Assessment

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DR. CRISELDA A. MADRIAGA EL - 115

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COURSE : EL 115 – TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR

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DEVELOPER AND HER BACKGROUND

CRISELDA A. MADRIAGA, Ed.D took her degree Bachelor of Science in

Education major in English and Religious Education from St. Louis University
Cum Laude, in 1988; completed her Master of Arts in Education in Administration
and Supervision in 1995, finished her Master of Arts in Education in English in
2008; obtained her Doctor of Education in Educational Management in 2016 .
She earned her masters and doctoral degrees at Tarlac State University.
She taught English in Don Bosco Technical Institute Tarlac for 20 years (1988-
2008) In her stay with DBTI, she was assigned as School Paper Adviser for two
years where she mentored young journalists who garnered awards at the
RSPC and NSPC. She also chaired the English Department for two years and
the Institutional Affairs Assistant for a year.
She transferred to Tarlac State University in 2008 assigned to teach general
education and major subjects in the College of Arts and Social Sciences.
Currently, she is now with the College of Teacher Education where she teaches
English to the BSED – English majors. She also teaches at the TSU Ma ED
English and Educational Management programs.
She also serves as an English Reader for theses and dissertations at the TSU
graduate school. She also edited the TSU faculty manual and the book of Dr.
Rodrigo Sicat – The Melting Pot.

COURSE DESCRIPTION

This course engages the learners in understanding the distinctions between and
among four types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and
pedagogic. Aside from the emphasis on how teaching and assessment vary
according to the four types, the course also provides opportunities to discover
the role of grammar in achieving communicative competence. This course will
also help future English teachers to design grammar tests and explore various
approaches to and considerations for administering and evaluating these tests.
Future English teachers will learn how to construct and evaluate skill-specific
language tests which assess students’ grammar abilities.

COURSE OUTLINE

Week 1 - TSU’s & College VMGO and Course Orientation

Chapter 1 The Important Concept of the Course – Approach, Method, and
Technique and Types of Grammar
Chapter 2 The Teaching of Grammar & The Deductive Approach
& the Inductive Approach
Chapter 3 The Functional-notional Approach
Chapter 4 Teaching Grammar in Situational Contexts
Chapter 5 Teaching Grammar through Texts and through Stories
Chapter 6 Teaching Grammar through Songs and Rhymes
Chapter 7 Some Rules in Teaching Grammar

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Chapter 8 Grammar (Language) Assessment Concepts, and Principles
Chapter 9 Grammar Assessment
Chapter 10 How To Make Assessment of Grammar Skills More Efficient
Chapter 11 Designing Grammar Assessment Tasks
Chapter 12 Grammar Test Construction (as a reinforcement activity)

CHAPTER – 1 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF THE COURSE & TYPES OF

GRAMMAR

TITLE
 Approach, Method, and Techniques
 Types of Grammar
 Functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and pedagogical

RATIONALE

The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar.

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST

Please answer the following as best as you can:

1. What is the difference among these three concepts: approach, method,
and technique/procedure?

2. What are the four types of grammar included in this course, discuss
briefly.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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 1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge about grammar and
the different types of grammar.
2. Explain the concepts approach, method, and technique

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
Introduction:
In this course, you need to understand these important concepts so that you
will have the ease of dealing with the subsequent lessons that we will be having.
The following concepts are approach, method, technique, strategies, procedures
and types of grammar.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Let us now deal with the key concepts of this chapter::

APPROACH is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of

language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the
nature of the subject matter to be taught.
The prescriptive approach is an approach to grammar that has rules to the
proper use of the language, traditionally based on Latin grammar, in contrast with
the descriptive approach.
The descriptive approach is an approach to grammar that is based on a
description of the structure actually used in a language, not what should be used,
in contrast with the prescriptive approach.

METHOD is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material,

no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected
approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one
approach, there can be many methods…

TECHNIQUE is implemental – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It

is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate
objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in
harmony with an approach as well. (Anthony 1963)
Let us now have a simple understanding of GRAMMAR:
According to Gerrot & Wignell (1995) GRAMMAR is a theory of language of
how language is organized and how it works. Grammar is concerned in the
study of wordings that is realized and expressed through sound of letters.
Theories of language or grammar are not inherently good or bad, right or
wrong, true or false. Rather, grammars are validated by their usefulness in
describing and explaining the phenomenon called language.

TYPES OF GRAMMAR

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 1. FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR – is used to describe the structure of
individual sentences. This type sets language as a set of rules which allow or
disallow certain sentence structure. Functional grammar is used to describe
language in actual use and so focus on texts and their contexts. This type sets
language as a resource for making meaning.
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMARS do not reject, discard or replace the
terminology of traditional grammar, but to catch what goes on in language we
need to build on and refine our notions of traditional grammar .We need to
recognize that words have functions as well as class, and that how a word
functions can tell us more about the piece of language where it occurs.
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMARS evaluate and do not replace the terms of
traditional grammar. Its purpose is to make traditional grammar more simple
(simplify) and to make it easy to understand (understandable). Functional
grammar is concerned in the meaning of the whole texts (coherence) rather than
the order of word in sentences.

2. DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR – is a study of language, its structure, and its

rules as they are used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life, including
standard and nonstandard varieties.

3. PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR specifies how a language and its grammar

rules be used.. e.g. never end a sentence with preposition ; never start a
sentence with ‘and’ or ‘but’. The prescriptive grammar tradition, namely, the
belief in an absolute standard of correctness. According to this view, language
use is either correct or incorrect, and any educated person should be able to
understand at once and follow faithfully the norms of correctness (the regulative
rules), which are thought to be preserved in authoritative reference works such
as dictionaries and handbooks.
A descriptive grammar is built up by analyzing how speakers use a
language, and deducing the rules they are following. Prescriptive grammar is a
set of explicit rules for using language that are taught, or enforced, so that people
will use the language in a particular way. Typically the rules are handed down
from generation to generation. Both kinds of grammars have their places in the
world.

4. PEDAGOGICAL GRAMMAR primarily deals with syntax and morphology:

sentence level and word level rules and order. It is grammatical analysis and
instruction designed for second-language learners.
A pedagogical grammar should be designed to help learners learn the most
important grammar ideas and most powerful conventions of the language. Once
the learners have done this then they can set about learning the rest of the
language which they think is important to them.
Pedagogical Grammar is commonly used to refer to the 1) pedagogical process
– the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as part of
language teaching methodology; and the 2) pedagogical content – reference

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sources that present information about the target language system; and 3) some
combinations of process and content. How well these aspects of pedagogical
grammar align with other forms of grammar is an open question. (Little, 1994)

CLOSURE ACTIVTIES

Let us have a summary of the concepts presented previously and an

equally important additional information by the linguist Edward Anthony.
According to Anthony (1963) he identified levels of conceptualization and
organization in the nature of approaches and methods in language/grammar
teaching

METHOD
 Approach a) a theory of the nature of language
b) a theory of the nature of language learners
 Design a) The general and specific objectives of the method
b) A syllabus model
c) Types of learning and teaching activities
d) Learner roles
e) Teacher Roles
f) The role of instructional materials
 Procedure a) Classroom techniques, practices, and behaviors
Observed when a method is used.
Another very important concept about grammar is a clear understanding
about the process of prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar. Your
mastery of the processes involved in these concepts will surely make your task
easier in the teaching of grammar.

[Link]
Lesson_Closure_Coaching_Guide-[Link]

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

Relative to our study in EL 115 are key concepts related to teaching and
assessment of grammar. Such terms like approach, method, and technique are
very relevant to your preparation as English teachers. The four main types of
grammars: functional, prescriptive, descriptive, and pedagogical could help you
to have a greater and more comprehensive depth on how grammar teaching and
assessment should be dealt in the classroom where English is mostly a second
language to learners.

EVALUATION
Answer the following:
1. Explain the following key concepts:
a. Approach

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 b. Method

c. Technique

2. Explain the types of grammar deemed very essential in the study of

Teaching and Assessment of Grammar.

ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT

Reinforcement /enrichment activity:

Research on the elements and sub elements that constitute a method
according to Edward M. Anthony. Write your research work below:
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REFERENCES:
Brown, h. D. (2007)teaching by principles an interactive approach to language
pedagogy. 3rd ed. Ny. Pearson education ed.

Go, m.b. & posecion o.t. (2010) language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: quezon city, phils. Lorimar publishing house.

Richards, j. C. & rodgers, t. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great britain cambridge university press

Yule, g. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge new york.
Cambridge university press

CHAPTER – 2 THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR & THE DEDUCTIVE

APPROACH AND INDUCTIVE APPROACH

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TITLE

 What is Grammar
 The Kinds of Meaning Realized by Grammar
 Arguments for Putting Grammar in the Foreground of Second Language
Teaching
 The Deductive Approach
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 What makes a Rule a good Rule
 The Inductive Approach
 Advantages
 Disadvantages

RATIONALE

The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar.

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST

Answer briefly the following:

1. What is grammar?

2. Explain the two main approaches in teaching grammar

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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 1. Define grammar;
2. Explain the kinds of meanings realized by grammar;
3. Enumerate the arguments for putting grammar in the foreground of
second language teaching; and
4. Differentiate the two main approaches in teaching grammar

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
.
The second chapter of our module deals with important concepts that are useful
in our course EL 115. Key concepts are expounded such as: definitions of
grammar, kinds of meanings realized by grammar; arguments on the importance
of grammar in SLT and the deductive and inductive approaches to the teaching
of grammar.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

KEY CONCEPTS:
A. What is Grammar? (This is in addition to the discussions in Chapter 1)
 Language user’s subconscious internal system
 Linguists’ attempt to codify or describe that system
1. Sounds of language * Phonology
2. Structure and form of words * Morphology
3. Arrangement of words into
larger units * Syntax
4. Meanings of language * Semantics
5. Functions of language and its
use in context * Pragmatics
 “Grammar is the business of taking a language to pieces, to see how it
works.” ( David Crystal)
 Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe
grammar as the “rules” of a language; but in fact no language has rules. If
we use the word “rules” we suggest that somebody created the rules first
and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not
start like that. Languages started by people making sounds which
evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken
language is fixed. All languages change overtime. What we call grammar
is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time.
 Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allows humans
to form and interpret the words and sentences in their language.
 Grammar adds meaning that are not easily inferable from the immediate
context
The kinds of meanings realized by grammar are principally (functional
grammar)

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 1. Representational /experiential - that is, grammar enables us to
use language to describe the world in terms of how, when, and
where things happen.
e.g. The students are having online classes in their homes.
2. Interpersonal - that is, grammar facilitates the way we interact
with other people, maintain relations with them and when for
instance, we need to get things done using language.
e.g. There is a difference between/among :
Driver’s License!
Driver’s license, please.
Can you show me your driver’s license?
May I see your driver’s license?
Would you mind if I have a look at your driver’s
license?
3. Textual: organize our messages in ways that indicate how they fit
in with the other messages around them.
e.g. Aloy went to Abra last Sunday.
vs. It was Aloy who went to Abra last Sunday

Grammar is used to fine-tune the meanings we wish to

express.
B. Why should we teach grammar?

There are many arguments for putting grammar in the foreground in

Second Language Teaching (SLT). Here are seven of them:

1) The sentence-machine argument

Part of the process of language learning must be what is sometimes
called item-learning – that is the memorization of individual items such
as words, and phrases. However, there is a limit to the number of items a
person can both retain and retrieve. Even travellers’ phrase books have
limited usefulness – good for a two week holiday, but there comes a point
where we need to learn some patterns or rules to enable us to generate
new sentences. This is to say, that grammar. after all, is a description of
the regularities in a language, and knowledge of these regularities
provides the learners with the means to generate potentially enormous
number of original sentences.
The number of new possible sentences is constrained only by the
vocabulary at the learner’s command and his/her creativity. Grammar is
a kind of ‘sentence-making machine’. It follows that the teaching of
grammar offers the learner the means for potentially limitless linguistic
creativity.

