CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

As the population and activities of humans are increasing, so also the waste is increasing. These

activities give rise to different waste such as solid waste and wastewater. The treatment of this

domestic and industrial wastewater became necessary because of the need for fresh water and the

water must be carefully treated before release into the environment using a low cost effective

method of wastewater treatment. Waste stabilization ponds (WSP) are large, shallow, usually

rectangular basins in which there is a continuous inflow and outflow of wastewater. The

biological treatment that occurs in ponds is an entirely natural process (Mara & Pearson, 1998).

WSPs are particularly suited to tropical and subtropical countries since sunlight and ambient

temperature are key factors in their process performance. Many countries in tropical climates use

waste stabilization ponds for wastewater treatment (e.g Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, Uganda,

Zambia, Botswana, Zimbabwe). WSP are often thought of as being suitable only in the

developing countries yet there are about 2500 pond systems in France, 1100 in Germany and 39

in UK (Mara D. , 2019)

The arrangement of WSPS are usually in series comprising of anaerobic, facultative and

maturation ponds, this arrangement are advantageous and enable the ponds to improve the

efficiency of the system allowing a desired effluent quality. Anaerobic and facultative ponds are

mainly designed for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) removal and maturation ponds mainly

for pathogen removal (Mara & Pearson, 1998).

1
The cadets battalion in Nigeria Defense Academy comprises of four (4) Combatant Battalions

which are Burma Battalion, Abyssinia Battalion, Mogadishu Battalion, and Dalet Battalion with

a population of about One Thousand Six Hundred and one (1601) Personnel; that is both cadets,

Battalion Staff and Officers.

The cadets usually use to be in Academics and Military activities during the week days from

06:00Hrs to 15:00Hrs which implies that the facilities (like toilet & bathroom e.t.c) are mostly

functional during weekends and week days from 15:30Hrs till the next day when the cadets are

back from their activities.

Sewages can be treated close to where it is being produced for the case of a decentralized system

or it can be collected and transported via a network of pipe and pump stations to centralized

sewage treatment plants.

The treatment pond will be for the waste water that comes from the toilets, kitchen and

bathrooms which contain faecal matters mostly. This water needs to be treated before joining the

surrounding natural filter systems such as swamps so as to produce disposal effluent without

causing harm to the surrounding environment and also prevent pollution. With this, sewage

treatment is the process of removing contaminants from waste water and household, both runoff

and domestic. It includes physical, chemical and biological processes to remove this

contaminants.

This research deals with the design of waste Stabilization ponds in Cadet Battalion Lines in

Nigeria Defence Academy for waste water treatment.

2
1.2 Overview of Waste Stabilization Ponds

The research aimed at designing a waste stabilization pond as a method for wastewater

treatment, a pond that comprises of an anaerobic, facultative and maturation pond that are cost

effective and easy to maintain.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

The Population of cadets has increased substantially from seven hundred and ninety-six (796) in

2002 to one thousand six hundred and one (1601) in 2019 which is approximately twice the

previous population. At the same time their activities within the academy is increasing due to

population increase. Therefore, there is added pressure on the facilities in the four Battalions and

the entire environment. It is therefore necessary for the four Battalions to have their own

decentralized sewage treatment system so as to create room for other users in the Academy to be

close to the sewage treatment for the whole Academy. This will also create room for

maintenance and repairs of pipes of the current system.

1.4 Aim and Objectives

1.4.1 Aim

To design sewage stabilization pond for cadet battalion lines in Nigerian Defence Academy

Kaduna.

3
1.4.2 Objectives

The objectives of the research are:

i To design waste stabilization ponds that are cost effective and easy to maintain.

ii To design an anaerobic, facultative, and maturation ponds.

1.5 Justification

As the population and activities of humans are increasing, so also the waste is increasing. These

activities give rise to different waste such as solid waste and wastewater. The treatment of this

domestic and industrial wastewater became necessary because of the need for fresh water and the

water must be carefully treated before release into the environment using a low cost effective

method of wastewater treatment. The cadet Battalion is increasing in terms of population of

cadets, staff and officers therefore it’s waste is also on the increase. Sewage from the Academy,

overflows near the Battalion lines affecting the sanitation of the Area. It is therefore necessary

for the cadet Battalions to have its own sewage system because it will be less expensive in the

long run with the ever increasing population. Hygiene will also be improved as it manages its

own waste and treatment sludge from the ponds can be used for agriculture (manure) as well as

other benefits such as source of Biomass for electricity generation.

1.6 Project area

The project site is located in Nigerian Defence Academy latitude 10036133.548411N and

longitude7025146.214411E, Cadet Battalion Lines. The ponds will be sited behind the Cadet

Utility Centre behind Abyssinia Battalion.

4
 Figure 1.0: Behind Utility Centre

1.7 Scope

This project is to design a waste stabilization ponds and mainly restricted to the design of

anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds.

1.8 Limitations

The project is limited to design of a waste stabilization pond.

5
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Waste Treatment

As human population and activities increased, these resulted in concentration of generated waste.

The need for proper treatment and disposal of waste by man arose. The citizens of Athens in

Greece were faced with great problem of waste, around 500 BC, a law was issued banning the

throwing of rubbish into the streets. The first records that waste was being burned as a treatment

and disposal method appear in the early years of the first millennium in Palestine. The Valley of

Gehenna outside Jerusalem contained a waste dump site at a place called Sheol where waste was

regularly dumped and burned. All through the middle age, waste disposal continued to be a

challenge for cities with populations.

