as 2 € C but2 ¢ D. Example 3, Prove that AU A°=U and AN A‘=9 Sol. Let x be any element AU A‘ = x€A orxEAS > xGAorxGA = x6U . x GAUAS > xEU = AUASCU Conversely, let x be any element of U > either xEA orxG@A y > either x A or x AS = xGAUAS xEU = xGAUAS USAUAS From (1) and (2) we get AUAS= Further let x be any element of AM A‘ = x@A and xEAS = x€A and xGA. > xe¢ ANACO But ¢ CAN A‘ always ANA=9. Example 4, For sets A and B, prove that A U B = (A\B) U (B\A) U (A NB). (Pbi.U,, B.C.A., Sept. 2006) Al) Q) Sol. R.H.S._ =(A\B) U (BA) U (ANB) =(A-B) U[(B-A) U(ANB)) =(ANBYU[BNANU(AN B)] [A-B=ANB] h © scanned with OKEN Scanner SETTHEORY 4 amt tVE Law. aoe Quen suena pave “ang UIBN (ATU A) favs ; . }U@BAX) pistributive Law (9B) UB=(AUB)A@BrUB) “AuB)nx : =AUB =LHs. Example $, Let A and B be two sets. Prove that ‘An Sept: 2007) AAB=(A~B)U@B~A). (iv, BOA of elements ae 4B is symmetic diference of sts A and Bt is defined a the 6 at belong to set A or set B but not to both, AAB = (e:(e@ A ands ¢B) ore € Bands @A)) fr: (nA - Byor(@€B- AD} = {iE A-B)U@EB-A) =(A-B)U(B-A) Hence proved, Example 6. For sets A, B and C using properties of sets, prove that (@ A-(BUQ=(A-B)N(A-C) @) A~@NC=(A-B)U(A-E) (ii) (AUB)-C=(A-QC)UB-C). Sol.) A-(BUC)=AN®UC! nnc’) ANB) N(ANC') =(A-B)N(A- ©) (i A-@NO=ANBNC’ =AN BUC) =(ANB)U(ANC') =(A-B) U(A-C) (AUB)-C =(AUB)NC’ =(AncyUBNC) =(A-C) UB-0). [exX-¥=x0Y'] [-@UC)'=B'NC] [IP x-Y¥=xay] [< @NO)!'=B'UC}] [sNis distribution over U] wo X-Y=xny] rove that Example 7. P AUB=ANBiffA=B ‘Assume that AUB=A0.B Sol. (. (1) —$—_— ae © scanned with OKEN Scanner 22 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (P) Let x be any element of A xEA > xEAUB > x€ANB a” = xEB xEA > xEB ACB Ce Similarly BC A . From (2) and (3), A=B. *» AUB=ANB *A=B (ii) Assume that A= B « AUB=AUA=A ANB=ANA=A AUB=ANB A=B -» AUB=ANB Example 8, Let A and B be the following subsets of the real numbers = A= {x:0/xEX AYEXA(-y) is an integral non-zero multiple of 2} __S={|xe i Bas |FEXAYEX A (&-y) isan integral non-zero multiple of 3} Rus ={K1,3>,<2,4>,<1,4>} and RAS={ } org, es sup he 3 © scanned with OKEN Scanner 1HORY ae 23 5 determine the following sets : Ang ) AS (ay (P-TU, BGA, 12000 so Wekwow A=B" (esx eA and y @ A-CO=12,41,3),9) Gi) A-@RA (ai) A- {0} = 0,2, (1,3}) @ Sua Example 1. A= (1, 2,3}, B Find AUB, ANB, A~ : X. Sol. AUB ={1,2,3} U (3,4, 5) €B) Um (1,2,3,4, 5,67, 8,9}. (P.T.U, B.C.A. 12004) = (1,2,3,4, 5} ANB ={1,2,3}9 (,4,5} = 8} A-B ={1,2,3}-(3,4,5} = {1,2} A =U-A = {1,2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} - {1, 2, 3} = {4,5,6,7,8,9} Example 12. Find AU (B\A)=A UB. (P-T.U. B.C.A. 12005) So. LHS. =AU(B\A) =AU@-A) =AU(@NA) [A-B=ANB}] | =(AUB)N(AUA) [Distributive Law] =(AUB)NX [AU AS=X] =AUB IANX=a} =RHS. UC)=(AUB)U (AU O), whore A, B and C are any UB Example 13, Prove that A U ( (Pbi. U.B.C.A. April, 2011) three sets. Sol. RHS, =(A UB) U(AUC) =(UA)U(AUO =BU(AU(AU ©) =BU(AUA)UC) [Commutative Law] [Associative Law) [Associative Law) Udempoterit Law © UA ui 2 [Associative Law) =(BUA) ve {Commutative Lay) =(AU ab A Associative Lay] =AUB a | © scanned with OKEN Scanner RETE MATHEMATICS, 2 +4 SPECTRUM Example 14. Draw Venn diagram of (A B)N Cand AN (BAC! @B.OA.1200) Sol. AnB wansync B A B c no) Bnc An(ene) A B c then show that AUB=@ @ A=9,B=9- ets, Example 15. If A, B are two s (pT.U.B.CIA.120 Sol. Let AUB=@ Weshow A=¢, B=@ Let xEA = x€AUB / ACAU = xe¢ [AUB= a Ac¢ Also OCA A-e Similarly, we can show B=@ : AUB=$ * A=, B=¢ Again, let A= 9, B=o Weshow AUB=¢ Let x€AUB > x€¢ or rEg ni © scanned with OKEN Scanner SET THEORY sey 2 AUBGY so Also AUB : AUB=@ A=, B=¢ » AUB=9@ From (1) and (2), we have #2) AUB= Example 16. Let A = {1,2, 5, a. aan ie Find A UB, AQ Band A-B, Sol. A={1,2,4) and B = (4, 5,6) @ AUB ={I,2,4} U {4, 5,6} = (1,2,4, 5.6} (id ANB ={1,2,4} 9 (4,5, 6} = {4} Gi) A-B={1,2,4)- 4,5,6)= 2}. ‘Aand ae Is it true that power set of A U B is equal to union of Toni 5 2000) Sol. Let A= ({a,0},B= ee then AU eS an 3 ° nee P(A)= {0 {a}, 0}, {a 51) P(B)= {CH} P(A)UPR)= {a}, {0}, {6}, (4B) where as (AUB) {6s ahs} (oh {2 Dh (@ ob}, {a showing that P(AUB) # P(A) UPB) (ANB)=PA)N P@) (Poi, BCA» 2009 bch} Example 18. Prove that P Sol, Let X € P(AMB) then X ¢(A 1B) X ¢ AandalsoX CB x € P(A) and also