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2) The fine-tuning argument
The purpose of grammar seems to allow for a greater subtlety of
meaning than a merely lexical system. While it is possible to get a lot of
communicative mileage out of simply stringing words and phrases
together, there comes a point when ‘Me Tarzan, you Jane’-type language
fails to deliver, both in terms of intelligibility and in terms of
appropriateness. This is definitely in the case for written language, which
generally needs to be more explicit than spoken language.
For example, the following errors are likely to confuse the reader:
a) Last Sunday night I was boring in my house.
b) After speaking a lot of time with her I thought that her attracted me.
c) We took a wrong plane and when I saw it was very later (late)
because the plane took up.
d) Ten years ago(,) I would want to go to China but in that time
anybody (nobody) of my relatives didn’t want to go.
The teaching of grammar, it is argued, serves as a corrective
against the kind of ambiguity represented in these examples.

3. The fossilization argument

It is highly possible for highly motivated learners with a particular
aptitude for languages to achieve amazing levels of proficiency without
any formal study. But more often ‘pick it up as you go along’ learners
reach a language plateau beyond which it is very difficult to progress. To
put it technically, their linguistic competence fossilizes. Research
suggests that learners who receive no instruction seem to be at risk of
fossilizing sooner than those who do receive instruction.

4. The advance-organizer argument

Grammar instruction might also have a delayed effect. The
researcher Richard Schmidt kept a diary of his experience learning
Portuguese in Brazil. Initially, he had enrolled in formal language classes
where there was a heavy emphasis on grammar. When he subsequently
left these classes to travel in Brazil his Portuguese made good progress, a
fact he attributed to the use he was making of it. However, as he
interacted naturally with Brazilians he was aware that certain features of
the talk --certain grammatical items – seemed to catch his attention. He
noticed them. It so happened that these items were also items he had
studied in his classes.
What’s more, being more noticeable, these items seemed to stick.
Schmidt concluded that noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition. The
grammar teaching he had received previously, while insufficient in itself to
turn him into a fluent Portuguese speaker, had primed him to notice what
might otherwise have gone unnoticed, and hence had indirectly influenced
his learning. It had acted as a kind of advance organizer for his later
acquisition of the language.

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5. The discrete item argument
Language seen from ‘outside’ can seem to be a gigantic, shapeless
mass, presenting an insuperable challenge for the learner. Because
grammar consists of an apparently finite set of rules, it can help to reduce
the apparent enormity of the language learning task for both teachers and
students. By tidying language up and organizing it into neat categories
(sometimes called discrete items) grammarians make the language
digestible)

( A discrete item is any unit of the grammar system that is sufficiently

narrowly defined to form the focus of a lesson or an exercise: e.g. the
present perfect, the definite article, the objective pronouns)

6. The rule-of-law argument

It follows from the discrete-item argument that, since grammar is a
system of learnable rules, it lends itself to a view of teaching and learning
known as transmission. A transmission view sees the role of education as
the transfer of a body of knowledge (typically in the form of facts and
rules) from those that have the knowledge to those who do not. Such a
view is typically associated with the kind of institutionalized learning where
rules, order, and disciplined are highly valued.

The need for rules, order and discipline is particularly acute in large
classes of unruly and unmotivated teenagers - a situation that many
teachers of English are confronted with daily. In this sort of situation
grammar offers a structured system that can be taught and tested in
methodical steps.

7. The learner expectations argument

Regardless of the theoretical and ideological arguments for or against
grammar teaching, many learners come to language classes with fairly
fixed expectations as to what task will they be performing. These
expectations may be derived from previous classroom experience of
language learning. They may also be derived from experience of
classrooms in general where (traditionally, at least) teaching is of the
transmission kind mentioned above.

On the other hand, their expectations that teaching will be grammar-

focused may stem from frustration experienced at trying to pick up a
second language in a non-classroom setting, such as through self-study,
or through immersion in the target language culture. Such students may
have enrolled in language classes specifically to ensure that the learning
experience is made more efficient and systematic. The teacher who
ignores this expectation by encouraging learners simply to experience
language is likely to frustrate and alienate them.

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 C. How do we Teach Grammar? = THE TWO CORE APPROACHES

1. The DEDUCTIVE APPROACH: the rule – driven learning

A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is
followed by examples in which the rule is applied.
The grammar rule is presented and the learner engages with it
through the study and manipulation of examples.

Advantages of a deductive approach:

 It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time-saving.
Many rules – especially rules of form – can be more simply and
quickly explained than elicited from examples. This will allow
more time for practice and application.
 It respects the intelligence and maturity of many – especially
adult – students, and acknowledges the role of cognitive
processes in language acquisition.
 It confirms many students’ expectations about classroom
learning, particularly for those learners who have analytical
learning style.
 It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come
up, rather than having to anticipate them and prepare for them in
advance.

Disadvantages of a deductive approach:

 Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off-
putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not
have sufficient metalanguage (i.e. language used to talk about
language such as grammar terminology) or they may not be able
to understand the concept involved.
 Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted,
transmission-style classroom; teacher explanation is often at the
expense of student involvement and interaction.
 Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of
presentation, such as demonstration.
 Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language
is simply a case of knowing the rules.

Since the deductive approach is rule-driven learning, it is important for us to

have some ideas about a RULE:
In the Longman Activity Dictionary “rule” is defined as:
 A principle or order which guides behavior; says how things are to be
done ( prescriptive rule)
 The usual way that something happens (descriptive rule). Descriptive
rules are primarily concerned with generalizations about what speakers of
the language actually do say than what they should do.
 Pedagogic rules – They make sense to learners and provide them with

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 the means and confidence to generate language with a reasonable
chance of success.
Pedagogic rules can be rules of form and rules of use.
Examples of prescriptive rules:
 Do not use different to and never use different than. Always
use different from.
 Never use the passive when you can use the active.
 Use shall for the first person and will for second and third
person.
Examples of descriptive rules:
 You do not normally use the with proper nouns referring to
people.
 We use used with the infinitive (used to do, used to sing etc )
to say that something regularly happened in the past but no
longer happens.
Example for rule of form:
 To form the simple past of regular verbs, add –ed or -d to
the infinitive
Example of a rule of use:
 The simple past tense is used to indicate past actions or
states.

Many of the pros and cons of a rule - driven approach hinge on the
quality of the actual rule explanation. This depends on how user friendly the rule
is. What makes a rule a good rule?

According to Michael Swan, author of teachers’ and

students’ grammars,
the following are the criteria for a good rule:
 Truth: Rules must be true. While truthfulness may need to
be compromised in the interests of clarity and simplicity, the
rule must bear some resemblance to the reality it is
describing.

It is surprising how many incorrect explanations we find in

TEFL books. A good example is the distinction usually made
between some and any, which goes something like this:

Use some + plural countable/uncountable noun in affirmative

sentences.
Use any + plural countable/uncountable noun in negative
sentences and questions.
It still fails to explain:
Take any one you want..
I didn’t like some of his books.
An explanation based on the difference in meaning between some and any

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 might address many of these problems.
 Limitation: Rules should show clearly what the limits are
on the use of a given form. For example, to say that we
use will to talk about the future is of little use to the learner
since it doesn’t show how will is different from other ways
of talking about the future (i.e. going to).

 Clarity: Rules should be clear. Lack of clarity is often

caused by ambiguity or obscure terminology. Take this
example, ‘Use will for spontaneous decision; use going to
for premeditated decisions. ‘To which a student
responded, “All my decisions are premeditated.

 Simplicity: Rules should be simple. Lack of simplicity is

caused by overburdening the rule with categories and sub-
categories in order to cover all possible exceptions. There
is a limit to the amount of exceptions a student can
remember.

 Familiarity: An explanation should make use of concepts

already familiar to the learner. Few learners have
specialized knowledge of grammar, although they may well
be familiar with some basic terminology used to describe
grammar of their own language (e.g. conditional, infinitive,
gerund). Most learners have a concept of tense (past,
present, future), but will be less at home with concepts of
epistemic modality.

 Relevance: A rule should answer only those questions

that the student needs answered.
A lot depends on the teacher’s presentation of the rule.
An effective rule presentation include following:
 It is illustrated by an example.
 It is short.
 Students’ understanding is checked.
 Students are given the chance to personalize the rule.

2. The INDUCTIVE APPROACH – the rule-discovery path

An inductive approach starts with the presentation of examples for
students to work on and eventually they discover the rules exemplified in
the items.

Advantages of the inductive approach

 Rules learners discover for themselves are more likely to fit

their existing mental structures than rules they have been

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 presented. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful,
memorable, and serviceable.
 The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of
cognitive depth which ensures greater memorability.
 Students are more actively involved in the learning process,
rather than being simply passive recipients. They are more
likely to be more attentive and more motivated.
 It favors pattern-recognition and problem solving abilities which
suggests that it is particularly suitable for learners who like this
kind of challenge.
 If the problem-solving is done collaboratively, and in the target
language, learners get the chance for extended language
practice.
 Working things out for themselves prepares students for
greater self-reliance and this approach then is conducive to
autonomy.

Disadvantages of the inductive approach

 The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead
students into believing that rules are the objective of language
learning, rather than a means.
 The time taken to work out a rule may be at the expense of
time spent in putting the rule to some sort of productive
practice.
 Students may hypothesize the wrong rule, or their version of
the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application.
This is especially a danger where there is no overt testing of
their hypotheses, either through practice examples, or by
eliciting an explicit statement of the rule.
 It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson.
They need to select and organize the data carefully in order to
guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule, while also
ensuring the data as intelligible.
 Even if the data are carefully organized, many language areas
such as aspect and modality resist easy rule formulation.
 An inductive approach frustrates students who by dint of their
personal learning style or their past learning experience (or
both) would prefer simply to be told the rule.

Techniques on how to use the inductive approach

 Generative Situation: The teacher sets up a situation and

generates several example sentences .
Example: ( taken from “English in Situations” by O’Neil, OUP
1970)
A factory needs workers. Yesterday Mark read its

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 advertisement in the paper. It said these things:
“We are a very large firm, pay very high wages, and
have a good pension – scheme.”
Mark is at the factory today. He now knows that all those
things are not true. At this moment he is saying these
things to the manager:
“YOU SAID YOU WERE A VERY LARGE FIRM but you are
really a small one!
YOU SAID YOU PAID HIGH WAGES but they are really very
low.
YOU SAID YOU HAD A GOOD PENSION SCHEME. You
really haven’t one at
all.”

 Guided discovery: The principles of the guided discovery

approach were originally intended for self-instruction as part of
the kind of programs used in language laboratories. They soon
adopted for classroom use, and course books promoting an
inductive approach to language learning are now more or less
standard.

An example of an inductive presentation of the present simple

from New Wave 1 (Longman 1988)

Example : Find the Rule

You know Andru and Mark, don’t you?
They work every day.
Joey talks to tourists, and Jane writes letters.
We always go to their travel agency.
The agency offers tours to many different countries.
I like their service too.

 There is a final s on the verb with only certain

subjects. What are they?
o I
o You
o He
o She
o It
o We
o They
Now apply the rule!
Circle the right verb.
I ( see, sees ) Mark almost everyday, or
she ( call, calls ). She and Mark (come,
comes) to the house on weekends.

20 | P a g e
 Mark usually ( tell, tells ) us some funny stories.

 Minimal sentence pairs. By presenting two sentences thatare

only different in one or two particulars, the teacher is better able
to focus the students’ attention on exactly how the choice of form
determines a difference in meaning.

The sentence should be lexically simple and have fairly

self-evident contexts.
Teaching differences between past simple and
present perfect
(Teacher writes the following three sets of sentences on
the board)
1a. I have seen all of Sarah Geronimos’s films.
b I saw her latest film last month.
2a Since 1990, she has worked for three different
newspapers.
b She worked for the Inquirer in 1998.
3a Have you ever been to Palawan?
b When were you in Palawan?

The minimal pair is designed to overcome the lack of economy of the

generative situation. By getting straight to the point, the minimal pairs
presentation combine the best features of an explanation-driven approach and a
discovery approach. It is also relatively easy to plan and to set up. In terms of
efficacy, it relies heavily on the choice of sample sentences. More problematic
still is the lack of context, which can sometimes lead students to the wrong
conclusions, or, more frustratingly, to no conclusions at all.

A They’ve been painting the kitchen There is nothing to help

students untangle the
B They’ve painted the kitchen difference between these two
sentences.

A “What a mess!” Whereas, with slightly more

“Yes, they’ve been painting the kitchen.” contexts, the difference in
meaning
B “The flat is looking nice.” starts to take shape.
“Yes, they’ve painted the kitchen.”