Waste was often thrown onto the streets causing smells and encouraging vermin and disease. For

example, in 1297 a law was passed in England requiring householders to keep the front of their

houses clear of rubbish. More than a 100 years later, in 1408, Henry IV ruled that waste should

be kept inside houses until a raker came to cart away the waste to pits outside the city (Williams

Paul. T, 2005). In Paris at 1400 there was interference with the city defence as result of the huge

piles of waste outside the city walls. In Europe, the industrial revolution between 1750 and 1850

led to a further move of the population from rural areas to the cities and a massive expansion of

the population living in towns and cities, with a consequent further increase in the volume of

waste arising.

The increase in production of domestic waste was matched by increases in industrial waste from

the burgeoning new large-scale manufacturing processes. The waste generated contained a range

6
of materials such as broken glass, rusty metal, food residue and human waste (Williams Paul. T,

2005). Such waste posed danger to human health and in addition, they attracted flies, rats and

other vermin which, in turn, posed potential threats through the transfer of disease. This led to an

increasing awareness of the link between environment and the public health. This potential threat

to human health need to be eliminated, and doing this legislation were set up at national and local

basis in many countries. For example, in the UK, throughout the latter half of the nineteenth

century, a series of Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Acts were introduced in the UK

which empowered local authorities to set up teams of inspectors to deal with offensive trades and

to control pollution within city limits. These Acts were reinforced by the Public Health Acts of

1875 and 1936, which covered a range of measures some of which were associated with the

management and disposal of waste(Williams Paul. T, 2005). The 1875 Act placed a duty on local

authorities to arrange for the removal and disposal of waste. Purpose-built municipal waste

incinerators were introduced in the UK in the late 1870s. One of the first municipal incinerators

introduced in the US was in 1885 in Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Williams Paul. T, 2005). By

1914, there were about 300 waste incinerators in the US.

A large number of the waste incinerators were small-scale, poorly designed and controlled, hand-

fed plants and their operation was not cost-effective. These incineration plants as they reached

the end of their operational lifetime tended to become scrapped in favour of landfill. Poor

management of the waste dumps existed and the environmental implications of merely dumping

the waste in such open sites was recognised, then increasingly waste began to be buried. The

advantages of burying the waste are odours reduced, flies and rats discouraged. Consequently,

the sites became less dangerous to health.

7
The first half of the 20th century saw some improvements in landfill sites, with improved site

planning and site management. However, many municipal sites still had the minimum of

engineering design and the open dump was still very common as landfills was not applied to all

areas.

2.2 Methods of Waste Treatment

As human population increased this gave rise to the waste by man and a need for man to treat

and dispose it waste generated. There are different method of waste treatment and disposal,

below are the methods used for waste treatment.

Figure 1.1: Method of waste treatment.

8
2.2.1 Waste Landfills

Landfill is the largest and most commonly route for waste treatment and disposal in many

countries. This is the Waste landfill is the dominant disposal route for municipal solid waste in

many countries across Europe including UK, Italy, Spain, Finland, Portugal, Italy, Ireland,

Turkey, Romania, Poland, Hungary (European Commission 2003). Land filling of wastes has an

advantage which are the low cost of landfill, compared with other disposal options and the fact

that a wide variety of wastes are suitable for landfill. Finally, there is infilling of void spaces

caused from some mineral extraction process.

It should also be remembered that, ultimately, many other waste treatment and disposal options

require the final disposal for it residues. For example, incineration bottom and fly ashes are

disposed of in landfill sites.

2.2.2 Waste Incineration

Incineration features combustion of wastes (combustible materials) as a waste treatment and

disposal method with the heat trapped within a constructed chamber or built walls to transform

waste into base components such as ash. Incineration is also the oxidation of the combustible

material in the waste to produce heat, water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Depending on the composition of the waste, other emissions may be formed including, carbon

monoxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, volatile

organic carbon, dioxins and furans, polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals, etc. (European

Commission 2004). As it is inexpensive to burn waste. This reduce the waste volume by about

90%. This can be said to be the second major option after landfill for waste treatment and

disposal method in many countries.

9
There are advantages in incineration of waste over landfill, as Incineration can usually be carried

out near the point of waste collection, waste incineration can be used as a source of energy that

are low-cost in steam production for electric power generation, industrial process heating,

thereby valuable primary fuel resources are conserved.

Incineration produces no methane, a greenhouse gas that is significant contributor to global

warming unlike landfill waste treatment method. However, waste incineration also has

disadvantages such as removal of combustible materials such as paper and plastics for recycling

may reduce the overall calorific value of the waste and consequently may affect incinerator

performance.

2.2.3 Waste Recycling

The collection, sorting, clean-up and processing of waste materials to produce a valued and

marketable product or material is referred as waste recycling. The majorly recycled wastes are

plastics, paper, glass and aluminum metals.

The volume and range of plastics used is increasing dramatically, as plastic polymers make up a

high proportion of waste. There are two types of plastic, thermoplastics which soften when

heated and harden again when cooled, and thermosets, which harden by curing and cannot be re-

moulded. Thermoplastics are by far the most common types of plastic also the most easily

recyclable.

While glass is made from relatively cheap raw materials: silica sand, limestone and sodium

carbonate. Glass recycling require less energy, since recycled glass melts at a lower temperature

than the raw materials for glass making which demands more energy.