X & P(B) v iu xeP(AynP®) : Hence P(AMB) PAYNE B) a Conversely, let Y € P(A) PB) ) y E P(A) and ¥ € PB) GANBCAadabo ANB SB) 2 > 2 2 yoAsndY SB = cach element of Yi contained in both A and B © scanned with OKEN Scanner 26 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (PBI. U, > each element of Y is contained in ANB. = YCANB = YEP(ANB) Hence P(A) 9 P(B) S P(ANB) From (1) and (2); we get P (ANB) = P(A) N P(B) Example 19. Find power set P(A) of A= {1, 2, 3, 4}. Sol PCA)= {9 {1}, {2), (3), 4}, {12h (1,395 (1 As 2,3}, 2 Ms Bs (1,2,3), (152.4), 23,4), 34) 142,39) Example 20. Let A and B be two sets. Prove that +02) 4, (Pbi. U. April, 2007) A-B =ANB Sol. Let x€A-B > x €A and x@B = x A and xEB > x GANB ee A-BSANB . 0 Conversely let x AN BY, then = x@Aandx EBS = x€Aandx €B > x€A-B ANB’ CA-B “Ai A-B=ANB. Example 21. If A and B be two sets containing 3 and 6 elements respectively, what cat be the minimum number of elements in A U B,? Find also, the maximum number o! elements in A UB. Sol. We have (A U B) = n(A) + n(B) — n(A NB). This shows that n(A U B) is minimum or maximum according as n(A M B) it maximum or minimum respectively. Case 1: When n (A M B) is minimum, ie. n (A M B) = 0. This is possible only when A B= @. In this case, n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) — 0 = n(A) + n(B) = 3 + 6 =9. So, maximum number of elements in A U B is 9. Case I: When n(A MB) is maximum. This is possible only when A CB. In this case, n(A MB) =3. n(A U B)=n(A) + n(B) ~ n(ANB)=3+6-3=6 so, minimum number of elements in A U B is 6. © scanned with OKEN Scanner Set THEORY E tense EL E= Q,3, decisions, 2). Deter (2,3) and C= (1, 5,9). Let = (3,2) ond let é S in which ofthe flowing ae ive e000" 7° @ A=B pe ” AUBenG © B=D (p= @ANB=BNA Determine whether ae ae @ ACB vheeas o the following inclusions is proper ' B= {:xisanis alibirintasc ® scr creer divisible by 2) and T= (yi {x:xisareal number with a finite deci : isa rational number} : (© XCY, where X = (x: xis integer divisible by 9} and Y = (x: xis an integer divisible by 3} Prove that each of the following relations holds. (@ ACB where A= (x: xis an integer multiple of 10} and B= {x:xis an integer multiple of 5) 3 (6) A=B, where A= {x: xis even integer} and B= {x: x’ is an even integer} Let U= (0, 1,2,3.4,5,6,7,8, A= EU: zmultiple of), B={rEU: 7-520}. Determine (a) AUB(b) ANB (6) BY Let A and B be subsets of natural numbers defined a follows + A= (x: ifp is prime and if xis divisible by p; then x is divisible by 7"} imal expansion}, and BB (x: there is aninteger ysuch that ==3")- a bt prove that B C A. Show thatthe containment is proper. E bet. Let A= (4, Been Ds cet U be the set of letters ofthe alpha . : gh and C= {0 Ps 1). Find the elements in each of the AUC (ANBVOMANBUC @ ANB @ AB BAO AyBIC) () ANCB) a gers and let A= (xs divisible by 3), let 2}. Let C= (xs divisible by 5) Find the elements in (@ANBO gn cansy Let U be the set of inte’ B= {x:xis divisible by ‘each of the following s¢t : @AnB auc (ANBVOMANBUC-O ‘ASABE @ nan ® [ANB (1) BA (OABIC) ANB) © scanned with OKEN Scanner if 2 Sr crmun pisces Marea 8. Answer true or false : Ce @ AUBS=AUBY @)A'=UA ( AUBUC=AUB)UC a @ AUBNO=(AUB)NC — © A\BIC)=(AIBC : 9. LetA= (a,b, 6,4 ¢B= {a,6),C= (B,p),D= {a,b {a 6)}. Bnd A B,C MD, A nD, CMP (A) and D P(A), Indicate whether, each of te following is true or false : (@ AEP(A) ()CCP(A) (DECP(A) (MBCD @ BED (f){ab}EC 3 10. Prove that if AC Band B CC, then ACC. 11, Prove that A\B and B\A are disjoints. 12, Prove that if A C B, then P (A) C P(B). 13, Let Aand B sets, then (A 9B) U (ANB) =A. 14, Let A,B,C besets. If AS Band BNC = , then AN C=9- (5) Prove that A’-B’=B-A. ANSWEKS 1. (@ False (6) False (c) True (@) True () Tre (f) Tue &) False 2. (a) Proper — () Not proper (¢) Not proper: —— @ (0,3,4,5,6,7,89) | @) 3,693 (© {01,2} (DB) (0B oy ovvvnerds Bb Pr. 6 (a) hij kB @. th bj bho Pro © (niibB (FS, byevveeen B} GP) {ay by 6d, Gf, 81M, My Os Py ven 2} ) (abodehst CH) (202. D 0 {a b,c, 1 @ ® —15,- 12, -6, 0, 6, 12, 15, @ £ (A) (1+. 12,-10, 6-5, 0, 5, 6, 10, 1 } © 1, 1,5, 7, 1. (1) {-4-5,-3,-2,- 1,1, 23,4 Soe @® £ 15,-9,~3, 3,9, 15, a 4,-2,2,4, 8 | @ ¢ 3,3, 9, 15,2000} @) {es 18,—12,-9,- 6-3, 0,3, 9, 12, 18... 