CLOSURE ACTIVTIES

Let us have a look at the main points of this chapter:

Definitions of grammar:

21 | P a g e
  Language user’s subconscious system
 Linguists’ attempt to codify or describe that system
 The business of taking a language to pieces, to see how it works
Kinds of meanings realized by grammar
 Representational/experiential
 Interpersonal
 Textual
Why should we teach grammar
Arguments putting grammar at the foreground of SLT:
 Sentence-machine argument
 Item learning
 Memorization of individual phrases
 Limit to a number of items a person can retain
 Grammar enables us to generate new sentences
 It offers the learners the means for limitless linguistic
creativity
 The fine-tuning argument
 Grammar allows for greater subtlety of meaning
 Grammar serves as corrective against ambiguities
 The fossilization argument
 Without grammar learners fossilize earlier
 Grammar helps you to achieve a high level.
 The advance-organizer argument
 Noticing prerequisite for acquisition
 Grammar acts as a kind of advance organizer for later
acquisition.
 The discrete item argument
 Categories =discrete items
 Language = gigantic, shapeless mass
 Categories make language digestible
 The rule-of-law argument
 Grammar offers the teacher a structured system
 It can be taught and tested
 There are methodical steps
 The learner expectations argument
 Learner expects grammar
 Learner needs grammar
 Mathematical
 Visual
 Kinaesthetic
 Musical
 Linguistic
 Interpersonal
 Intrapersonal
 Naturalistic
 Existential

22 | P a g e
The two main approaches to the teaching of grammar
 The deductive approach – rule –driven learning
 Procedure = rule is presented
= in examples, the rules are applied.
 Advantages = saves time
= respects the intelligence
= confirms learner’s expectations
= allows teacher to deal with language points
as they
arise
 Disadvantages = off-putting for students
= students’ in sufficient metalanguage.
= teacher-centered at the expense of
student achievement
= explanation seldom memorable
= belief language is case of knowing the
rules
 Features of a good rule
 Illustrated by an example
 Short
 Checks students’ understanding
 Students personalize the rule
 What is a good rule?
 Truth
 Limitation
o Show limits
o Show differences
 Clarity
o Avoid ambiguity
o Avoid obscure terminology (metalanguage)
 Simplicity
o Limit of exceptions
o Sub-categories
 Familiarity
o Use concepts learners are familiar
o Link to what learners already know
 Relevance
o Rule only answers questions learners need
 What is a rule?
 Prescriptive rule
o Says how things are done
 Descriptive rule
o Describes what you say or should do
 Pedagogic rule

23 | P a g e
 o Rule of form
o Rule of use
 The Inductive Approach - rule discovery path
(learners work out rules themselves)
 Advantages of the inductive approach
 More likely to fit into existing mental structures
 Ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth
 Ensures longer memorability
 Ensures learners’ active involvement, attention, &
motivation
 Favors pattern-recognition abilities and problem-
solving abilities
 Provides extra language practice done collaboratively
 Conducive to learner’s autonomy
 Disadvantages of the inductive approach
 Rules not the objective of language learning
 Time-consuming
 Danger of hypothesizing the wrong rule
 Heavy demand on teachers –select and organize
data
 Sometimes no rule formulation
 Often frustrating
 Techniques
 Generative situation - T sets up a situation
- T generates several example
sentences
 Guided discovery - T gives clues and hints
- T tells what to focus on
 Minimal sentence pairs
*sentences only differ in one or two particulars
-sentences lexically simple
Self-evident contexts
-advantages easy to plan
You get straight to the
point

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

Chapter 2 gave you a lot of important concepts in the teaching of grammar. You
were exposed with some definition s of grammar like grammar is the business of
taking a language to pieces, to see how it works. Such definition would lead you
to achieve a level of communicative competence fit for future English teachers.
We were able to distinguish too the kinds of meanings realized by grammar with
the arguments putting grammar at the foreground of SLT. All of these arguments
are considerations in crafting any grammar program. At the same time the two
main approaches to teaching grammar were discussed. In such presentations

24 | P a g e
you can have a choice on what to use either the deductive or the inductive
approach.

EVALUATION

Answer briefly the following:.

1. Enumerate and describe the linguistic systems included in the study of
grammar
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________.
2. Explain with examples the 3 kinds of meanings realized by grammar.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

3. Enumerate and discuss in your own words the arguments for putting
grammar at the foreground of SLT.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______________

25 | P a g e
 4. Explain how deductive and inductive approach work in the teaching of
grammar.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT

Reading assignment:
1. Gather relevant ideas about the functional-notional approach

2. Write this on your journal notebook.

REFERENCES:
Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language
pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

26 | P a g e
CHAPTER – 3 THE FUNCTIONAL-NOTIONAL APPROACH

TITLE
 History of the approach
 Objective
 Notions
 Functions
 Criticism
 Advantages
 Function categories

RATIONALE

The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST
Try to answer the following:
1. What are functions in grammar?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. What are notions in grammar?
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

27 | P a g e
 1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge on the functional-
notional approach to teaching grammar
2. Discuss the objectives, notions, functions, criticisms, advantages and
function categories of the approach

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

History of the Approach:

In 1972, the British linguist D. A. Wilkins published a document that

proposed a radical shift away from using the traditional concepts of grammar and
vocabulary to describe language to an analysis of the communicative
meanings that learners would need in order to express themselves and to
understand effectively. This initial document was followed by his 1976 work
Notional Syllabuses, which showed how language could be categorized on the
basis of notions such as quantity, location and time, and functions such as
making requests, making offers and apologizing. Wilkins’ work was used by the
Council of Europe in drawing up a communicative language syllabus, which
specified the communicative functions a learner would need in order to
communicate effectively at a given level of competence. At the end of the 1970s,
the first course-books to be based on functional syllabuses began to appear.
Typically, they would be organized on the basis of individual functions and the
exponents needed to express these functions. For example, many course-books
would begin with the function of ‘introducing oneself’, perhaps followed by the
function of ‘making requests’, with typical exponents being ‘Can I….?’ “Is it alright
if I….?’ and so on. These would often be practiced in the form of communicative
exercises involving pair work, group work and role plays. It is interesting to
compare this approach with a grammatical syllabus. In a typical grammatical
syllabus, structures using the word ‘would’ tend to appear in later stages of the
syllabus, as they are held relatively complex (e.g. “If I knew the answer, I would
tell you’), whereas in a functional syllabus ‘would’ often appears at a very early
stage due to its communicative significance in exponents such as ‘Would you
like…?’, which is extremely common and of great communicative value even to
beginners. The need to apply a grammatical name or category to the structure is
not considered important within the framework of a purely functional syllabus.

Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. The functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.

This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the
rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of
organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global
concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in
which they are used.

28 | P a g e
 DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Explanation of Specific Terms:

 Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through

nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives, or
adverbs.
A notion is a concept, or idea: it may be quite specific, in which
case it is virtually the same as vocabulary (dog, house, for
example); or it may be very general – time, size, emotion,
movement – in which case it often overlaps with the concept of
‘topics”.
A notion may be ‘”time past” , this may include past tenses,
phrases like a month ago, in 1990, last week, and utterances using
temporal clauses beginning with when…., before…., after…., and
so on.

 A Function is some kind of communicative act: it is the use of

language to achieve a purpose, usually involving interaction at least
between two people. Examples are: suggesting, promising,
apologizing, greeting, inviting.
“Inviting” may include phrases like “Would you like to…? I
suggest…., How about….? Please…

 A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of

dialects, the formality or
informality of the language and the mode of expression.
Situation includes the following elements:
a. The persona taking part in the speech act
b. The place where the conversation occurs
c. The time the speech act is taking place
d. The topic or activity that is being discussed

 Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem

from the function, the situation and the topic.

 Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.

 Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech

act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey
bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal
relations between the speakers.

29 | P a g e
  Functional categories of language
Finocchiaro (1983) has placed the functional categories
under five headings:

1. Personal
Clarifying or arranging one’s ideas; expressing one’s thoughts
or feelings; love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes,
satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger,
anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed
opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the
everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or
warm.
2. Interpersonal
Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and
working relationships
 Greetings and leave takings
 Introducing people to others
 Identifying oneself to others
 Expressing joy at another’s success
 Expressing concern for other people’s welfare
 Extending and accepting invitation
 Refusing invitations politely or making alternative
arrangements
 Making appointments for meetings
 Breaking appointments politely and arranging another
mutually convenient time
 Apologizing
 Excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not
meeting commitments
 Indicating agreement or disagreement
 Interrupting another speaker politely
 Changing an embarrassing subject
 Receiving visitors and paying visits to others
 Offering food or drinks and accepting or declining
politely
 Sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems
 Making promises and committing oneself to some
action
 Complimenting someone
 Making excuses
 Expressing and acknowledging gratitude

30 | P a g e
3. Directive
Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or
refusing direction
 Making suggestions in which the speaker is included
 Making requests
 Making suggestions
 Refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering
an alternative
 Persuading someone to change his point of view
 Requesting and granting permission
 Asking for help and responding to a plea for help
 Forbidding someone to do something
 Issuing a command
 Giving and responding to instructions
 Warning someone
 Discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action
 Establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion
of actions
 Asking for directions or instructions.

4. Referential
Talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in
the environment in the past or in the future; talking about
language (what is termed the metalinguistic function)
 Identifying items or people in the classroom, school,
home, & community
 Asking for a description of someone or something
 Defining something or a language item or asking a
definition
 Paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or
vice versa)
 Explaining or asking for explanations of how something
works
 Comparing or contrasting things
 Discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of
doing something
 Requesting or reporting facts about events or actions
 Evaluating the results of an action or event.

5. Imaginative
Discussion involving elements of creativity and artistic
expression

31 | P a g e
  Discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a
painting, a film, a TV program, etc.
 Expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of
literature or reading material
 Creating rhymes, poetry, stories, or plays
 Recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively
 Suggesting original beginnings or ending to dialogs or
stories
 Solving problems or mysteries.
FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR

People who study and use a language are mainly interested in how they can do
things with language – how they can make meanings, get attention to their
problems and interests, influence their friends and colleagues and create a rich
social life for themselves. They are only interested in the grammatical structure
of the language as a means of getting things done. A grammar which puts
together the patterns of the language and the things you can do with them
is called functional grammar

 Objective
The main objective of a functional grammar is to explain language in
terms of what people do with it, how they use the language to live. It tries
to do by adopting more of a semantic and pragmatic orientation inside the
grammar. It does not see semantics and pragmatics as extra levels of
organization but sees them as integral to the organization of the grammar.

 Criticism

o Order. Criticisms of functional approach include the difficulty in

deciding the order in which different functions should be
presented. Is it more important to be able to complain or to
apologize, for example? Another problem lies in the wide range
of grammatical structures needed to manipulate basic functions
at different levels of formality (e.g. ‘Can I…? as opposed to
‘Would you mind if I…?’. In addition, although it is possible to
identify hundreds of functions and micro-functions, no more than
ten fundamental communicative functions are expressed by a
range of widely used exponents.

o No structure syllabus. There is also the apparent random

nature of the language used, which may frustrate learners used
to the more analytical and “building-block” approach that a
grammatical syllabus can offer. Another obvious weakness is

32 | P a g e
 the question of what to do at higher levels. Is it simply a case of
learning more complex exponents for basic functions or is one
required to seek out ever more obscure functions (complaining
sarcastically, for example)

 Advantages

On the positive side, however, there is little doubt that functional

approaches have contributed a great deal to the overall store of language
teaching methodology. Most new course-books contain some kind of
functional syllabus alongside a focus on grammar and vocabulary, thus
providing learners with communicatively useful expressions in tandem
with a structured syllabus with clear sense of progression. Moreover, the
focus on communication inherent in the practice of functional exponents
has contributed greatly to communicative language teaching in general.
Furthermore, the idea that even beginners can be presented with
exponents of high communicative value from the very start represents a
radical shift from the kind of approach that began with the present simple
of the verb ‘to be’ in all its forms and focused almost entirely on structure
with little regard for actual communication in the target language.