10
2.2.4 Composting

Composting is a biodegradation process, an aerobic biological degradation of biodegradable

organic waste such as food waste. A large part of the organic biodegradable waste is removed

from the waste stream by this waste treatment method. It takes typically about four to six weeks

to achieve a stabilised product.

The degraded product is a stabilised product which structure, acts as fertilizers when added to

soil. Composts can be used for land reclamation and as a soil improver in landscaping,

agriculture and horticulture due to its ability to improve the biological and physical properties of

soil in particular of use in arid regions(Enviroment Agency, 2002). The key factors that need to

be accounted for to achieve effective composting rates include: temperature, air supply, moisture

content, the porosity of the material and its carbon to nitrogen ratio(Eunomia, 2015).Composting

is practiced on a small scale at the individual household level, and on a large-scalevia

composting schemes,

2.3 Waste Stabilization Pond System

A world bank report (Shuval et al. 1986) endorsed the concept of stabilization pond as the most

suitable waste water treatment for effluent use in agriculture. Stabilization pond are the most

suitable waste water treatment process in developing countries, where land is often available at

reasonable opportunity cost and skilled labour is in short supply.

11
 Figure 1.2 A Waste Stabilization Pond System

Waste water stabilization pond system are designed to achieve different forms of treatment in up

to three stages in series, depending on the organic strength of the input waste and the effluent

quality objective. For ease of maintenance and flexibility of operation, at least two trains of

ponds in parallel are incorporated in any design Strong wastewater with BOD’ s concentration in

excess of about 300mg/l will frequently be introduced into first stage anaerobic pond, which

achieve a high volumetric rate of removal. Weaker wastes, where anaerobic ponds are

environmentally unacceptable, even stronger wastes (Say up to 1000mg/l BOD5) May be

discharged directly into primary facultative ponds.

Effluent from first stage anaerobic pond will overflow into secondary facultative pond, which

comprise the second stage of biological treatment.

Following primary and secondary facultative ponds, if further pathogen reduction is necessary,

maturation pond will be introduced to provide tertiary treatment.

As earlier mentioned WSP can be classified in respect to the type(s) of biological activities

occurring in a pond. Three types are distinguished: Anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds.

12
Usually a WSP system comprises a single series of the aforementioned three pond types or

several such series in parallel. In essence, anaerobic and facultative pond are designed for BOD

removal and maturation ponds for pathogen foe pathogen removal, although some BOD removal

occurs in maturation ponds and some pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds. In

many instances only facultative and anaerobic pond are required.

In general, maturation ponds are required only when stronger waste water (BOD > 150mg/l) are

to be treated prior to surface water discharge and when the treated waste water is to be used for

unrestricted irrigation (irrigation for vegetable crops) generally, in WSP system effluent flows

from the anaerobic pond to the facultative pond and finally, if necessary, to the maturation pond.

However, for better results wastewater flowing into an anaerobic pond shall be preliminary

treated in order to remove coarse solid and other large materials often found in raw wastewater.

Preliminary treatment operations typically include coarse screening, grit removal.

2.3.1 Type of Waste Stabilization Ponds

There are three main types of waste stabilization ponds that exist and used for wastewater

treatment.

13
Figure 2.1A Waste Stabilization Pond System at Ginevra in South West Colombia

Source: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre

2.3.2 Anaerobic Ponds

The smallest unit is anaerobic ponds (APs) in the series and are sized according to their

volumetric loading which is the quantity of organic matter expressed in grams of BOD5 applied

to each cubic meter of pond volume. They are deep ponds (2 to 5 m) devoid of dissolved oxygen,

where sludge is deposited on the bottom and anaerobic bacteria break down the organic matter

by anaerobic digestion, releasing methane and carbon dioxide. Viruses, bacteria, helminthes,

Ascaris eggs and other pathogens can also be inactivated by sedimentation when associated with

solids. N, P and K can also be reduced by sludge formation and the release of ammonia into the

air. However, the main function of anaerobic ponds is BOD removal, which can be reduced 40 to

85 % (WSP 2007). As a complete process, the anaerobic pond serves settle undigested material

and non-degradable solids as bottom sludge, dissolve organic material and break down

biodegradable organic material.

14
BOD removal in anaerobic ponds is governed by the same mechanisms that occur in all other

anaerobic reactors (MARA et al. 1992) and anaerobic ponds do not or only rarely contain algae.

The process (as in septic tanks) relies on the sedimentation of settable solids and subsequent

anaerobic digestion in the resulting sludge layer. During anaerobic digestion, biogas is produced

which could be collected by covering the anaerobic pond with a floating plastic membrane

(PENA VARON 2004, WAFLER 2008). The recovered biogas can be used for heating, cooking

or, if sufficient amounts can be collected for energy production. Anaerobic ponds can receive

organic loads usually in the range of 100 to 350 g BOD/m3/day (PENA VARON 2004). They

should not be operated below 10°C, and the load, which can be treated increases linearly with

temperature rise (e.g. 100 g/m3/day at 10°C and 300g/m3/day at 20°C). The design temperature

should be the mean of the coldest month of the year (PENA VARON 2004). A retention time of

one day should be sufficient for a BOD5 lower than 300 mg/m3/day at 20°C, but the

recommended retention time range varies from 2 to 5 days (WSP 2007). For high-strength

industrial wastes, up to three anaerobic ponds in series might be necessary. The optimum pH for

digestion lies at 6 to 8 and acidic wastewaters thus require neutralizing prior to treatment. Due to

its toxicity to anaerobic bacteria, ammonia concentrations should not exceed >80 mg NH3-N/L.