8 (a) False (b)True (c) True (d)False (¢) False (a) True (b)True (c)False (d) False (e) True (f) True © scanned with OKEN Scanner © Get THEORY — : a 29. 11. Some Important Problems. We give below some other important problems on union and intersection. {LLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES per gxample 1. Give examples of three sets A, B, C for which A-(@B-O =(A-B)-C = (1,2,3}, B= (3,4, 5}, C= {6,7} so TAKA * B-C = (34,5) - (6,7) = 3,4 5} A-@-O7 {1,23 }- 84,5} = (1 2} Al) Also A-B = (1,2,3}- B.4,5} = {12} (a B)-€ = {2} - (67) (1,2) 0) From (1) and (2), We get, A-@-O=(A-B)-€ Example 2. Give an example of three sets A, B and C such that ABE eBACABANCHPDUANBAC# Sol. tA (1.2,3}B= B45} C7 45:2) A ABe (3) #9, BNC~ 45 #HCIAR=12) #9 BuANBNC=¢ Example 3. Prove that A CB @ Bo CAS forall sets A, B- Sol, (f) Assume that A C B (1) We are to prove that B® C AS k. Letx be an element of BY x€B° “x€B facet fe of OI > x6A° BoCAS * ACB = BOCAY (Assume that B° CAS Weare to prove that A CB, ety yany Neri tea | 2) ofA, ila © scanned with OKEN Scanner creas SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS Bt yEA = y¢Ae = yeBe yes ACB CAS = ACB Combining the results proved in (i) and (ii), we Bet, ACB@BCA® Example 4, If A, B and C are any sets, prove that AUB=AUC and ANB=ANC Sol. Let x be any element of B x€A or xGA. Casel. x EA . xGANB t = Bec xB) [- ANB=ANC 2 xEANC = xEC But x is any element of B BCC Case I. x EA } . x€AUB = x€AUC [ » AUB=AUC] = x€C [= A] But x is any element of B BCC from both the cases, itis clear that BCC Similarly CCB From (1) and (2), B=C AUB=AUC and ANB=ANC > B=C. Example $, For any sets A and B, prove that (A-B) U(B-A)=(AUB)-(ANB) Sol. RHS. =(AUB)-(ANB) =(AUB)N (ANB)! =(AUB)N(A’ UB')=[(AUB) NA’ JU [(AUB) NB’) =[(ANA')UBNA')]U[(ANB)UBNB' D) | . () 1 Q [- A-B=ANB') © scanned with OKEN Scanner ser THEORY Example 6. 8 =[PUBNAYULANB')UG] (oR =(BNA)UANB')=ANB)UBNA’) =A-BUB-A) =LHS. how that A 0 (B= C)= (A NB)=(ANC) (AN B)-(ANC) =(ANB)NANCY=ANBNA UC) =[(AnB) NAT] ULANB)NC] = [(A NAT) MB] U[AN BCI =GNBUIANB-O] U[AN B-O)] =ANB-O) RHS. =LHS. EXEKCIGE 1 (c) Verify the following identities: @@ AUBNO=AUB)NAYO Ww ANBUC=(ANB)UANC) where, A, B, C are three sets defined by A= (12.45) B= (235607 (4567) If X and ¥ are two sets, then find X 9 (XU yy. Show tht (QACAUB (ANBCA. Prove the following = () BCAUB (ij) AMBCB (i) BCA@ANB=B (e) ACCandBCD > AUBCCUD @) BCC®ANBCANC (i) A=BeACBandBCA. For any two sets A and B, prove that AN B= = AC BY. Prove that O AN(A'UB)=ANB (i) A-(A-B)=ANB Prove that A‘\ B= B\A. Prove the following : eis : ’ (i), AN(B-A)=9 ou gian @y-B-a-anB) (Bc -C)=(AUB)-C (vi eee LOT OREO Prove that AA een @Q=AnB\ANo). © scanned with OKEN Scanner 2. SPECTRUM DISCRETE Mantenanies Poy ANSWERS Pee 2 ¢ Art-12-Tpcliision—Exclusion Principle know that number of elements of a finite set A is denoted by 1 (A). Followin results of number of elements should be kept in mind for doing problems : A n(AUB)=n(A) +2 @B)-n(ANB) PF MAUB)=n(A)+ 2B) @ A,B aie disjoint sets, 3c n(A UB)=n(A-B)+n(B-A)+n(ANB) <4 (A)=2(A-B) +n (ANB) ao n(B)=n(B-A)+n(ANB) * 6 n(AUBUC)=n(A)+n(B)+n(C)-n(ANB)-2 BNO) =n(CNA}en(ANBNC 7. n(A' UB')=n((ANB)')=n(U)—n(ANB) 8. n(A'OB')=n((AUB)')=2(U)—n(AUB) 9 n(ANB'NC')= n(A)-n(ANB)-n(ANC)+2(ANBNO, Art-13. State and prove inclusion-exclusion principle for two sets. Also extended fc three sets. (Pdi. U. 2012 Result I. If P and Q be any two non-disjoint sets, then nP UV Q=AP) + n(Q)—nP NQ). Proof : From Venn Diagram, we see that P U Qis the union of three disjoint sets P—Q, Q—P and PQ. n(P U Q)=n(P—Q) + n(Q—P) + n(P. 9 Q) 7 Also, n(P) = n(P—Q) + n(P 1 Q) and n(Q) = n(Q-P) + (PN Q) © scanned with OKEN Scanner ‘Adding (2) and (3), We Bi apt n(P) + (Q) = (P=Q) + #2 HPQ) nf?) + (Q) = n(P UQ) +P .Q) a nee [MP UQ=nP=Q)4Q= EMP HQ iP U.Q)= M(P) +1(Q)- (PQ) : ane Hence the result. | Result HL If P, Qand R are three finite sets, then e wep u.QU R= HEE) + MA) +R) = P.O) = EP AR) (QR) + AP QAR) Proof : We have 2 ne U(QUR)) = n(P) + (QU R)-n(@P 1 (QUR)) : = n(P) + n(Q) + n(R) — (QM R)—n((P (QU) NowPA(QUR)=@AQUPNR) PM (QUR)=MPNQ)+ MPN R)=W(PN.YN PNR) =nP. 1Q)+n(P OR) — APNQNR) a n(P UQUR)= m(P) + €Q) +R) = P.A.Q)— MCP AR) = n(QNR)+APNQNR) Hence the result. ‘Note : Inclusion-Exelusion Principle in General