CLOSURE ACTIVTIES

Let us have a short summary of the functional-notional approach. Let’s us

have an illustration of the approach: The following concepts have to be
understood clearly;

1. Objectives – explain language in terms how people do with it

How to use language in order to live/survive
2. Notions - a concept or idea
Specific - vocabulary –dog, house, etc.
General - time, size, emotion, time past

3. Functions - communicative act

- use of language to achieve purpose
- examples –making request
- making offers
- apologizing
- greeting
-inviting

4. Criticism - difficulty in deciding an order

- no structures syllabus

33 | P a g e
 5. Advantages - communicatively useful expressions
- focus on communication
- suitable to beginners

6. Functional categories (of language) - personal - clarifying one’s

ideas
- interpersonal - maintaining good
relationships
- directive -accepting or
refusing directions
- referential -reporting
- imaginative - creativity & artistic
expression

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

The functional-notional method language teaching and learning along with

others is under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a
means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down
the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative
situations in which they are used.

EVALUATION

Have a look at the items listed in the box below. Can you sort them into
notions and functions? Write notion or function opposite the term.
Notions and functions

Location- Offer- Request-

Obligation- Promise- Spatial relations-
Advise- The future- Food-
Threat- Crime- Instruction-
Apology- The body- Remind-
Probability- Expression of opinion-

ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT

Research Task:

Since the functional-notional approach can be equated to communicative

language teaching and learning, gather information about CLT.

Include in your simple research the following:

34 | P a g e
 a. Proponent/s of the CLT method

b. The approach pertaining to

the theory of the nature of language and
the theory of the nature of language learning.

c. The design of CLT which includes the following::

- the general and specific objective of CLT
- a syllabus model
- types of teaching and learning activites
- learner roles
-teacher roles
- the role of instructional materials

d. The procedure of CLT -

classroom techniques, practices,
and behaviors observed
when the CLT method is used.

REFERENCES
Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language
pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

CHAPTER – 4 TEACHING GRAMMAR IN SITUATIONAL CONTEXTS

35 | P a g e
TITLE
 Generative Situations
 Advantages
 Disadvantages
 Situation in Contexts

RATIONALE
The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar

INSTRUCTION TO USERS
My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God

PRETEST
1. Recall an event that made a very big impact in your life. Write a 10
sentence paragraph about it on the space
below:______________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge on the approach to
teaching grammar in situational contexts.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the situational contexts
approach.

36 | P a g e
 3. Use generative situation in teaching grammar

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
Have you ever had a very exciting trip, vacation, or experience? Write
a 10 sentence paragraph narrating this exciting experience of yours on the space
below.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________________________________
Today my dear future English educators, we are going to learn another
approach to teaching grammar. This is teaching grammar in situational contexts
with the use of a generative situation.
.
Quiz #2
Era 50 77%
Teo 39 60%
Hale 44 68%
Rayo 50 77%
Henna 50 77%

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Teaching Grammar in Situational Contexts is one of the approaches that can be

used in a language classroom. This approach uses a generative situation.

The ‘generative situation’ is a situation which the teacher sets up in the lesson
in order to ’generate’ several example sentences of a grammar structure.

 Advantages:

A situational context permits presentation of a wide range of language

items. The situation serves as a means of contextualizing the language and this
helps clarify its meaning. At the same time the generated example provide the
learners with data for induction of the rules of form. Students can be involved in
the development of the presentation as well as in solving the grammar ‘problem’.

37 | P a g e
The situation if well chosen, is likely to be more memorable that a simple
explanation. All these factors suggest that this approach rates high in terms of
efficacy.

 Disadvantages

If students are in the wrong mind-set, they are unlikely to do the kind of cognitive
work involved in the induction of grammar. This kind of presentation also takes
more time than an explanation. Time spent on presenting language is inevitably
time spent as the expense of language practice, and it is arguable that what most
students need is not the presentation of rules but opportunities to practice them.
Thus, the generative situation loses points in terms of its economy. It also
requires a resourceful teacher who is not only able to conjure up situations that
generate several structurally identical sentences, but who also has the means
(and the time) to prepare the necessary visual aids.

 STEPS IN THE APPROACH

Teaching should be done using a generative situation

Step 1

By means of a picture on the board (a drawing, photo, or picture cut from

a magazine) the teacher introduces a character she calls Andy. She
draws a rough map of Australia, placing next to it a picture of a four-wheel
drive vehicle. She elicits ideas as to how these pictures are connected,
establishing the situation that Andy has decided to drive across the
Australian desert from the east to the west. She elicits the sort of
preparations a person would need to make for such a journey. Students
suggest, for example, that Andy would need a map, a spare wheel, lots of
water, a travelling companion, food, a first aid kit, and so on. The teacher
selects some of these ideas, and writes them in a column on the board,
and one or two ideas of her own:
To do this kind of journey, you should:
take a map
take water
not travel alone
advise the police
not travel in the wet season

Step 2

The teacher then explains that Andy made no preparations. He didn’t

take a map, he didn’t take water, he travelled alone, etc. She asks the

38 | P a g e
students to imagine what happened. Using their ideas as well as her own,
she constructs the following story:
Andy set off, got lost, got very thirsty, set off in search of help (leaving his
vehicle behind), got trapped by sudden flood waters, etc. The police set
out in search of him but couldn’t find him because he had abandoned his
vehicle and left no note. The teacher checks these facts by asking one or
two students to recount them.

Step 3

The teacher asks the class: Well, what do you think of Andy?, eliciting
answers like He was stupid. Teacher: Why? At this point, students may
venture sentences, like He must take a map. Having thus established the
idea of disapproval of past actions, the teacher models the sentence: He
should have taken a map, repeating it two or three times. The students
repeat the sentence in unison and then individually. The teacher reminds
the students of the concept of disapproval by asking Did he take a map?
(No). Was that a good idea? (No) So…? The students respond: He
should have taken a map. She then repeats this process using the
example of travelling alone, eliciting, modeling, drilling, and concept-
checking the sentence: He shouldn’t have travelled alone. Further
prompting elicits example sentences, such as:
He should’ve taken water. He shouldn’t have left his car.
At strategic points, the teacher recaps the sentences that have been
generated, using the words on the board as prompts. So far, nothing has
been written on the board.

Step 4

The teacher then clears the board and writes up the following table:
He should have taken water.
shouldn’t have travelled alone.
She asks students, working in pairs, to add further sentences about the
situation on the table. Individual students read sentences aloud from the
table.

Step 5

The teacher then asks students to imagine the dialogue when the police
finally find Andy. She writes the following exchange on the board:

Police: You should have taken a map.

Andy: I know I should. I didn’t think.
Students, working in pairs, continue writing the dialogue along the same
lines, and then practice it aloud, taking it in turns to be the police officer
and Andy.

39 | P a g e
 Situation or Context Points of Grammar
Follow a recipe or instructions from a boxed Imperative verb form
cake mix to bake a cake Present continuous tense

Give directions to another person to get to a Present tense

store, the post office, or a bank using a map Non-referential it

Discuss plans for a class field trip to the zoo. Future tense

If-clauses and
conditional tense

Describe a past vacation, weekend, etc. Simple past tense

Question formation
Forms of verb to do
Word order in negation

Role play a shopping trip to buy a gift for a May, might

family member or friend Collective nouns
and quantifiers
( any, some, several, etc.)

Answer information questions: Name, Present tense of

Address, phone numbers, etc the verb to be
Possessive adjectives

Tell someone how to find an object in your Locative prepositions

kitchen Modal verbs (can, may,
and should)
Fill out a medical history form. Then role play a Present perfect tense
medical interview on a visit with a new doctor Present perfect progressive
Make a daily weather report Forms of the verb to be
Idiomatic expressions

Report daily schedules of people (in the class, buses Habitual present
In the city, airline schedules, trains, etc.) Personal pronouns
Demonstrative
adjectives

Extend an invitation over the telephone to Would like…Object –

someone to come to a party Verb word order
Interrogative pronouns

Explain the rules and regulations to someone, Modal verbs: can, must,
i.e. rules for the school cafeteria, doctor’s should, and ought to
instructions to a sick patient Adverbs of time & frequency

40 | P a g e
Report a historical or actual past event and Past conditional and past
discuss conditions under which a different perfect tense
outcome might have resulted If clauses

React to the burglary of your house/ apartment in the Present perfect tense
presences of another person upon discovery(active voice ) Contrast between
and in making a police report active & passive
( passive voice) Direct & indirect object

CLOSURE ACTIVTIES

Let us study the summary of this chapter:

Teaching Grammar in situational contexts uses a generative
situation wherein the teacher sets up a story in order to ‘generate’ several
example sentences of a structure
There are several advantages:
 Permits presentation of a wide range of language items
 Language in context
 Situation explains meaning
 Ideal for inductive approach-rule discovery learning
 Students are active partners or co-creators
 More memorable than simple explanations
 High rate of efficacy
There are also disadvantages:
 Time consuming compared to presentation
 Requires a resourceful teacher
( the use of stories and pictures)
Possible Situation in Context::
 Follow a recipe
 Plans for a class field trip
 Report past events
 Buy a gift
 Answer personal questions
 Tell how to find and object
 Fill in a medical history form
 Report daily schedules
 Invitation on the phone
 Report an actual past even discuss conditions
under which a different outcome might have resulted

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

This approach to grammar teaching is suited in the use of localized materials like

41 | P a g e
events and stories. The students can generate their own situation too and be
able to use the grammar points for such situations or contexts. By the way
localization of materials is very much encouraged in the new curriculum.

EVALUATION

Describe your experience on the past three months of the community

quarantine due to covid 19. Use the following grammar points: simple past tense,
question formation, forms of the verb to be, and word order in negation. Your
essay must have the minimum of 20 sentences. Good luck!
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________

ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT

Circle the correct verb in parentheses: Good luck!

1. The chef ( follows, follow ) the recipe carefully.

2. Great opportunities ( exists, exist ) in education today.

3. The rain-drenched children ( comes, come ) into the dry, warm room.

42 | P a g e
 4. The money issues ( has, have ) affected our relationship.

5. Tiger Woods, who competes against the best golfers, frequently ( wins,
win ).

6. Her need to buy groceries ( outweighs, outweigh ) her desire to buy a

new dress.

7. Her beautiful voice and good looks ( assures, assure )that she will win
the pageant.

8. Each representative and senator ( has, have ) agreed to tackle covid

19 issues.

9. The committee ( votes, vote ) on the issue next hearing.

10. There ( is , are ) differences of opinion about the issue of ABS CBN.

11. Many people ( has, have) been affected by covid 19.

12. The great majority ( opposes, oppose ) the granting of the franchise of
ABS CBN.

13. The organized ( is, are ) always well liked.

14. The senate majority ( was, were ) against the bill.

15. The board ( has, have ) argued about the issue of firing employees.

REFERENCES
Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language
pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press.

43 | P a g e
CHAPTER – 5 TEACHING GRAMMAR THROUGH TEXTS AND THROUGH
STORIES

TITLE
 Authentic Texts or classroom texts
 Implication
 Advantages of Using Texts
 Disadvantages of Using Texts
 Teaching grammar through stories

RATIONALE
The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar

INSTRUCTION TO USERS
My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God

PRETEST

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate pronouns: You have to read carefully the
story so that you can supply the correct answer. Good luck!
her myself they herself me
them theirs you
I our yourself
this it their someone

Why do some people bring harm upon 1)__themselves______and the ones

2)____who__ love
3)___them____? I mean, how could Louise, 4) __my___ sister, do 5) _this to

44 | P a g e
6)_______us?

7)_she ruined everything --- 8) our family, 9) her friendships, and most of all,
10) herself. She was selfish and irresponsible, but our parents seemed to have
love her more than they did 11)_______________. I still cannot help thinking
why they could ignore 12)their smart and successful daughter for 13)someone
who is not even 14) theirs.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge on the approaches to

teaching grammar (through texts and stories.)
2. Achieve a good command of the English language through the creation of
authentic text.

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

If you my dear students are to achieve a functional command of the English

language you will need to be able to understand and produce not just isolated
sentences, but whole texts in the English language. Language is context-
sensitive, which is to say that an utterance becomes fully intelligible when it is
placed in context.
Today we are going to study another approach to teaching grammar and this
is to teach grammar through authentic texts and stories.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

 Authentic texts or classroom texts?