2.3.3 Facultative Ponds

Facultative Treatment Ponds (FPs) are the simplest of all WSPs and consist of large shallow

ponds (depth of 1 to 2m) with an aerobic zone close to the surface and a deeper, anaerobic zone.

There are two types of facultative ponds: primary facultative ponds that receive raw wastewater

(after grit removal), and secondary facultative ponds receiving settled wastewater usually from

the anaerobic pond. In primary facultative ponds, the functions of anaerobic and secondary

facultative ponds are combined. This type of pond is designed generally for the treatment of only

15
slightly polluted wastewater and in sensitive locations where anaerobic ponds’ odor would be

unacceptable. FPs are designed for BOD removal on the basis of low surface loading (unlike

anaerobic ponds which are designed according to their volumetric load) and can treat water in

the BOD range of 100 to 400 kg/ha/day corresponding to 10 to 40 g/m2/day at temperatures

above 20°C (Mara and Pearson, 1998).

The facultative ponds are covered by algae. The algae grow using the sunlight and they produce

oxygen in excess to their own requirements, which they transfer to the water. It is this excess of

oxygen that is used by bacteria to further break down the organic matter via aerobic digestion

(oxidation) transforming the organic pollutants into CO2. Additionally, to aerobic and anaerobic

digestion of BOD, in the facultative ponds "sewage BOD" is converted into "algal BOD".

The algal production of oxygen occurs near the surface of aerobic ponds to the depth to which

light can penetrate (i.e. typically up to 500 mm). Additional oxygen can be introduced by wind

due to vertical mixing of the water. Oxygen is unable to be maintained at the lower layers if the

pond is too deep, and the color too dark to allow light to penetrate fully or if the BOD and COD

in the lower layer is higher than the supply. As a result of the photosynthetic activities of the

pond algae, there is a diurnal variation in the concentration of dissolved oxygen. At peak sun

radiation, the pond will be mostly aerobic due to algal activity, while at sunrise the pond will be

predominantly anaerobic. Peak algae activity also results in a pH rise to above 9 since carbonate

and bicarbonate ions react to provide more carbon dioxide for the algae, leaving an excess of

hydroxyl ions. A pH above 9 for 24 hours can provide a 100% kill of E. coli and thus, most

pathogenic. At high pH, ammoniac, coming from the hydrolysis of organic nitrogen is

transformed to ammonia, which is volatilized to the air. There is little evidence for nitrification

and denitrification. But ammonia, as well as phosphorus is also incorporated into new algal

16
biomass and part of this is settled to the ground in non-biodegradable death algae material.

Phosphorus can also be removed by precipitation as inorganic P, but it can also return through

mineralization and resolubilisation into the water column. As a complete process, the facultative

pond serves to:

Further treat wastewater through sedimentation and aerobic oxidation of organic material, reduce

odor, reduce some disease-causing microorganisms if pH raises and store residues as bottom

sludge. FPs lose ammonia into the air at high pH; and settle some nitrogen and phosphorus in the

sludge.

FPs can result in the removal of 80 to 95% of the BOD5 (WSP 2007), which means an overall

removal in the order of 95% over the two ponds (AP and FP). Total nitrogen removal in WSP

systems can reach 80% or more, and ammonia removal can be as high as 95%. The retention

time for a facultative pond lies between 5 to 30 days (WSP 2007). Sometimes two or more

consecutively smaller facultative ponds are constructed instead of a very large one, because it is

more practical for de-sludging. To remove the algae from aerobic pond, effluents’ rock filtration,

grass plots, floating macrophytes and herbivorous fish can be used, but most commonly, the

effluent flows directly in a final maturation pond.

2.3.4 Maturation Ponds

Maturation ponds (low-cost polishing ponds, which succeed the primary or secondary facultative

pond) are primarily designed for tertiary treatment, i.e., the removal of pathogens, nutrients and

possibly algae. Whereas anaerobic and facultative ponds are designed for BOD removal,

maturation or polishing ponds are essentially designed for pathogen removal and retaining

suspended stabilized solids (MARA et al. 1992; SASSE, 1998; TILLEY et al. 2008). The size

17
(Mara et al. 1992; SASSE, 1998; Tilley et al. 2008). The size and number of maturation ponds

depends on the required bacteriological quality of the final effluent. The principal mechanisms

for faecal bacterial removal in facultative and maturation ponds are retention time, temperature,

high pH (> 9), and high light intensity. Faecal bacteria and other pathogens die off due to the

high temperature, high pH or radiation of the sun leading to solar disinfection (Curtis et al.

1992). Regarding virus removal, little is definitely known but it is generally recognized that it

occurs by adsorption on to settable solids (including the pond algae) and consequent

sedimentation in the anaerobic and facultative pond. Some macro organisms such as protozoan

cysts and helminthes eggs are also removed by sedimentation. Maturation ponds are shallower (1

to 1.5 m), with 1 m being optimal. The recommended hydraulic retention time is 15 to 20 days

(WSP 2007). If used in combination with algae and/or fish harvesting, this type of pond is also

effective at removing the majority of nitrogen and phosphorus from the effluent (Tilley et al.