Let Pj, Py, .y P, are finite sets. Then n(P; UP; U...... P,) = Laey- Ymeory) 1sisn isicjsn + Yow AP) OP yom (DY nfPy U P2 U ws Py) Isis j 90=154+30+n(B-A) s a py" > n(B-A)=90-15-30=45 nts ey Again n(B)=n(ANB)+n(B-A)=30 +45 =75 Example 3. A and B are two sets such that n (A = B)= 144%," n(ANB)=x, Illustration the information by @ Venn’s diagram. (B-Ay=3xand Calculate, given that (A) = (B) : | (in (AUB) (Pbi. U. B.C.A{2012) (The numerical value of x, )+n(ANB) n(AUB) =1(A-B)+"B-A) Sol. Since =(4+ytGxtxasxtl4 But n(Ayen(A~B)+n(AMB)= 14x tx= 442% ‘Also n(B)= 14 +2.x (as n (A) =”) given) x ‘Also n(A U B)=n (A) +n(B)—2 (AN B) Sx+14=(14+2x) +(14422)-* Sxt14=28+3x 2x=14 x27 (i) n(AUB)=5x+14=5 (1) + 14=35 + 14= 49 Example 4, In a class of 60 boys, there are 45 boys who play cards and 30 boys pla carrom. Find or. 5 ‘ en (® how many boys play both games ? (i) how many boys play cards only ? (iif) how many boys play carrom only ? © scanned with OKEN Scanner ia A denote the * Of boye'pliylng More (A UR) 60)! H(A) 48) n(a)"30 MAUM=NAnMmenanDy © ORAS HID MANY (APD) © AS 430 60% 15 n(Ayen(a by +n(ANB) Ase m(An DAIS a n(A-B)" 45 ~ 1530 n(B)=n(B~A) +n (A NB) we = n(B~A) +15 we n(B=A)=30~ 15" 15 (0 Number of boys who play both games = (A nB)=I5 =n (A~B)= 30 y= n(B-A)= 15 g have taken economics nomics and polities and cond and 8, deo the (ii) Number of boys who play cards only (ii) Number of boys who play earrom on! 1s of 25 students 12 have taken economics, “Example 5. In a clas ‘students who have taken co but not politics. Find the number of those who have taken politics but not economics. .) = number of students who have taken economics. Sol Let (A) politics. n(B) = number of students who have taken. n(ANB‘)= number of dent who have taken economics butt pois n(A.01B)= number of students who have taken both economics and politics n (BN A’) = number of students who have taken politics but not economics Here n (A) = 12, 0 (AN B‘)=8,n(A UB)=25 n(ayen(A NB) +n(A NB) 12=84+n(ANB) Now = n(AnB)=4 (Au By=n(a)+7@)-2 ANB) 25=12+n(B)-4 Also n = n(B)=17 : Also n(By=n BO A)+n(ANB) ee 17=n(BNA)+4 Bm n@BnAa)=13 . © scanned with OKEN Scanner 36 Example 6. In a survey of 60 people, it was found that 25 read Newsweek’ magaz i fl read Times, 26 read Fortune, 9 read both Newsweek and Fortune, 11 read both Titi Newsweek, 8 read both Timés aind Fortune, 3 read all three magazines; Find (i) the number of people who read at least one of the three magazines 7 (i) ‘The number of people who read exactly one magazine ? ¥ Sol. n (X) = Number of person to be surveyed n(A) = Number of person who read News week magazine n(B) = Number of person who read Times n (C) = Number of person who read Fortune n(A..C)= Number of person who read News week & Fortune n(ANB)= n(B 1.C)=Number of person who read Time & Fortune (A 9 BM C)=Number of person who read all the three magazine. Here n (X) = 60, n (A) =25, n (B)=26, n(C)=26, n(ANC)=9 n(ANB)=11,n(BNC)=8,n(ANBNC)=3. The number of element shown is the Venn’s diagram lumber of person who read .News week & Time (9 Number of person who read atleast one of the three magazine =84+84+10+64+345412=52 (ii) Number of people who read exactly one magazine =8+10+12=30 yA Example 7. Each student in a class of 40, studies atleast one of the subjects Englis Mathematics and Economics, 16 study English, 22 Economies and 26 Mathematic Sstudy English and Economics, 14 Mathematics and Economics and 2 Engl Economics and Mathematics. Find the number of students who study () English and Mathematics (if) English, Mathematics but not Economics Sol. Let A, B, C denote the set of students who study English, Economics # Mathematics respectively. n(AUBUC)=40, n(A)=16, n(B)=22, n(C)=26 n(ANB)=5, n(BNC)=14, n(ANBNC)=2 © scanned with OKEN Scanner ger THEORY Nown(AUB Cents Bene =n(Caay nA ©), n(ANB)=n8 40= 16422496 : enh eae ~S=M=n(GnAa)+3 *. aC SWnataneest nein a ‘ number of . | eee atileemetineski em nciarneceioie 07 e {students who study English, Mathematics but not Beonomiés e i n(ANC)-n(ANBNC#7-2=5 ‘ Example 8 In a town of 10,000 families, it was found il ee : 3 that 40% families buy TiewSP* A, ay newspaper B and 10% buy newspaper C, 5 tamiles buy A and Bs 3% BLY Band Cand 4 by A and: 12% fue buy all the