Advocates of authentic texts argue that not only are such specially written
EFL texts not interesting - and therefore not motivating – but they misrepresent
the way the language is used in real-life contexts. On the other hand, the
problems associated with authentic texts cannot be ignored, either, as any
teacher who has attempted to use a dense newspaper article with low level
students will have discovered. The linguistic load of unfamiliar vocabulary and
syntactic complexity can make such texts impenetrable, and ultimately
demotivating.

Teachers have to take authentic texts compromisingly. They have to

simplify them in ways that retain their genuine meaning. This is the approach
generally adopted by course books writers nowadays. Another way is to write
classroom texts that are more engaging and attention grabbing.

 Implications of this context-sensitive view of language on grammar

teaching are:

45 | P a g e
  Grammar is best taught and practiced in context.
 This means using whole texts as contexts in grammar
teaching

 Advantages of using texts:

 They provide co-textual information, allowing students to deduce
the meaning of unfamiliar grammatical item from the co-text.
 If the texts are authentic, they can show how the item is used in
real communication.
 As well as grammar input, texts provide vocabulary input, skills
practice, and exposure to features of text organization.
 Their use in the classroom is good preparation for independent
study.
 If the texts come from the students themselves, they may be more
engaging and their language features are memorable.
 Disadvantages
 The difficulty of the text, especially an authentic one, may mean
that some of the above advantages are lost.
 The alternative- to use simplified texts – may give a misleanding
impression as to how the language item is naturally used, again
defeating the purpose of using texts.
 Not all texts are of equal interests to students.
 Students wanting quick answers to simple questions may consider
the use of texts to be the ‘scenic route’ to language awareness,
and would prefer a quicker , more direct way.
 Teaching Grammar through Stories
Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and
illustrating grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning,
while the latter requires deductive thought, and it is useful to include both
approaches in lesson planning. A well-told story is also a good context
for structure-discourse factor match. Storytelling is one of these
extremely versatile techniques, and once you get the feel of it, it can be a
convenient and natural grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it
is the technique that holds students’ attention because they enjoy it so
much.
Grammar points can be contextualized in stories that are absorbing and
just plain fun if they are selected with the interest of the class in mind, are
told with a high degree of energy, and involve the students. Students
may create their own stories and even impersonate characters.
Students will be appreciative and responsive to the teacher’s efforts if you
let them participate in the storytelling process and at the same time they
will surely enjoy the stories.
Stories should last from one to five minutes, and the more exaggerated
and bizarre they are, the more likely that students will remember the
teaching points they illustrate

46 | P a g e
CLOSURE ACTIVTIES
Let us try to have a summary of the topic on chapter 5:
Grammar is best taught and practiced in context. Authentic texts provide
co-textual information, grammar input, vocabulary input, skills practice, and
features of text organization.
In grammar teaching, the use of stories can help students create their own
stories in which they can use the grammar lessons. Through their stories they
can reinforce their skills ; hence, the learners become grammatically competent.

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

No single method of grammar presentation is appropriate for all grammar items,

for all students, and for all learning contexts. A lot will also depend on the kind of
practice opportunities provided by the teachers.
Teaching grammar through texts and stories can provide ample opportunities for
learners to practice their grammar skills with fun and enjoyment.

EVALUATION
The following story contains problems on harmony of tenses. Encircle the
verbs which are in the wrong tense. Then rewrite the whole story changing the
tense of the verbs whenever necessary. The sentence is done for you. (Do not
change the quoted parts)

Darius, my little monkey, is my most cherished pet. Darius had dark hair and
sharp penetrating eyes that showed much intelligence. He is almost in mischief.
He tore everything he can take hold of.

Then he enjoys knocking over almost everything.

But when he felt good, he performs tricks.

He could dance up and down the branch of the tree to which he is tied.
Very often he threw banana peelings at the children at the children who stopped
under the tree to watch him do his tricks.

His greatest source of delight was being taken for a walk along a crowded street.
(adapted from Writing Effectively by Edda M. Martires)
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

47 | P a g e
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_____________
ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT
The following story contains problems on harmony of tenses. Encircle
the verbs which are in the wrong tense. Then rewrite the whole story changing
the tense of the verbs whenever necessary. The sentence is done for you. (Do
not change the quoted parts)

Long ago and far away there was an old farmer who had seven children.
When he thought that he was about to die, he gathered them about him. He told
a servant to bring in a bundle of seven sticks tied together. Handing the bundle
to his oldest child, the father said to him. “Now break the bundle.”
The son tried with all his might but he could not break the bundle. One by
one, the other children tried. Not one of themwas strong enough.
The father smiled, “Now my children, untie the bundle. Each of you take a
stick and try to break it.” This time they had no difficulty doing as their father
bade them. In a few moments all the stickswere broken.
“In unity there is strength,” said the father. (adapted Writing Effectively by
Edda M. Martires)

48 | P a g e
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
REFERENCES

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

49 | P a g e
teaching. Great Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

CHAPTER – 6 TEACHING GRAMMAR THROUGH SONGS AND POEMS

TITLE
 Songs
 Teaching Procedure
 Poems
 Teaching Procedure

RATIONALE
The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar

INSTRUCTION TO USERS
My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge on the approaches to

teaching grammar using songs and poems.
2. Follow the procedure in teaching grammar points using songs and poems

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
. We Filipinos are great singers. This is a comment usually stated by judges
in singing talent contests abroad like America’s Got Talent, (AGT). Young and

50 | P a g e
old alike love to sing. Hence, songs can also be used to teach grammar in the
classroom.
Young people nowadays are also into poetry, particularly spoken poetry.
Poems can also be an effective material to use in the teaching of grammar.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES
 SONGS
Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, we need to
contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and
culturally rich resources that can easily be used in language classroom. Songs
offer a change from routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to
develop students’ abilities in listening, speaking, reading and writing. They can
also be used to teach a variety of language items such as sentence patterns,
vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Learning
English through songs also provide non-threatening atmosphere for students,
who usually tense when speaking English in a formal classroom are setting.

Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through
which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic
texts, they motivate learners. Prosodic features of the language such as stress,
rhythm, intonation are presented through songs, thus through using them
language which is cut up into a series of structural points becomes a whole
again.

 Advantages

 There are many advantages of using songs in the classroom.

Through using contemporary popular songs, which are familiar to
learners, the teacher can meet the challenges of the teenagers in
the classroom.
 Since songs are highly memorable and motivating in many forms
they constitute a powerful subculture with their own rituals.
 Through using traditional folk songs the base of the learners
knowledge of the target culture can be broadened

 Teaching Procedures

There are various ways in using songs in the classroom. The level of the
students, the interests and the age of the learners, the grammar point to
be studied, and the song itself have determinant roles on the procedure.
Apart from them, it mainly depends on the creativity of the teacher.

At the primary level of singing the song, the prosodic features of the
language is emphasized. At the higher levels, where the practice of
grammar points is at the foreground, songs can be used with several

51 | P a g e
 techniques.

Some examples of these techniques are:

 Gap fills or close texts
 Focus questions
 True-false statements
 Put these lines into the correct sequence
 Dictation
 Add a final verse
 Circle the antonyms/synonyms of the given words
 Discuss

A teacher’s selection of a technique or a set of techniques should be based

on his or her objectives for the lesson. After deciding the grammar point to be
studied, and the song and the techniques to be used, the teacher should prepare
and effective lesson plan. Since songs are listening activities, it is advisable to
present them as a listening lesson, it is necessary to integrate all the skills in the
process in order to achieve successful teaching.

In the follow-up, integrated skills can be used to complete the overall course
structure. Since many songs are on themes for which it is easy to find related
reading texts. It may lead the learner to read a text about the signer or the
theme. In addition, many songs give a chance for a written reaction fo some
kind. Opinion questions may lead the learner to write about his own thoughts or
reflections. Some songs deal with a theme that can be re-exploited through role
plays. Acting may add enthusiasm to the learning process. Lastly, some songs
deal with themes, which can lead to guided discussion. With this, the grammar
point could be practiced orally in a natural way too.

 POEMS

Poems like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since

poetry is often spoken, repeated, dealt with and considered, it can be an
effective tool for practicing a specific grammatical structure. Through
repeating and considering the poem, the grammatical structures become
more deeply internalized. Thus, poems not only provide a rewarding
resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for
review. A poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good
poem and it engages the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously
while it stimulates and moves us. This polymorphic effect makes poetry
easier to memorize than other things.

Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language.

52 | P a g e
 Hence, it is an important aspect to be taught. English is a syllable timed
language with stressed syllables being spoken at roughly equal time
pauses, even in everyday speech. Similar to songs, poems have
enormous linguistic values as they provide authenticity and cultural views.
A poem’s capacity to comfort the reader or the listener also increases its
effectiveness as a teaching resource. Once a poem or song has been
learned, it stays in the minds of the students for the rest of their lives, with
all the rhythms, grammatical features and vocabulary.

Poems may bring the use of creativity and the rhythm into the language
classroom, though they may also bring some difficulties. Poems are not
constructed in a simple way and syntactically they are at a higher level
than prose. Thus, it might be so difficult for a foreign language learner to
comprehend them completely.

 Selection of a poem piece

In the selection of a poem, the teacher should first consider the following:
 grammatical structure to be presented, practiced, or reviewed
 the level and the age of the learners
 the theme and the length of the poem
 the appropriateness to the classroom objectives
Teachers are advised to select a poem from 2oth century poets. As
older poems often provide a more difficult lexicon and syntax and they reflect
some old-fashioned ideas. It more convenient to use contemporary poems
which reflect cultural themes, universal features, humanistic values, or emotional
aspects.
 Teaching Procedure

At the teaching stage of a poem, it is not advisable to talk about the

meaning of the poem in advance. Since a poem offers a reading and
listening activity, it could be presented through a reading plan.

 The Pre-reading Stage. Students might be motivated through

some enthusiastic talks about poetry or the poet. Unlocking of
difficulties can also be handled at this stage.

 The Reading Stage by the Teacher: In order to create images

and stress prosodic features, the teacher may want the students to
close their eyes while he/she is reading the poem. After reading
the poem has been read at least twice, the teacher may elicit the
primary responses of the students about the poem.

 The Reading Stage by the Students. The teacher distributes a

copy of the poem to the students and they may be asked to read
the poem aloud or silently. In order to practice the determined

53 | P a g e
 grammar point, students may be asked to paraphrase the poem.
The paraphrase should use the grammatical structure in focus.

 The Post-Reading Stage: After easing the grammar and

understanding the vocabulary, learners get an idea about the
theme of the poem. Reading the paraphrased poem reinforces the
grammatical structure under consideration. Asking questions about
context may follow the reading. Through asking Wh-questions,
providing additional information about the culture, and asking
students to share their experience with the subject matter, the
cultural content of the poem becomes morel real and vivid. Words,
pictures, and shared experiences can eliminate the gap that is
created by different cultures, as no one can deny that poems
cannot always draw the same sounds, sights, smells, and
associations for both native speakers and foreign language
learners. After discussing the surface content of the poem,
students may again asked to close their eyes and visualize the
poem while listening to it.

 The Reinforcement Stage. As a follow-up activity, a discussion

may be held. After reviewing the plot of the poem and providing
adequate artful questions, the learners will eventually discover the
deeper meaning of the poem. The teacher should avoid telling the
meaning. After each student grasps his or her own meaning, it is
proper to discuss the depth of the poem and make it relevant to
their lives. Once they have understood the poem and perceived its
relevance, they will have no objection to practicing the poem or
even memorizing it.

At the follow-up stage, provide the determined structure and

students maybe asked to write a poem about anything they want.
In this procedure the four skills are integrated effectively

CLOSURE ACTIVTIES

Exploitation of songs for grammatical structures can be illustrated through

several examples. For present tense “Let It Be” by the Beatles, for the past
tense “Yesterday “ by the Beatles, for the present progressive “Sailing” by Rod
Stewart, for present perfect “Nothing Compares to You” by Sinead O’Connor, for
past perfect “Last Night I Had… by Simon and Garfunkel, for modals “Blowing in
the Wind,” by Bob Dylan.

For young students or for beginners, instead of poems we may want to use
nursery rhymes or songs would be more helpful since these can provide more
joyful and easier contexts. From pre-intermediate to advanced levels, we may

54 | P a g e
use either songs or poems.