2008).

18
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Design Methods

There are several design methods which are used in the design of WSP, but in this research

work, First Order Kinetics, MC Garry and Pescod Formulae was used for checking.

3.2 Design Procedures

i Determine Average daily flow of domestic sewage. The average daily flow of domestic flow

is given by:

Adfds=P X c X q

Where A d f d s = Average daily flow of domestic sewage

P = Population

Q = Average discharge per person

C = Water consumption per person (Junkin 1968).

The following parameter are to be used in the design of the sanitary sewer:

a. The population growth rate of 3.0 %

b. The water consumption rate of 120 liters/ person/ day 60% of the consumption constitutes

sanitary waste while 20% of the sanitary waste constitute toilet waste.

ii Population Projection:

Since the growth rate has been favoured by a constant percentage of growth for each time

increment then the following formula can be used for the project:

Pn=P ¿
19
Where Pn = Expected Population

P = Present Population

r = Growth rate in (%)

n = length of design period. (for waste water treatment the design period ranges from 20 to 40

years (met calf and Eddy, 1995), therefore a design period of 25 years will be adopted in this

project).

iii Determine the Peak Waste Flows

Waste flows vary throughout the day also throughout the week and the year flows are low at

night when people are asleep; then rise sharply around breakfast time: there may be similar pear

at lunch time and then once again at the evening. The peak Daly waste water flow is the mean

daily water flow multiplied by a peak factor is estimated from:

1 /6
Pf =14 p (Mara, 2003)

Where P = Population served

Pf = Peaking Factor

iv Choose a suitable Temperature for the project area

According to E.O Olafin (1987), The mean annual temperature of Kaduna state is 22%. The

mean value ranges from 21℃ in the coldest month. Thus minimum temperature of 21℃ will be

adopted in this work.

v Selecting a good Value of Strength of waste from Literatures

The factor determine the strength of domestic waste water is the BOD (amount of organic waste)

produce per person per day. A good value to use in developing countries is 300 to 700mg/L BOD

per person per day (Mara, 2003).

20
Therefore, a BOD of 300mg/L is mostly used in domestic waste treatment and will be adopted in

this work.

vi Assume the pond depth and Determine its area.

vii From the area determine its dimension and geometry

3.3 Basic Design Criteria for Waste Stabilization Pond

The basic design criteria for the waste water stabilization pond are temperature, retention time,

net evaporation, flow and BOD.

3.3.1 Temperature T(℃)

The mean monthly ambient air temperature of the coldest month is 21 ℃. 23 ℃ is the design

temperature suitable for tropical countries.

3.3.2 Retention Time

This is the time required for the sewage BOD5 strength to reduce to the desired strength. It is

usually minimum seven (7) days.

3.3.3 Sewage flow rate

This is based on eighty percent of 120L/C/d water consumption as stipulated by the National

subcommittee on water supply and sanitation for urban areas.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand.

3.3.4. Influent Concentration:

The concentration of the waste going into the WSPs

3.3.5 Effluent concentration: This is the amount of treated waste coming out of the WSPs.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

21
4.1 Data Collection

Table 4.0 Total population of cadet.

S/N Battalion Population

1 Mogadishu 398

2 Dalet 408

3 Abyssinia 398

4 Burma 397

Total 1601

4.1.2 Population Projection:

Pn= P ( 1 + r )n

Where P = Present Population

n = Forecasted years (i.e 30 years)

r = Geometric rate (i.e 3%)

From the information given above,

Pn= 1601 ( 1 + 0.03 )30.

= 1601 (2.427262471)

= 3886.047.

4.1.3 Estimation of water Consumption:

The water consumption was estimated using per capital consumption which is 120L/C/d (as
stipulated by the national subcommittee of water supply and sanitary for urban areas)

= Consumption x Population.

= 120 x 3886.047

= 466325.67 l/d

= 466.325 m3 l/d
22
4.1.4 Estimation of Sewage quantity

The percentage of waste water reaching the sewers has been reported in different literatures.
(Metcalf& Eddy, 1979) quotes 60 – 80 % of the total water consumption rate, while Oluwande
(1983) quotes for between 70 – 100 % of total water consumption rate. For this research 85% of
total estimated water consumption will be assumed to be sewage.

Therefore, the sewage flow rate Q is calculated as follows: -

Q = Water consumption x 85%

= 466.325 x 0.85

=396.38 m3/d

Average Daily Flow rate is 396.38 m3/ d

4.1.5 Peak Waste Water Flow

Peak Daily flow rate = PF X Q

Where PF = Peak factor and is given by

PF = 14P 1/6 (Mara, 2003)

PF = 14 (466.325)1/6

Peak Factor = 4.3

Peak Daily Flow rate = PF x Q

= 4.3 x 396.38

Peak Daily Flow Rate = 1704.43 m3/ d

4.2 Design Considerations:

a. Health:

23
Pathogenic organisms should not be spread either by direct contact with the night solid directly

or indirectly via soil, water or food. The treatment chosen should achieve a high degree of

pathogenic destruction.

b. Re- use:

The treatment process should yield a safe product for re-use preferably aquaculture and agro

forestry.