newspapers find the number of families which buy (D A only (i B only ii) none of A, B, and C. ; Gol. Total number of families = 10,000. Let EF, G denote the st of families who buy newspapers A, B, Cespectivly: 10 n&)= 2% x 10000= oo % 10000 = 4000 20 n)= Fog * 10000 = 2000 n@= x 10000 = 1000 100 (EN F)= = x 10000 = 500 “Joo 3 (FA G)= sg % 10000= 300 nn oe x 10000 = 400 2 G)=— x 10000=200 n(ENFNG)= Ty umber of families buying newspaper A alone = "(EOF ° G*‘) =n(E)-nENF)-n ENG) +n ENFNG) = 4900 ~500~ 400 +200 = 3300 Number of families buying newspaper B alone = 7 (F 0 E‘NG‘) =n(f)-n F NE)-"FNG)+nENFNG) = 2000 500-300 -+200= 1400.” Nuniber of families who buy at least one of the newspapers =n(EUFUG) . = n@+n@)+n@)- "ENF-nENG)-nGNE) +P EOE « fooo + 2000 + $000 ~ 500-300-400 + 200 = 6000 ‘ ask +. umber of families who do not buy newspapers A, B, © scanned with OKEN Scanner 38 SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Pp, Suppose that 100 of the 120 students at a college take at least one of languages Hindi, English and Mathematics, Algo suppose 65 study Hindi ; 45 English ; 42 study Mathematics, 20 Study Hindi anid English, 25 study Hind) Mathematics, 15 study English and Mathematics. Find umber of students stitdying subjects. Also find number of students studying exactly onte subject. ? (P.T.U. B.C.A. 1209, Sol. Let Mathematics : A Hindi English : C n(A) = 42, n(B)=65, n(C) = 45 MAM B)=25 n(BNC)=20 n(AMC)=15 mA UBUC)=100 n(U)=120 n(A UB U C=n(A) + n(B) + n(C)-n(A N B)= (BN C}-n(A NC) +HANBI 100 = 42 + 65 + 45-25 -20-15+n(AN BNC) n(A MB MC)= 100-92=8 8 students study all subjects. The Venn diagram of above information is = & c lU= 120 Number of students studying exactly one subject = 10 +28 + 18 = 56 Example 10. A survey of 500 television watchers produced the following information 285 watch football, 195 watch hockey, 115 watch basketball, 45 watch football a basketball, 70 watch football and hockey, 50 watch hockey and basket-ball, 50 do 1 watch any of the three games. How many watch all the three games ? Sol. Let F, H, B denote the sets o respectively. games ? How many watch exactly one of the thr f viewers who watch footoall, hockey, basketb nF) =285, nH) = 195, n B)= 115, n FN B)=45, n(FNH)=70, n(HNB)=50, n(FUHUB)°=50 Also total number of. viewers = 500 Nown(F UHUB)°=50 = 500-n(FUHUB)=50 © scanned with OKEN Scanner 39, 7 MFURUB) «4g > MC) + mt) + gy 2 W495 4115-4 = nF AHNB)=29 ss umber of viewers Nanber of here all the three games = 20. aim =Ae tching foot- ball alone = n F HB‘) Ey H)-n@NB)+n(FOHNB) es 85 ~ 70 ~45 +20 = 190 yur ie it aan pone ett hockey alone =n (HM F°B*) 7" F)-n(HNB)+n(F NHNB =195~70-50+20=95 ee ; Number of viewers watching basketball alone =n (BO H° OF) = n()-n(BNH)-n(BNF)+n(FNHNB) = 15-50-45 +20=40 “. number of viewers watching exactly one of the three games = 190 +95 +40=325 EXERCISE 1 (4) Ina college, department A has 7 teachers and department B bas 5 teachers. How many teachers department A or B have ? Ina particular college, 300 students are randomly selec newspaper A, 147 students read the newspaper B and and B. Find how many students read atleast one newspaper. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(AMB)=12, n(A-B)=24, m(B- A)=45. Find n(A) and n(B). Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 115, n(B) = 326 and n(A ~ B)= 47. Find n(AUB) and n(AMB). Let A and B be two sets such that (A)=20, (A UB)=42, n(ANB)=4 Find () n(B) i) n(A-B) (ii) n(B~A). 'A survey shows that 76% of the students like oranges, whereas 62% like asanzs What percentage ofthe student ike both oranges and bananas ? ‘A town has total population 25,000 out of which 13,000 read “The Tribune” and 10,500 read “The Indian Express” and 2,500. read both papers. Find the: peveentage of population who read neither ofthese newspapers. & & A town have a total population of 60000, Out of it 32000 read ‘The Hindustan Times’ paper and 35000 read ‘Time of India’ paper, while 7500 both the newspapers, Indicate how many read neither the Hindustan Times nor Times of India? HP OH) nA Bj ncn tHe HOB)! 0-$0- a3 +n(en HA B)*450 ‘ | ted. 180 students read the '84 students read both A oe © scanned with OKEN Scanner 12. 