For the advanced levels, the poems of W.H. Auden, Robert Frost, Stanley
Kunitz, Delmore Schwartz, W.D. Snodgrass, Richard Wilbur, Robert Lowell, etc.
are suggested for the language teachers who want to use poems in their
grammar lessons.

[Link]
Lesson_Closure_Coaching_Guide-[Link]

SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

Since every class is different, we ( teachers ) should be creative to determine

the teaching procedure. It is not advisable to apply one procedure to strictly. We
should adopt the activities according to the needs of the learners and according
to the objectives and much more so with the grammar structures that we want
our student to learn and master.

EVALUATION
Let us analyze the song by answering
the following questions at the end of the song:

The Impossible Dream

(Singer: Frank Sinatra;)
To dream the impossible dream
To fight the unbeatable foe
To bear with unbearable sorrow
To run where the brave dare not go

To right the unrightable wrong

To be better far than you are
To try when your arms are too weary
To reach the unreachable star

This is my quest, to follow that star

No matter how hopeless
No matter how far
To be willing to give
When there’s no more to give
To be willing to die
So that honor and justice may live

And I know if I’ll only be true

To this glorious quest
That my heart will lie peaceful and calm
When I’m laid to my rest

55 | P a g e
 And the world will be better for this
That one man scorned and covered with scars
Still strove with his last ounce of courage
To reach the unreachable star.

Questions:
1. What is the meaning of the impossible dream?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
______________________
2. What is the song “The Impossible Dream “ about?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________
3. Pinpoint the grammatical structure prominent in the lyrics of the song.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________
4. How is the grammatical structure used in the lyrics of the song?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

56 | P a g e
 __________________________________________________________
________________________
5. Compose your own original song using the grammar structure infinitive/s
phrase/s.
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
____________

ASSIGNMENT / AGREEMENT

Make a compilation of the lyrics of the following songs (for future use)

1. Let It Be
2. Yesterday
3. Sailing
4. Nothing Compares to You
5. Blowing in the Wind

REFERENCES

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.
Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language
teaching. Great

57 | P a g e
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

CHAPTER 7 - SOME RULES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

TITLE

 The Rule of Context

 The Rule of Use
 The Rule of Economy
 The Rule of Relevance
 The Rule of Nurture
 The Rule of Appropriacy

OBJECTIVES:

1. Demonstrate conceptual and expanded knowledge on the different

techniques in teaching grammar and rules of thumb for teaching
grammar.

2. Expound on the different rules in teaching grammar.

CONTENT:

 SOME RULES FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

PREPARATORY ACTIVITY

Rules are very essential in our everyday life. Rules are supposed to serve
as guides for us to do the right or correct thing. When we follow rules, we can
live in harmony with each other and with nature. Today we are going to discuss
some of the rules in teaching grammar. These rules can guide us English
teachers.

58 | P a g e
DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITY

What conclusions are to drawn about the teaching of grammar? Here are
some rules of thumb for teaching grammar. Let us be guided so that we can be
effective grammar teachers.

 THE RULE OF CONTEXT:

Teach grammar in context. If you have to take an item out of context in

order to take an item out of context in order to draw attention to it, ensure
that it is re – contextualized as soon as possible. Similarly, teach
grammatical forms in association with their meanings. The choice of one
grammatical form over another is always determined by the meaning the
speaker or writer wishes to convey.

 THE RULE OF USE:

Teach grammar in order to facilitate the learner’s comprehension and

productions of real language, rather than as an end in itself. Always
provide opportunities for learners to put the grammar to some
communicative use.

 THE RULE OF ECONOMY:

To fulfill the rule of use, be economical. This means economizing on

presentation time in order to provide maximum practice time. With
grammar, a little can go a long way.

 THE RULE OF RELEVANCE:

Teach only the grammar that students have problems with. This means,
start off by finding out what they already know. And don’t assume that the
grammar of English is a wholly different system from the learner’s mother
tongue. Exploit the common ground.

 THE RULE OF NURTURE:

Teaching doesn’t necessarily cause learning – not in any direct way.

Instead of teaching grammar, therefore, try to provide the right conditions
for grammar learning.

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  THE RULE OF APPROPRIACY:

Interpret all the above rules according to the level, needs, interests,
expectations and learning styles of the students. This may mean giving a
lot of prominence to grammar, or it may mean never actually teaching
grammar at all – in any up – front way. But either way, it is your
responsibility as a teacher to know your grammar inside out.

 SOME CONDITIONS

The RULE OF NURTURE argues for providing the conditions for

grammar learning. What are these conditions? If the answer to
this much disputed question could be reduced to a handful of
essentials, they would probably be these:

 THE INPUT learner get:

Will it be presented in such a way that the learners are likely

to engage with it, thus ensuring a reasonable chance of it
becoming intake?

 THEIR OUTPUT:

Will it be of sufficient quantity and quality to ensure that they

have opportunities to develop both accuracy and fluency?
 THE FEEDBACK they get:

Will it be of the type and quantity to ensure that some of their

attention is directed at form?

 THEIR MOTIVATION:

Will the content and design of the lesson be such that the
learners are motivated to attend to the input, produce
optimal output, and take account
of the feedback?
CLOSURE ACTIVITY:

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 Let us have a look at the main points of this chapter: We have presented
six rules of thumb in teaching grammar:

 The Rule of Context

 The Rule of Use
 The Rule of Economy
 The Rule of Relevance
 The Rule of Nurture
 The Rule of Appropriacy.

For the Rule of Nurture, some conditions have to be observed:

 The Input learners get
 Their Output
 The Feedback they get
 Their Motivation

ASSIGNMENT/REINFORCEMENT

1. Study the rules of thumb in teaching grammar

2. Prepare for a quiz on the application of these rules.

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

61 | P a g e
UNIT 8 – GRAMMAR (LANGUAGE) ASSESSMENT CONCEPTS AND
PRINCIPLES

TITLE:

 Testing
 Assessment
 Principles of Language Assessment
o Practicality
o Reliability
o Validity
- Content Validity
- Face Validity
- Construct Validity
- Washback
 Purposes of Assessment
 Functions of Language Test
 Kinds of Assessment & Evaluation
 Types of Assessment Tools
 Kinds of Tests

RATIONALE

The main aim of this learning material is to help English teachers prepare for
their future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs in grammar

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 – you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in

62 | P a g e
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God.+

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate conceptual and expanded knowledge in the methods of

grammar assessment.

2. Demonstrate deep understanding on the terms of assessment.

3. Distinguish between the terms assessment and testing.

4. Define the basic principles of language (grammar) assessment.

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

Assessment is an integral part of the pedagogical process of designing lessons,

implementing them, and evaluating their success. Without an assessment
component of every lesson, every unit, and every course, the attainment of
objectives and goals could hardly be determined. This chapter presents the
principles and basic concepts in language assessment (grammar is part of
language) with the inclusion of five basic principles in every assessment
procedure.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Let us take a look at the key concepts of this chapter:

ASSESSMENT

 Is the act of gathering information on a daily basis in order to understand

individual student’s learning needs. “In the context of language (grammar)
teaching and learning, ‘assessment’ refers to the act of collecting
information and making judgments about a language learner’s knowledge
of a language and ability to use it.” (Chapelle & Brindley)

TESTING

 refers to procedures that are based on tests. In learning, it is a salient

part of assessment.

LANGUAGE TESTING

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  is the practice and study of evaluating the proficiency of an individual in
using a particular language effectively. (Allen)

MEASUREMENT

 includes testing and other types of measurement, as well as other types of

information that result in quantitative data such as attendance, records,
questionnaires, teacher ratings of students, etc.

EVALUATION

 is the culminating act of interpreting the information gathered for the

purpose of making decisions or judgments about students’ learning and
needs, often at reporting time. It forms as part of assessment.

In our attempt to have a description of language assessment, we need to define

some frequently misunderstood terms. The word assessment has been a
popular word for teachers – likewise with the terms communicative or
interactive. According to Brown (2007), that you are said to be in the cutting
edge if you assess your students in lieu of testing them. This is a
misunderstanding.

PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR) ASSESSMENT

Whether we focus on testing or assessing, a finite number of principles can serve

as guidelines for the design of a new test or assessment and for evaluating
efficacy of an existing procedure. Brown presents five principles that various
assessment specialists cite as priorities for the design of language assessment.

1. Practicality

A good test is practical. It is within the means of financial limitations, time

constraints, ease of administration, and scoring and interpretation.

The extent to which a test is practical sometimes hinges on whether a test

is designed to be norm-referenced or criterion-referenced.

In norm-referenced tests, each test taker’s score is interpreted in relation

to a mean, median, standard deviation, and/or percentile rank. The
purpose in such tests is to place test-takers along a mathematical
continuum in rank order. Typical of norm referenced tests are
standardized tests intended to be administered to large audiences, with
results quickly disseminated to test-takers. Such tests must have fixed,
predetermined responses in a format can be electronically scanned.
Practicality is a primary issue.

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 Criterion-referenced tests are designed to give test-takers feedback on
specific course or lesson objectives, that is, the ‘criteria.’ Classroom tests
involving smaller numbers, and connected to a curriculum, are typical
criterion-referenced testing. Here, more time and effort on the part of the
teacher (test administrator) are usually required in order to deliver the
feedback. In criterion-referenced tests practicality is just a secondary
issue in the design of the test; teachers may sacrifice time and effort in
order to offer students appropriate and useful feedback –the instructional
value of a test. Testing (assessing) and teaching are interrelated.

2. Reliability

A reliable test is consistent and dependable. A number of sources of

unreliability may be identified:

o The test itself (its construction), known as test reliability

o The administration of the test
o The test-taker, known as student-related reliability
o The scoring of the test, - known as rater / scorer reliability

3. Validity

By far the most complex criterion of a good test is validity, the degree to
which the test actually measures what it is intended to measure.
How does one establish validity of a test? Statistical correlation with other
related measures is a standard method. But ultimately, validity can be
established only by observation and theoretical justification.

There is no final, absolute, and objective measure of validity. We have to

ask questions that give us convincing evidence that a test accurately and
sufficiently measures the test-taker for the particular objective, or criterion,
of the test.

Types of Validity

a. Content Validity

If a test actually samples the subject matters about which

conclusions are to be drawn, if it requires the test-taker to perform
the behavior that is being measured, it can claim content validity.

b. Face Validity

A concept that is very closely related to content validity is face

validity, which asks the question “Does the test, on the ‘face’ of it

65 | P a g e
 appear from the learner’s perspective to test what it is designed to
test?” To achieve “peak” performance on a test, a learner needs to
be convinced that the test is indeed testing what it claims to test.
Face validity is almost always perceived in terms of content: If the
test samples the actual content of what the learner has achieved or
expects to achieve.

c. Construct Validity

A third category of validity that teachers must be awre of in

considering language tests is construct validity. One way to look
at construct validity is to ask the question “Does this test actually
tap into the theoretical construct as it has been defined?
“Proficiency” is a construct. “Communicative competence’ is a
construct. “ Self-esteem” is a construct. Virtually every issue in
language learning and teaching involves theoretical constructs.
Tests are, in a manner of speaking, operational definitions of such
constructs in that they operationalize the entity that is being
measured (Davidson, Hudson, & Lynch 1985)

4. Authenticity

A fourth major principle of language testing is authenticity, a concept that

is a little slippery to define, especially within the art and science of
evaluating and designing tests. Bachman & Palmer (1996) define
authenticity as ‘the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a
given language test task to the features of a target language task,’ and
tehn suggest an agenda for identifying those target language tasks and for
transforming them into valid test items.

When one claims for authenticity in a test task, this is a task that is likely
to be enacted in the ‘real world’. Many test item types fail to simulate real-
world tasks. They maybe contrived or artificial in their attempt to target a
grammatical form or a lexical item. The sequencing of items that bear no
relationship to one another lacks authenticity.

In a test, authenticity may be present in the following ways:

o The language in the test is as natural as possible.
o Items are contextualized rather than isolated.
o Topics and situations are interesting, enjoyable, and humorous.
o Some thematic organization to items is provided, such as through a
story line or episode.
o Tasks represent, or closely approximate, real-world tasks.