Further, using simple tools or “rule of thumb” in lieu of appropriate design technique, often

results in malfunctions or reduce efficiency in the effect of WSPs.

c. Ecological:

In this case (which is exceptional) when the waste cannot be re-used, the discharge of effluent

into the surface water should not exceed the self-purification capacity of the recipient water.

d. Nuisance:

The degree of odour released must be below the nuisance threshold.

e. Cultural:

The method chose for waste collection, treatment and re-use should be compatible with local

habits, social and religious practices.

f. Operation:

The skills required for the routine operation and maintenance of the system components must be

available locally or are such that can be required with only minimum training.

4.3 Design Preliminaries

24
i Design population = 1601

ii Sewage flow Q = 396.38 m3/d

iii Peak Sewage flow = 1704.43 m3/ d

iv Influent BOD (Li) = 300mg/l

v Effluent BOD (Le) = 60mg/l

vi Temperature t = 21℃

vii Detention Time (T mat) = 7 days

viii Pond depth Facultative = 1.20m

ix Pond depth Maturation = 1.20m

x K = 0.3d -1

4.4 Minimum Effluent Standards Adopted (Mara, 1972)

Final BOD5 to achieve < 25mg/l

FC < 500 Fe/ 100ml

Ne 500 fc/ 100ml

4.5 Design Equation

The method adopted for this research is first other kinetics and Mc Garry and pescod formulae

for check.

T−20
A ¿Q ( Li−¿ )
4.0
KLe D (1.05)

T =( ¿ −1) K−1 4.1

Li

Q
A= 4.2
D
25
¿ s=20T −120 4.3

10 QLi
¿ s= 4.4
Af

Where A = Surface area of the pond

D = Pond depth

^ s = Organic Loading rate

4.6 Design of Facultative Ponds

The sewage is domestic wholly with strength of 300mg/l BOD5 and flow rate is less than

10,000m3/d, therefore preliminary treatment (Anaerobic) is not required (Mara, D.D. 1988).

The pond receives raw sewage from the residential building. In order to maintain the pond

content predominantly aerobic (rather than predominantly Anearobic) Le for the pond is 60mg/d

pond depth is 1.20m.

4.6.1 The surface area of the facultative pond is given by:

Q ( Li−¿ )
A= T−20 (4.5)
KLeD ( 1.05 )

396.38 (30−60)
A= (4.6)
0.3 x 60 x 1.2 ¿ ¿

95131.2
A= (4.7)
23.814

A= 3994.76m2

Determination of detention time for completely mixed reactor in which Bod removal follows

first other kinetics detention time is given by:

26
t = AD/Q (4.8)

A = 28095.20m2

Q
= 2655m3/d

D = 1.20m

t = 3994.76 – (1.2) / 396.38

t = 12.7 = 13 days

4.6.2 Surface Loading Rate Determination

10QLi
^S= Af
(4.9)

10 x 396.38 x 300
^S= 3994.76
(5.0)

1189140
=
3994.76

= 297.67kg/ha/day

4.6.3 To choose permissible surface loading rate.

^ S = 20T – 126 (5.1)

= 20(21) – 120

= 300kg/ha/day

Hence, since estimated surface loading is less than the allowable or permissible surface loading,

the organic loading is adequate.

4.6.4 Pond Dimension:

27
In order to enhance maintenance, four ponds should be used in parallel and series connection.

Af
Area of the pond is (5.2)
4

3994 .76
¿
4

= 998.69

Now, let the ratio of length to breadth of the pond to be 2=1 (Mara, 2003).

Therefore,

L = 2B (5.3)

Area of each pond =2B2

998.7 = 2B2

B2 = 499.345

B = 22.35

L = 2B

L = 2 x 22.35

= 44.7m

Therefore, the dimension of the pond is:

L = 44m B= 22m D = 1.2m

4.6.5 Pond Geometry:

FF
28
 T.W.L
D/2

L D/2

n
L - nD

The geometry of stabilization pond is shown in the diagram below (Mara, 2003)

The following parameters are used.

Free board = 0.5m

Slope = 1:3

Pond Depth = 1.20m

i Geometry of longer side

a. Top width = L + n (D + 2F) (5.4)

= 44+ 3 (1.2+(2x 0.5)

= 44 +6.6

= 50.6m

b. Bottom Width = L – nD (5.5)

= 44 – 3(1.2)
29
 = 40m

c. Total Depth = F + D (5.6)

= 0.5 + 1.2

= 1.7m

ii Geometry of shorter Side:

a. Top Width = B + n ( D + 2F) (5.7)

= 22 + 3(1.2) + (0.5 x 2.0)

= 22 + 3 (2.1)

= 22 + 6.6

= 28.6m

b. Bottom Width = B – nD (5.8)

= 22 – 3(1.2)

= 18.4m

c. Total Depth = F + D
5.9
= 0.5 + 1.2
= 1.7m

Percentage of BOD Removal in Facultative Pond

30
 ( Li−¿ )
¿ ( Mara ,2003 ) (6.0)
Li

(300−60)
¿ ×100
300

= 80%

Amount of BOD removed = Percentage x Influent BOD

= 0.8 x 300

= 240mg/l

So the amount of Effluent BOD Retained by the pond

= Influent BOD – BOD removed

= 300 – 240

= 60mg/l

4.7 Maturation Pond Design:

i Peak Sewage Flow = 396.38

ii Li = 60mg/l

Le ≤ 25mg/l

Ni 4 x 107 Fc/100ml

iii Tmat = 7 days

iv Pond Depth = 1.2m

v Tfac = 13 days

First Order rate constant for Fc Removal = Kb(d-1)