13. Ina joint family of 12 persoy ‘tea, 6 take ake | many members take both tea eater we se a In a group of 950 persons, 750 can spe Hind and 460 ean speak () how many can speak both Hind and English ? : if) how many can speak Hindi only ? : iii) how many can speak English only ? Ina group of 50 persons, 14 drink tea but not coffee and (how many drink tea and coffee both ? (i) how many drink coffee but not tea? Of the members of three athletic teams in @ certain college, 21 are in 1! football team. 14 play hockey any basketball team, 26 in hockey team and 29 in basketball, 15 play hockey and football, 12 play football and basketball and play all the three games. How many members are there in all. % 00 students stated thatthe various janguages were 30 drink tea. Find The report of one survey of 1 Sanskrit, Hindi and Tamil 5 Hindi and Sanskrit 10. Tamil and Sanskrit 8 Hindi and Tamil 20 Sanskrit 30 Hindi 23 Tamil 50 fired. Why ? The surveyor who prepared this report was ‘A class has 175 students. The following table shows the number of studes studying one or more of the following subjects in this class: Subjects Number of Students Mathematics 100 Physics 70 Chemistry 46 Mathematics and Physics 30 Mathematics and Chemistry 28 Physics and Chemistry 23 18 Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry led in Mathematics alone, Physics alone How many students are enroll fents who have not offered any of these th Chemistry alone ? Are there stud subjects ? © scanned with OKEN Scanner 2 0% ‘ 243 3, 36557 4, 373568 16% (6 ii) 22 6, 38% & 300 % 3 it . a (i) 490 Gi. 200 * ¥ Gi) 20 12. 43 Surveyor prepared the report onthe base of 70 students and not on all the 100 Ordered Pair. By an ordered pai i A. b q pair of élements, we mean a pair (a, b) a: in that order. ‘The ordered pairs (a, b), (b, a) are’different unless a= b- Also (a, 8) iffa=c,b & Cartesian Product of Two Sets. ‘The Cartesian product of the A xB, is the set of all possible ordered pairs whose first component is and whose second component is a member of B.. In symbols, A x B.= {(a, 8): a A, b EB} Note 1.A X BandB x A are different sets if A # B. 2. A X B=@ when one or both of A, B are empty. ets. The set of all ordered n-tuple (a1, 42> ++ +n) € Ay is called the Cartesian product of the sets Ay, Az» ‘Ay or briefly by Il A; sets A and B, denoted by 4 member of A Cartesian Product of m S of elements a © Aj s.-+5 Qn casy An and is denoted by Ai % Aa X -- Note + [] is the symbol used for expressing @ product just as & is the symbol used to express a sum. Art-15, Prove that @aA X(BUC)=(AXB)UAXO (PbiLU., MSc. IT, 2006; Pbi. B.C.A, 2012) x B)M(AXC) (P.1.U. B.Tech, May 2005, 2007) Jement of A x (B UC). Then, Gy AxBNORA Proof : (i) Let (a, 6) be an arbitrary ¢ (abEAxBUO a€Aand bE (BUC) ae Aand (bEB ot bEC) (aA and bEB) or(aGA and bEC) (a,b) E(A X B)or (a, ELA XO) oud © scanned with OKEN Scanner = ‘Again let (x,y) be an arbitrary elements of (A B) U (A X C). ooo oY (ab) E (AX BUA KO) Ax (BUC) S(AXB)U(AXC) Then (x,y) G(A XB) U(A XC) ; (x,9) (A XB) or (x,y) € (A XC) (x @Aand y@B) or GA andyEC) x€A and (vB ory EC) x€A and y€(@BUC) (sy) EAX (BUC) (AX B)U(AXC) cAx(BUC) Hence from (i) and (if) Ax(BUC)= =(AXB)U(AXC). (ii) Let (a, 6) be an arbitrary element of AX (BNC). Then, (a, 6) EA x (BNC) > > = = = ae Aandb EBC) aA and(b € Bandb EC) (aA and b ©B)and (a A and b EC) (a,b) (A x B) and (a,b) E(A X ©) (ab) E(A x B)N(AX ©) Ax (BNC)S(AXB)N(AXC) Again, let (x, y) be an arbitrary element of (A X B)N (A X C). Then, (uy) E(AXB)N(AXC) (x,y) € (A x B) and (x, y) € (A XC) (@Aand y €B)and (« € Aandy € C) x€Aand(y€B andy €C) x€Aandy €(BNC) (&y) EAX (BNC) (Ax B)N(AXC) SAX (BAC) Hence from (i) and (ii), Ax (BNC)=(A XB) N(A XC). Theorem : Let A be a non-empty set such that Ax B=A x C. Show that B=C. © scanned with OKEN Scanner 4 Lie @DEAXBY ge, MOF B. The, = G@BEAxGY 4 nx 74% ao yee aeA [Ax Thus, bE B bec x bee wal) __ Now, let cbe an arbitrary element of C, then, i @IEAXC Vaca E = GOEAXBYaeA paxeeaxd > ces Thus, cEC scEB Ai) CcB < From (i) and (ii), we have ; B=C. xB)- (Ax 0) yrem : For _oa(a Se ee ee toon u ase. Ap 2010) Proof : Let (a, 6) be an arbitrary elements of A x (B-C)- Then, (a, b) € A x (B-C) = a€A andb€(B-C) a€Aand(b€ Band bc) (a Aand b © B)and (a Aand bE 0) (a,b) E (A x B)and (a, 