5. Washback

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 When students take a test, they will receive information (feedback) about
their competence, based on their performance. Their feedback should
“washback” to them in the form of useful diagnoses of strengths and
weaknesses. Washback also includes the effects of assessment on
teaching and learning prior the assessment itself, that is, on preparation
for the assessment. Informal assessment I by nature more likely to have
built-in washback effects, because the teacher is usually providing
interactive feedback. Formal tests can also have positive washback, but
they are also subject to an inadvertent absence of washback if students
simply receive a letter grade or a single overall numerical score.

PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT

1. Assessment for Learning

It focuses on the gap between where learners are in their learning, and
where they need to be – the desired goal. It can be realized through
processes like sharing criteria with learners, effective questioning and
feedback. It pertains to ‘all those activities undertaken by teachers and
their students that provide information to be used as feedback to modify
the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged.’(Black &
William)

Learners learn best

o when they understand clearly
o when they are given feedback
o when they are given advice
o when they are fully involved.

2. Assessment as Learning

It is about reflecting on evidence of learning. This is part of the cycle of

assessment where students and staff set learning goals, share learning
intentions and success criteria, and evaluate their learning through
dialogue and self and peer assessment.

Students become aware of:

o What they learn
o How they learn
o What helps them learn.

Students are able to build knowledge of themselves as learners and

become metacognitive. Hence, students become aware of how they
learn. It also helps them to take more responsibility for their learning and
participate more in the process of learning.

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 3. Assessment of Learning

Assessment of learning involves working with the range of available

evidence that enables staff and the wider assessment community to check
on student’s progress and using this information in a number of ways.

It also provides an arena for the management and planning of

assessment, and for teachers to work collaboratively with the evidence. It
connects assessment with the curriculum.

Judgments about students’ learning need to be dependable. This means

that:
o They are valid (based on sound criteria).
o They are reliable (accuracy of assessment and
practice).
o They are comparable (they stand up when compared to
judgments in other departments or schools).

FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE TESTS

Tests are essential parts of assessment, thus it is important that their functions
are clearly identified.

1. In Learning

In learning, tests are used to measure student’s language ability, to

discover how much they have been learning, to diagnose students’
strengths and weaknesses, and to motivate students in learning.

2. In Teaching

Tests are used in teaching s a means to ensure effective teaching, to

improve teaching quality, to obtain feedback on student learning place on
a course.
Tests can have a backwash effect, which means that they may result in
changes of instructional programs or teaching practices to reflect the test
contents because language teachers want their students to do well on
high stakes tests for many different reasons.

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 3. In Research

Language tests have a potentially important role in virtually all research,

both basic and applied, that is related to the nature of language
proficiency, language processing, language acquisition, language attrition,
and language teaching.

KINDS OF ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

1. Diagnostic Assessment and Evaluation

These are usually given at the beginning of the school year and before
each unit of study. The aims are to identify students’ knowledge and skills
, their learning needs, and their motivational and interest levels. The
result of diagnostic assessment can help teachers determine where to
begin instruction and what concepts or skills to emphasize. Diagnostic
assessment provides teachers essential information in the selection of
relevant learning objectives and in the design of appropriate student’s
learning experiences

2. Formative Assessment and Evaluation

These focus on the processes and products of learning. Formative

assessment is continuous and is meant to inform the student, the
parent/guardian, and the teacher of the student’s progress in the course.
This kind of assessment and evaluation provides information upon which
instructional decisions and adaptations can be made to provide students
with directions for future learning.

3. Summative Assessment and Evaluation

These occur most often at the end of a unit of instruction and at term or
year end when students are ready to demonstrate achievement of
curriculum objectives.
The aims are
o to determine knowledge , skills, abilities, and attitudes that
have been developed over a given period of time;
o to summarize student’s progress; and
o to report this progress to students, parents/guardians, and
teachers.

TYPES OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS

Assessment data can be collected and recorded by the teacher and the students
in many ways. Through these, a teacher can discover much about their
students’ knowledge, abilities, interests, and needs.

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1. Observation

It occurs during students’ reading, writing, listening, and speaking

experiences. It is an unobtrusive way for teachers and students to
determine progress during learning. Observations are recorded on
anecdotal notes, checklists and rating scales.
2. Anecdotal Records

These are notes written by the teacher regarding student language

behavior, or learning. They document and describe significant daily
events, and relevant aspects of student activity and progress. These can
be taken during student activities are at the end of the day.

3. Checklists

Observation checklists, usually completed while students are engaged in

specific activities or processes, are lists of specific criteria that teachers
focus on at a particular time or process. They are used to record whether
students have acquired specific knowledge, skills, processes, abilities,
and attitudes. Checklists inform teachers about where their instruction
has been successful and where students need assistance or further
instruction.

4. Rating Scales and Rubrics

These record the extent to which specific criteria have been achieved by
the student or are present in the student’s work. Rating scales also record
the quality of the student’s performance at a given or within a given
process.

5. Portfolios

These are collections of relevant work that reflect students’ individual

efforts, development, and progress over a designated period of time.
These also provide students, teachers, parents, and administrators with a
broad picture of each student’s growth over time, including the student’s
abilities, knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Students should be involved in
the selection of work to be included, goal setting for personal learning, and
self-assessment. The teacher can encourage critical thinking by having
students decide which of their works to include in their portfolios and
explain why they chose particular items. Instruction and assessment are
integrated as students and teachers collaborate to compile relevant and
individual portfolios for each student.

6. Speaking and Listening

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 Checklists, rating scales, and anecdotal notes used throughout the
lessons can provide information about the students’ oral progress. Oral
presentations and incidental observations provide opportunities and
incidental observations provide opportunities to gather information about
students’ listening and speaking abilities. A rubric which includes
performance criteria can be useful for setting a mark for each student.
Students should be aware of the expectations at each level.
Speaking or listening may be more heavily emphasized depending upon
the particular unit or activities.. Teachers with the collaboration of the
students will determine the way that the unit will be evaluated; however, it
is important that students know from the beginning how they will be
assessed and evaluated.

7. Interviews / Conferences

During these discussions, teachers can discover students’ perceptions of

their own processes and products of learning. Interview questions can be
developed to meet the needs of specific students and to fit the curriculum
objectives.

8. Projects and Presentations

Criteria should be developed and/or discussed with students at the outset

of activities such as written reports, visual representations, oral
presentations, or projects which combine more than one aspect of
language use and understanding.
Teachers may assess the attitudes, skill development, knowledge, or
learning processes demonstrated by students as they engage in language
activities. Data gathered during student activities can be recorded as
anecdotal notes, on checklists, rating scales, or by using a combination of
these.

9. Quizzes, Tests, and Examinations

These are most often used for assessing students’ knowledge of content;
however, they may be used to assess processes, skills, and attitudes.
Tests, whether they are oral or written must represent students’
achievements as accurately as possible.
Formats for test items should be varied; each type is most effective at
assessing and evaluating student progress when used in conjunction with
the other types.

KINDS OF LANGUAGE TESTS

There are many kinds of tests each with a specific purpose and a particular

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criterion to be measured. Five types are common tests in a language curriculum.
The descriptions are only for the purpose of identifying and differentiating the
types not to serve a a manual for designing such tests.

1. Proficiency Tests

These are designed to measure people’s ability in a language, regardless

of any training they may have had in that language. The content of a
proficiency test, therefore, is not based on the content or objectives of
language courses that people taking the test may have followed.

In the case of some proficiency tests, ‘proficient’ means having sufficient

command of the language for a particular purpose. Whatever the
particular purpose to which the language is to be put, this will be reflected
in the specification of test content at an early stage of a test’s
development.

Examples of standardized proficiency tests are TOEFL and IELTS

2. Achievement Tests

Achievement tests are directly related to language courses, their purpose

being to establish how successful individual students, groups of students,
or the courses themselves have been in achieving objectives.

Two Types

 Final Achievement Tests – are those administered at the end of

the course. They may be written and administered by DepEd,
district or division or by members of teaching institutions. The
content of FAT should be based directly on a detailed course
syllabus or on the books and other materials used. (syllabus-
content approach)

 Progress Achievement Tests – are intended to measure the

progress that students make. They contribute to formative
assessment. Since ‘progress’ is towards the achievement of course
objectives, these tests should relate to objectives.

3. Diagnostic Tests

Diagnostic tests are used to identify learners’ strengths and weaknesses

at a particular aspect of a language. They are intended primarily to
ascertain what learning still needs to take place.

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 4. Placement Tests

Placement tests are intended to provide information that will help to place
students at the stage (or in the part)
of the teaching program most appropriate to their abilities. They are used
to assign students to classes at different levels.
Certain proficiency tests and diagnostic tests can act in the role of
placement tests whose purpose is to place a student into an appropriate
level or a section in a language curriculum.

5. Aptitude Tests

The type of test given to a person prior to any exposure to the second
language predicts a person’s future success. A language aptitude test is
designed to measure a person’s capacity or general ability to learn a
foreign language and to be successful in that undertaking. Aptitude tests
are considered to be independent of a particular language.

CLOSURE ACTIVITIES

SYNTHESIS

Let us have a second look at the main points of this chapter:

These concepts are very useful in assessment of grammar.

 Key Concepts - Testing, Assessment, Evaluation, and Measurement.

 Purposes of Assessment – for learning
As learning
Of learning
 Functions of language tests – in learning
In teaching
In research
 Kinds of Assessment & Evaluation
- Diagnostic
- Formative
- Summative
 Types of Assessment Tools
- Observation
- Anecdotal Records
- Checklists
- Rating Scales & Rubrics
- Portfolios
- Speaking & Listening
- Interviews/ Conferences
- Projects & Presentations

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 - Quizzes, Tests, & Examinations
 Kinds of Language Tests
- Proficiency
- Achievement
- Diagnostic
- Placement
- Aptitude
EVALUATION:

Present your ideas about the following concepts based on our discussions.

1. Differentiate testing, assessment, evaluation and measurement.

2. What essential principles about assessment and evaluation
should English teachers bear in mind?
3. What are the main functions of language tests?
4. What are the significance of the following assessment and evaluation:
diagnostic, formative, and summative?
5. What are the various assessment tools? When is each tool utilized?

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Study all the topics of Chapter 8. Be ready for a long quiz…

REFERENCES:

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

74 | P a g e
CHAPTER 9 – GRAMMAR ASSESSMENT

TITLE:

 Grammar
 Language Testing
 Grammar Testing
 Assessing Grammar
 Reasons to Assess
 Formative, Summative & Authentic Assessment

RATIONALE

The aim of this learning module is to help English teachers prepare for their
future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs.

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best all for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST:

Answer briefly these items.

1. What are some of the reasons to assess grammar?

2. Why is grammar Important?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

75 | P a g e
 1. Demonstrate conceptual and expanded knowledge about grammar and
grammar assessment

2. Define grammar and grammar assessment as given by famous linguists

3. Expound on the importance of grammar and grammar assessment.

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

Al-Mekhlafi & Nagaratman (2011) pointed out that researchers have debated
whether grammar has to be taught in the classroom or not. Students view
grammar teaching as a necessary evil at best. Many teachers are unwilling to
teach grammar due to their own low skill level, student’s low motivation and other
reasons ( Borg, 2010 ). Teacher’s attitude towards grammar teaching and
assessment depends very much on their own accuracy and fluency of
grammatical skills. However in the academe grammar testing is a necessity
because English is part of the curriculum most especially that in the basic
education, students have to enhance their grammatical proficiency.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Let us now discuss the topics of this chapter:

What is Grammar?

 Crystal (1995) defines grammar as that branch of the description of

language which accounts for the way in which words combine to form
sentences.

 Close (1982 ) “English Grammar is chiefly a system of syntax, that

decides the order and patterns in which words are arranged into
sentences.

Language Testing & Grammar Testing

 Language testing is the practice and study of evaluating the proficiency of

an individual in using a particular language effectively. Language testing
is a field of study under the umbrella of applied linguistics.
Main Focus:
o The assessment of first, second or other language in
the school, college, or university context;
o The assessment of language used in the workplace;
o The assessment of language in immigration, citizenship
and asylum.

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 Assessment include the ff:
o Listening
o Speaking
o Reading
o Writing
o An integration of 2 or more of these skills or other
constructs of language ability.

Note: Equal weight may be placed on knowledge (understanding

how the language works theoretically) and proficiency (abili-
ty to use the language practically) or greater weight may be
given to one aspect or the other.