31
 vi Kb = 2.6 (1.19) T-20

Now for t = 220c

Kb = 2.6 9(1.19)22-20

= 3.68

4.7.1 Bacterial Reduction:

Ne= ¿
( 1+ Kb tfac )(1+ Kb tmat )2

4 x 107
¿
(1+ ( 3.68 X 13 ) )(1+ ( 3.68 X 7 ) )2

47.84
= X¿
48.84

= 48.84 X 716.1

7
4 X 10
¿
48.84 X 716.10

7
4 X 10
=
34974.3

= 1,143.70Fc/100ml

Therefore 1143.70 <5000Fc/100ml (WHO) Thus, bacterial reduction is adequate

4.7.2 Pond Area

D = 1.2m

Qt
A=
D
32
 396.38 x 7
¿
1.2

= 2312.2

2312m2

For Maturation Ponds in series and parallel, arrangement will be used

Area of Each Pond

2312
A=
4

= 578m2

4.7.3 Pond Dimension

Assume the ratio of the length to breath is 2:1, therefore L=2B

Area = 2B2

B2 = 289

B=√ 289

B = 17m

L =2B, = 2X 17 = 34m

Therefore, the pond dimensions are:

L =34m B = 17m D = 1.2m

4.7.4 Pond Geometry

i. Geometry of Longer Side

a. Top Width = L + n (D + 2F)

33
 = 34 + 3(1.2 + 2(0.5))

= 34 + 6.6

= 40.6m≈ 41 m

b. Bottom Width = L – nD

=34 + 3(1.2)

= 34 +3.6

= 37.6m≈ 38 m

c. Total Depth = F + D

= 0.5 + 1.2

=1.7m

ii. Geometry of Shorter Side

a. Bottom Width = B – nD

= 17 – 3(1.2)

= 17 – 3.6

= 13.4 ≈ 13 m

b. Total Depth = F+ D

= 0.5 + 1.2

= 1.9m

Table 4.1 Results summary

Population Projected Water Sewage Flow Peak Flow

Figure Population Consumption Rate

34
 796 1601 446.33 396.38 1704.43

Table 4.2 Result Summary

Pond Length (m) Breadth Depth (m) Area (m2) Volume Retention

(m) (m3) Time ( days)

Facultative 44 22 1.2 3994.76 1161.6 13

Maturation 34 17 1.2 2312 693.6 7

4.8 Pond Facility Design

4.8.1 Pond Geometry

The hydraulic characteristics of rectangular and trapezoidal section pond have been found to be

superior to those of square, circular pond and those with irregular geometry.

Length to breadth ratio of 2:1 is adopted for stability.

The pond are to trapezoidal in section and rectangular in plan (Mara, 2003).

0.5m T.W. L= 550.6125m 0.6m

1 0.6m

2
44.1m

44.7m

Fig. 4.0 Designed pond geometry for facultative pond geometry

0.5m
T.W. L= 550.6125m

0.6m

1 0.6m
35
 2
31.6m

34m

Fig. 4.1 Designed Pond geometry maturation pond geometry

4.8.2 Pond Base and Embankment

The bottom of the pond should be impermeable, although the sludge layer is expected to seal up

small pores in the soil. Sealing of the base is necessary to prevent grovel water pollution;

Therefore, pond should be lined with polythene sheeting or suitable material to make pond

impermeable, and Slope of l = 100. Should be used for free flow of sewage to adjacent pond,

plain in-sit concrete is adopted for the pond base, sides and on the top of embankment to protect

it from erosion.

An embankment Slope of 1:3 is usually satisfactory in most soil conditions. If the steeper are

used, their stability should be established by standard soil mechanic procedures. The plain in-situ

concrete stop vegetation growth down the banks and so prevent the breeding of mosquitoes and

make maintenance easy.

4.8.3 Effluent Disposal

Surface water discharge is the most common method of effluent disposal there are other methods

such as land disposal which results into ground water recharge and sometimes crop irrigation or

recirculation for industrial cooling system and one rare occasion consumptions which follows a

36
 through treatment. The effluent from the maturation pond should be used for irrigation farming

for the faculty of agric and agricultural technology, farm situated near the project area.

4.9 Pond Disloging

Dislodging is required whenever the pond is half-full of sludge. Sludge is the concentration of

settle-able and suspended solid concrete of the sewage which settle down to the bottom of the

pond. Sludge accumulation rate is greater in the first pond that receives sewage than in

maturation ponds.

This is the reason why the number of years required before dialoging maturation pond is longer

than facultative pond. The rate of sludge accumulation is approximately 0.003 – 0.04m3/ha/year

and dialoging is required when the pond is half-full of sludge. This occurs in every n year where

n is given by:

1
2Q
n=
Sludge accumulation rate x P

n = Number of years

Q = Sewage flow

P = Population

1
x 396.38
2
x=
0.04 x 1601

852.215
x=
64.04

= 3.09
4.10 Discussion of Result

The anaerobic pond is designed for BOD removal according to volumetric loading to reduce the

BOD loading of the wastewater generated. The sludge is deposited at the bottom of the pond and

broken down by the anaerobic bacteria. The pond is trapezoidal in shape so as to avoid erosion of
37
the pond banks and the results obtained gave the retention time for facultative pond as 13days

and maturation pond as 7days and the percentage BOD removal to be 80% and 50%. The water

consumption rate for the area was assumed to be 180l/person/day. The total water consumption

rate was found to be 1704.43m3/d. (Metcalf & eddy ,1979) quote 60-80% of the total water

consumption rate, while Oluwande (1983) quotes between 70-100% of the total consumption

rate. For this research, 85% of the total estimated water consumption was assumed to be sewage.