8) (AX ©) (a,b) E(AXB)- (AX 0) Ax (B-C) S(AXB)~ (AX) let (x, ) be an arbitrary elements of (A X B) (wy) E(AXB)-(AXC) (ey) EA X Band Gy) EAXC g Ge Aandy €B)and (€ Aand y EC) x€Aand (y Band yEC) x@Aand y€(B-C) (wy) EAXB-O) (AxB)- (AO) SAX B-O) Hence, from (i) and (i), Ax (B-C)=(A XB) (AX 0). eeu ol) { = (AX C). Then, Again, eee © scanned with OKEN Scanner Art-16. Graphical Representation of A XB Draw two perpendicular lines x'ox and y’oy Interae horizontal and y‘oy is vertical. Now on horizontal tine #'0% represent the and on vertical line y’ay, represent the elements of B. Now ifa € A, b B, draw a vertical ine through aand hor The point where they meet represents the ordered pat (os 6 obtained graphically represents A X B. Note 1. Use is the set of all numbers, then A consists of all point consist of all points in the plane. Note 2. The ordered pair (oz b represents a point whose evades (40) Note 3, Let (A) denote the number of elements of A. Then n (A x B)=n (A) XB): a inaline AX Ay 4). Find A x B and show it graphically. Example 1. Let A= {12s 3), B= {2 Sol. Here A= {1, 2,3} B= {2,4} ‘AxB= (1.23) x 24) = {0,206 (1,4), 242 4,6,2,0 9} qoand a horizontal ji Now gent (1, 2), we draw a vertical eiroush 2. 1 rep two lines meetin the point ‘which represents (1, 2)- sielaly we ¢ represent the ater points in A x B nd get the graphical representation o "A XB. y Example 2. How many different elements does A B have if A has m elements ar has n elements ? Sol. mn. Example 3. Let A {1,2}, B ‘Ax B x C consists of all ordered triple (a, &, ¢), = (3,4, 5) and C= {6,7}. Then where a & A, be Bandc€ Hence Ax BX CH {(Iy 3, 6)s (In 3s Dy (Un 4, 6) (1s 4s Ds (Is 5, 6s (Us 5s 7s (2s 3s 6), 2, 3,7), (2,4, 6), 2,4, Ms 2, 5, 6), 2 5, }- © scanned with OKEN Scanner 3 2 ie; 6 . seins Example 4. Let A = {1,2}, B= (a,b, c] and C= (x, y}y List all the elements in each of the following sets : AXC,BXB,AXBXC,(A x A)x (CX C) Sol, AXC={(a,c):a EA,CEC) = (13), (1, Y) OA) Yd BXB=({(x,y):x, yEB} = {(a, a), (a,b), (a,c), (b, a), (b, 6), (By 2) (C4 as (04 Bs (¢,¢) AXBXC={(%y,2): EA, YEBZEC} = €(15.4,3), (1, 99s B,2) (Iy BW) (ls 64D (Uy De (25.4, ), 2, 4, y)s 25 By) (25D ys Oy 64) (2) DF (Ax A) x (CX C)= E(1, 1), (152) Qs 1s 2) (04) DY OY = ((a,b):a AX A,bECXC} = (1G, DDG, D GD Ds HD) £4, 1), (90) 2). NI (C1, 2s 6 DVI CC 2s CH 2D)) (1,2), (> Wh (2, D.C 2D} (2 1 GYD.) # (42,1), (I (2,2), 2h (2, 2s), GY 2, 2), 4 Ds 12s Acoon) Example 5. Let A=[+,—],and B= 00, 01, 10, 11] (@) List the elements of A x B (P.T.U, B.Tech, May 2005) (6) How many elements do A‘ and (A xB)’ have ? Sol. A= {+,—),B (00, 01, 10, 11} (@) AX B= {(x,y): xe Aand y €B} = ((+, 00), (4,01), (+, 10), (+, 11), 5 00), 01), C, 10), C2, 11 © scanned with OKEN Scanner SPECTRUM DISCRETE, MATHEMATIC, Py (b) Since AT=AXAXAXA * (A¥) = n(A).n(A).n A) 2A) =2 x2 x2 x2=16 (©) Since (A BY = (A XB) x (AX B) x (A XB) n((A By} =n (A XB). (AX BY. (A XB) =(n(A). 2B) @(A).0(B)). (1(A). 0 (By) = (2.4) (2.4) 2.4) 22) d= 8 x 642512 Example 6, If, B, C are any three sets, then prove that (9 (ANB) x C=(A XC) N(B XC) (i) (AUB) xX C=(AX CUBXO) (PIU, M.C.A,, 25) Sol. (VG) € (ANB) x C @ x @(ANB)andy EC e (x@Aandx €B)andy EC @ (e@Aandy € C) and (x € Bandy € C) @ (xy) €(A X Cand (x, y) E(B XC) © &)E(AXC)N(B XC) Hence (ANB) x C=(AXC) M(B x C) (i) Vy) € (AUB) x C @ x€(AUB)andyEC © (GAorx€B)andyEC @ («€Aandy €C)or(x € Bandy EC) © (%y)E(AX C)or(x,y) E(B xO) ° &YEAXC)UBXC) Hence (AUB) x C= (AxC) U (BxC) Example 7. If A and B are any two non-empty sets, then prove that AXB=BXA @ A=B (Pbi.U. B.C.A., 2003, 200 Sol. First, let us assume that A = B, Then we have to prove that A x B=B X A. Now A=B = AXB=AXA and BXA=AXA ee = AXB=BxA, Conversely, letA x B=B x A, Then we have to prove that A= B, © scanned with OKEN Scanner | ger THEORY. Let be an arbitrary element of A. Thea ay Cee xEA © Gd) CAxBVbEB no ed | > @OEBKA peaeere eA xeB : ASB I t ‘Again, lety be an arbitrary clement of B, Then »SB* (@y) CAXBY GGA >= (Gy) EBXA [is AXB=BXAL = YEA BSA * Hence, A=B. Example 8. Prove that if A, B, C, D are arbitrary sets, then - (ANC) x (BN D)=(A x B)N(C XD). (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2003) Sol Let (x, y) be any element of (A NC) x (BND). 