The design was carried out by assuming a complete mixing reactor which follows first order

kinetics. Four facultative and maturation pond each were use, all in series and parallel.

The four maturation pond used reduced BOD concentration from 232.313mg/l to 47.4 mg/l.

The bacteria removed in maturation pond were found to be Fc/100ml which is less than

5000fc/100ml recommended by World Health Organisation (WHO). Therefore the result of the

treatment satisfies the requirement for disposal of effluents to the environment.

4.11 Summary of results

Anaerobic pond

Pond depth 2.1m

Pond area 58.0784m2

38
Retention time 2 days

Length 11m

Breadth 5.5m

Volume 203.2m3

Effluent BOD 232.3136mg/l

Facultative pond

Influent BOD 232.3136mg/l

Pond depth 1.2m

Pond area 3394.76m2

Retention time 13 days

Length 44m

Breadth 22m

Volume 1141.6m3

Effluent BOD 47.4mg/l

Maturation pond

Pond depth 1.2m

Pond area 2312m2

Retention time 7days

Length 34m, Breadth 17m, Volume 693.6m3

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

39
From the project design for the ponds anaerobic, facultative and maturation, the population

projected is 3,881 people. The anaerobic pond has an area of length, and width a retention time

of and BOD removal of the facultative pond has an area of 697m 2 and a retention time of 13

days. The effluent BOD removal is 47.4mg/l and the percentage BOD removal is 80% which is

less than the standard of 50mg/l so the pond is effective.

The maturation pond has an area of 2312m 2 and a retention period of 7days. The percentage

BOD removal is 50% and the effluent is 1143.70Fc/100ml. This meets the standard value which

is less than 10,000FC/100ml.

5.1 Recommendation

The primary information and data were collected over a short period of time so there is need for

more data and time to improve on accuracy of results. The ponds result obtained for retention

time is also an average so there is need for more research to determine optimal time for complete

decomposition. The following recommendation should be considered:

1. There is need to carry out cost analysis of the land and assess the suitability of waste

stabilization ponds.

References

40
1. Curtis,T.P.;Mara,D.D.;Silva,S.A.(1992): Influence of pH, Oxygen, and Humid

Substances on Ability of Sunlight to Damage Faecal Coliforms in Waste Stabilization

Pond Water. In: Applied Environmental Microbiology 58,1335-1343.

2. EPA SA (2004): Wastewater Lagoon Construction. Adelaide, SA: Environment

Protection

Agency of South Australia.http://www/environment.sa.gov.au/epa/pdfs/guide_lagoon.pdf

3. Kayombo. S, T.S.A. Mbwette, J.H.Y Katima N. Ladegaard, S.E. Jørgensen(1998):

Waste Stabilization Ponds and Constructed Wetlands Manual. United Nations

Environmental Programme International Environmental Technology Center (UNEP-

IETC) and the Danish International Development Agency (Danida). URL [Accessed:

12.07.2011 3:57 pm]. PDF

4. Mara, D.D. and Pearson, H.W. (1986): Artificial freshwater environments: waste

stabilization ponds. In Biotechnology, vol. 8. (ed. W. Schoenborn), pp. 177−206.

Weinheim: VCH Verlagsgesellschaft.

5. Mara, D.D.; Alabaster, G.P.; Pearson, H.W.; Mills, S.W. (1992): Waste Stabilization

Ponds: A Design Manual for Eastern Africa. Leeds: Lagoon Technology International.

6. Marais, G.v.R. (1974): Faecal bacterial kinetics in waste stabilization ponds. Journal of

the Environmental Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 100

(EE1), 119 139.

7. Mara, D.D. and Pearson, H.W. (1998): Design Manual for Waste Stabilization Ponds

in Mediterranean Countries. Leeds: Lagoon Technology International.

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/civil/ceri/water/tphe/publicat/pdm/med/medman.html

8. Tilley, E.; Luethi, C.; Morel, A.; Zurbruegg, C.; Schertenleib, R. (2008):

Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Duebendorf and Geneva: Swiss

41
 Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). URL [Accessed:

12.07.2011 4:31pm].

9. Shuval H.I., Adin A., Fattal B., Rawitz E. and Yekutiel P (1986): Wastewater

irrigation in developing countries: health effects and technical solutions. Technical Paper

No. 51. World Bank, Washington DC.

10. Varon, M. P.; Mara, D. D.(2004): Waste Stabilization Ponds. (Pdf presentation). Delft:

International Water and Sanitation Centre. URL [Accessed: 12.07.2011 4:29 pm].

11. Wafler, M. (2008): Training Material on Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment. Aarau:

Seecon GmbH. 23

12. WSP (2007): Philippines Sanitation Source Book and Decision Aid. Pdf presentation.

Washington: Water and Sanitation Program.

13. WSP (2008): Technology Options for Urban Sanitation in India. A Guide to Decision

Making. pdf presentation. Washington: Water and Sanitation Program. URL [Accessed:

12.07.2011 5:05 pm].

42