4 Then (x,y) € (ANC) x (BND) @ x€(ANC) and yE(@ND) @ (e@Aandx€C) and (yEB and y€D) @ (x@A and y€B) and (@EC and yED) @ — (,») E(AXB) and (x,y) €(C XD) © (%y) €(AXB)N(CXD). 2 (ANC) (BND)=(A x B)NC xD). Example 9. For any three sets A, B, C, prove that (A-B) x C=(A X C)-(B XC). Sol. Let (a, 6) be an arbitrary element of (A ~ B) x C. Then (a, 6) € (A-B) x C = a€(A-B)and BEC = (ae Aand a¢B)andbEC = (a@Aand bEC) and (@¢B and bEC) (a, b) €(A x C)and (a, 6) €(B XC) (a,b) €(A x C)-(BX C) (A-B) x CE(AXC)-(B XC) oO ou © scanned with OKEN Scanner 48 2 LetA= SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS (Poy, y Again, let (x, y) be an arbitrary element of (A x C)~(B X C). Then, (sy) E(A X C)-(B x C) > (3) E(A XC) and (x,y) E(B XO) = (EA and y EC) and (x @ Band y EC) = xGAand x¢B and yeC = x€(A-B) and yEC = (yy) €(A-B) XC (Ax C)-(B x C) S (A-B) xc Hence, from (i) and (i) (A-B) x C= XO-B XO) EXERCISE 1 (e) Let A= {1,35}, B= {1,2}. Find A x B and show it graphically. (0,2, 3), B= {2,3} and C= {I, 5, 9} and let the universal set U= (0, 1, 2yeeeeeer 9}. Determine @AxB (iB (i) B Show that n (A x B) = 7 (A) . 1 (B), where A, B are finite sets and 1 ( denotes number of elements of A. State the general rule. Prove that AC BandC CD * (AX C)C(BXD). 5, A,B, Care any three sets, then prove that (ANB)xC=(Ax C)N(BXC) If A and B be non-empty subsets, then show that A X B=B x AiffA=B. ANSWEKS AxB={1,3,5} X {1,2}= {1,0 (1,2,G, 0,826, 06,2} Y o(1,.2) 0 (3,2) © (5,2) (1) © (31) (1) © scanned with OKEN Scanner get THEORY, 49 2 © (0,240.3), 2,2),2,3),6,2, 0,3) @ (2.242,3),8,2),0,3) O c 25.2), (25253) (23,23 (2,3,3 J, 2s 2), 2s 3h Be 3,2), 3.3) Nn (A XB X CX ss) H(A) M(B) HC) se Partition of Sets 'A partition of a non-empt Hl Ait n-empty set A is a collection P = {A1, Az Ase (i) A= ALU ALU ASU... and Gi) AVN AHO for iA) Any Aa As are called cells or blocks of the partition P. xample () Let A= {a, 6, o) be any set. Then Py = {ahs {B}, fe)» Pa = (Kah, £0) 6}) + Ps {(5}, (a, 3} 5 Py= {eh (a, BY} sPs= fa, bo} are partitions of the set A.” Example (i) Let Z = set of integers. Then the collection p= {{n} :1 © Z} is a partition of Z, nimum Set or Minset or Minterm and B,, Bo» tion {B1 » Br , Dy is By } of subsets of B, be any subsets of A. Then ", By} is a set of the tyPe ‘Let A be any non-empty set the minimum set generated by the colleg DA MDs Mv Dy where each Di Ds, or By for i= 1,2, For example (() The minsets generated by two A,=B, By’ A,= Bi 1 Bo As= Bi! O Bp 8p Ay=By' 0B:' ay (i) The minsets generated by three sets Bi, Ay=B, NB: MB's Ay=B, NB! NBs As=B,NB2 MB's f Ag= Bi, NB, NBs As=B NBN B's | Ag=B/,N Bi NBs BY, NB, NBs BN B,NBs W ! i ‘ n. ts By and Bz are grb B, and B; are © scanned with OKEN Scanner 50. SPECTRUM DISCRETE MATHEMATICS! + From above, itis easily checked that the number of minsets generated by » Art-18, Venn diagram of Minset “Minsets generated by given subsets can be represented through Venn diagram as . Remark (i) From above, it is easily checked that the Number of Minsets generated by » sets is 2". (ii) The collection of all the non-empty minsets generated by given subsets gives rise the partition of the set. Art-19, Normal form (or Cannonical Form) A set F is said to be in minset normal (or cannonical) form when it is expressed as the union of distinct non-empty minsets or it is ie, either F=g or F=_U A, , where A,’* are non-empty minsets. wens Art-20. Principle of Duality for Sets (P.T.U. B.Tech. Dec. 2002) Let S be any identity in set theory involving the operation union (U), intersection (A). -Then the statement $* obtained from S by changing union to intersection, intersection to union and empty set @ to universal set U is also an identity called the dual of the statement S. example () Dualof AU A'=XisANA'=¢ (i) Dual of (A U B)'=A'NB'is(AN B)' =A’ UB’ (iii) Dual of AU (BM A)=AisAN(BUA)=A nf Max Set or Maximum Set or Maxterm dual of the Minset is the Maxset ie., A maxset is the maximum or the largest Set that is obtained by the union of any two or more subsets of a partition set. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES Example 1. State the dual of @ AUuBNAH=A buena © (AUBYNB=A'ng @ (Anuyn@uay=o (Pbi.U., B.C.A. 2000) © scanned with OKEN Scanner

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