 A well-constructed English test can help students in 2 ways:

o Test can create positive attitudes towards the class.

o Test can help students master the language.
 For teachers, they can also benefit from the test:
o To diagnose their own efforts and the efforts of their
students.
o To provide insights into the ways on how they can improve
the evaluation process.
 Grammar tests are designed to measure students’ proficiency in matters
ranging from inflections to syntax. Syntax involves the relationship of
words in a sentence, including matters of word-order, use of negative,
question forms, and connectives, etc.

Grammar Assessment

Why assess grammar:

o Linguistic or communicative competence
o Structure or functions
o Usage or use
o Prescriptive or descriptive
 Assessment is another fundamental aspect of teaching
 Assessment can help to determine student’s proficiency in a language
 Using assessment can help identify learner’s strengths and weaknesses
 Teachers also need to use constant assessment to determine how well
students are comprehending the material that has been covered or how
much information they picked up from a specific course.
 Assessment relates to individual student learning. It is the act of collecting
information and making judgments on a language learner’s knowledge
and ability to use it.

Reasons to assess (summary)

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  Diagnosing students strengths and weaknesses
 Deciding what to and what not to teach next
 Giving students feedback
 Seeing students’ progress
 Handing students their final grade

Types of Grammar Assessment

 Formative – on going process

 Summative – at the end of learning
 Authentic – multiple forms of assessment that reflect student learning
achievement , motivation and attitudes on instructionally relevant
classroom activities. i.e. performance of the skills, demonstration –
simulations and role plays.
 Ten Takeaway Tips for Using Authentic Assessment
 Break Down Skill Work into Small Steps
 Build a Community of Practice
 Work Backwards
 Have Fun
 Ensure Vigor
 Give Cards a Try
 Tap into Students’ Interests
 Use Tasks on Demand
 DYO: Do your Own Assessment
 Use a Variety of Tracking Tools

CLOSURE ACTIVITIES

(The teachers asks 3 students to summarize the discussions)

SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION

Grammar Assessment is a very complicated process. Language users are not

only assessed in their knowledge of form, function and meaning but they have to
be assessed on their capability to use the language in real communicative
situations. They have to use the grammar of language in their everyday life in all
their contexts (home, school, community and most especially in their workplace.)

EVALUATION

Answer the following items as comprehensively as possible.

1. Why is grammar assessment important in language learning?
2. Which of the assessment types would you think can help you best in the
future

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ASSIGNMENT

Research Work: Gather information on innovations in grammar assessment

Send your library research on my gmail account.

REFERENCES

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

79 | P a g e
CHAPTER 10 - HOW TO MAKE ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR SKILLS
MORE EFFICIENT

TITLE

 Five Characteristics to Measure Communicative Grammar (Res-Dickins)

 Assessment Tasks Types
 Tips for Effective Assessment of Grammar Skills

RATIONALE

The aim of this learning module is to help English teachers prepare for their
future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs.

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best at all times for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST

Define briefly the following terms:

1. Grammar Skills

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 2. Assessment
3. Authentic
4. Semi-Authentic
5. Traditional
6. Communicative
7. Perceptive Skills
8. Productive Skills
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate conceptual and expanded knowledge on how to make

assessment of grammar skills more efficient.
2. Enumerate the five characteristics to measure communicative grammar.
3. Explain assessment task types.
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of tasks for grammar skills
assessment.
5. Enumerate some tips for effective assessment of grammar skills.

CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES

Grammar assessment is a necessity in the academe; for students’ grammatical

proficiency have to be measured. This has to be done in order to assign
students their grades in the English subject/s.

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Five characteristics to measure communicative grammar (rea-dickins,

2003)

1. The test must provide more context than only a single sentence.

2. The test-taker should understand the communicative purposes of the task.

3. He or she should also know the intended audience.

4. He or she must have to focus on the meaning and not the form to answer
correctly.
5. Recognition is not sufficient. The test-taker must be able to produce
grammatical responses.

Reasons for liking grammar assessment tasks by teachers and students:

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1. Gap filling ( initial form given or a choice of forms offered)
Teachers: Easy to construct and check and develops automaticity
Students: Easy to fulfill/answer

2. Multiple Choice test ( choosing a morphological form, syntactic structure

or word order)
Teachers: Easy to check and score and develops automaticity.
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer

3. Transformation ( person, number, tense, voice, mood, degrees of

comparison, statement question)
Teachers: Easy to construct, develops automaticity and cognitive skills
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer.

4. Clause combining (accompanied or not accompanied by transformation)

Teachers: Easy to construct and check; develops speaking/writing
strategies.
Students: Easy to answer/accomplish.

5. Making up sentences from the given words (accompanied or not

accompanied by grammatical transformation)
Teachers: Easy to construct and check; develops speaking/writing
strategies.
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer.

6. Error identification
Teachers: Easy to check and score; useful for future language teachers.
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer.

7. Error correction
Teachers: Easy to construct, check and score; useful for future language
teachers.
Students: Easy to accomplish/answer

8. Choosing independent sentence interpretation based on the grammatical

form/structure (while listening or reading)
Teachers: Develops lingua-pragmatic competence, listening/reading
comprehension strategies.
Students:

9. Text-based (and probably the situation is described) gap filling.

Teachers: Easy to construct, check, and score and is almost
communicative.
Students: It is communicative and sometimes even entertaining.

10. Grammatical games (dominoes, word games etc.)

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 Teachers: Motivating
Students: Motivating

11. Authentic (essay, letter, dialogue, monologue on a topic – grammatical

comprehensibility assessed)
Teachers: It is communicative.
Students: It is communicative.

Reasons for teachers and students not liking grammar assessment tasks

1. Gap filling
Teachers: Mechanical, a chance to guess the correct answer by chance.
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often not enough context.
2. Multiple choice test
Teachers: More than 2 choices may be difficult to make up, mechanical
a high probability to guess the correct answers by chance.
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often not enough context, confusing
sometimes.
3. Transformation
Teachers: Mechanical, no comprehension may be involved
Students: Dull, uncommunicative
4. Clause combining
Teachers: Mechanical
Students: Dull, uncommunicative
5. Making up sentences from the given words
Teachers:
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, often difficult (if the sentence is long)
6. Error identification
Teachers: Mechanical, a high probability to guess the correct answer
by chance, may cause error fossilization.
Students: Dull, uncommunicative, difficult, often confusing.
7. Error correction
Teachers: May cause error fossilization.
Students: Too difficult, often the meaning of the sentence; due to the
error is obscure.
8. Choosing or independent sentence interpretation, based on the
grammatical form/structure (while listening or reading)
Teachers: Difficult to make up, the choosing is mechanical, there is a high
to guess the correct answer by chance; independent interpret
ation is difficult to assess.
Students: Difficult, demands high level of analytic skills
9. Text-based (probably the situation is described) gap filling
Teachers: It is difficult to find authentic texts containing many target
forms.
Students:
10. Grammatical Games

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 Teachers: Students may not concentrate attention on grammar.
Students
11. Authentic (essay, letter, dialogue, monologue on a topic – grammatical
comprehensibility assessed)
Teachers: Difficult to assess.
Students: May not concentrate on grammar and make errors not made
under other conditions.

TASKS 1-7 are traditional, language centered grammar assessments.

TASKS 8-10 may be viewed as semi-authentic grammar assessment.

TASK 11 is an authentic grammar assessment. It means that in real life we

never do or gap filling or multiple choice. We regularly write letters, speak with
each other (dialogue) or in front of the public (monologue). Only sometimes we
interpret sentences.

Tips for effective assessment of grammar skills

1. To avoid boredom, hold tasks 1-7 as a competition between or among

groups as an ice-breaker or game.

2. Make gap-filling and multiple choice text based as often as possible,

choose interesting contents/texts.

3. To avoid guessing by chance influencing the grade too much, involve 4-5
options, where applicable.

4. Give effective examples demonstrating how a grammar mistake can turn

into an ambiguous one.

5. Teacher’s reference book should contain a rich bank of assessment tasks

constructed by professionals.

6. Use more text-based and situation-based assessment tasks.

7. Do not use only tasks dealing with writing; involve tasks dealing with
speaking, listening and reading. Involve both productive (speaking,
writing) and receptive/perceptive (listening, reading) tasks.

8. Ratio of drills to semi-authentic and authentic tasks should be in favor of

the authentic tasks. Remember that assessment only on drill-type level
does not prepare for real-life problem solving.

9. Not only grades and correctly done tasks should be emphasized, but also

84 | P a g e
 the development of the strategies of fulfilling the tasks that involve
difficulties. Avoidance and meaning elicitation strategies should be
discussed and practiced.

10. The grammatical aspect of self-editing strategies needs to be practice.

Let successful students speak out how they do it.

11. When the activity is difficult, model it (fulfill it yourself, or ask a bright
student fulfill it first).

12. Works out a good rubric for authentic tasks, let students participate in
making it up. Provide discrimination in assessment between mistakes not
causing (‘local”) and causing misunderstanding (‘global”)

13. While assessing, concentrate on student achievement instead of failures,

teach students to turn their errors into useful lessons, steps for future
success.

CLOSURE ACTIVITIES

Three students take turns in summarizing the topics taken in this chapter.

SYNTHESIS/GENERALIZATION

Testing and assessment of grammar skills is not just an unpleasant necessity, it

can be turned into a more useful and more enjoyable experience both for the
teacher and the students. If tasks are real, student difficulties and teacher
requirements are taken into consideration. These have to be dealt in a balance
framework and the bottom-line is students’ achievement of an excellent
grammatical competence and performance.

EVALUATION & ASSIGNMENT

1. Construct five (5) samples of items based on the grammar assessment

tasks 1-7.
2. This has to be submitted on my gmail and attach.

REFERENCES

Borg, S. (2001) Self perception and practice in teaching grammar. ELT Journal,
p. 273-281

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

85 | P a g e
pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Teaching and Testing Grammar. P 518-536

McNamara, T. & Roever, C. (2006) Language testing: The social dimension.

Language learning 56, Supplement 2

Porpura, J. E. (2004) Assessing Grammar, Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

86 | P a g e
CHAPTER 11 - DESIGNING ASSESSSMENT TASKS

TITLE:

 Assessing Grammar
o Grammatical forms or the structure of a language
o The grammatical meaning of those forms
o Their pragmatic meaning or use in a given context
 Designing Assessment Tasks: Selected Response
 Designing Assessment Tasks: Limited Production
 Designing Assessment Tasks: Extended Production

RATIONALE

The aim of this learning module is to help English teachers prepare for their
future work as classroom language educators. This module hopes to guide
these teachers to the technical knowhow of teaching grammar and assessing
students’ outputs.

INSTRUCTION TO USERS

My dear students of EL 115 you need to read thoroughly this learning material
and follow all the instructions so that you can maximize its use. Since this
semester is a very special set-up, I hope and I pray that you will do your best to
gain the skills and competencies that this material can afford you. Remember
that in all the activities, you need to accomplish them honestly and individually. I
hope that you will seize all the opportunities to learn from this material and in
case you have clarifications feel free to message me in our group chat. Good
luck and may you do your best at all times for the greater glory of God.

PRETEST

Describe the following terms:

1. Grammatical meaning of forms
2. Pragmatic meaning or use
3. Selected Response Tasks
4. Limited Production Tasks
5. Extended Production Tasks

87 | P a g e
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Demonstrate expanded and conceptual knowledge on assessing grammar

and designing assessment tasks
2. Design samples of selected response grammar assessment tasks
3. Construct samples of limited response grammar assessment tasks
4. Write samples of extended response grammar assessment tasks
CONTENT

PREPARATORY ACTIVITES

According to Larsen-Freeman (2009) in the traditional approach to assessing

grammar, grammatical knowledge is defined in terms of accurate production and
comprehension, and then assessed through the four skills. Testing is typically
done by means of decontextualized, discrete-point items such as sentence
unscrambling, fill-in-the-blanks, error correction, sentence completion, sentence
combining, picture description, elicited imitation, judging grammatical correctness
and modified cloze passages. Such formats test grammar knowledge, but they
do not assess whether the test takers can use grammar correctly in real-life
speaking or writing.

A significant contribution of communicative or proficiency-based approach in the

1970a and 1980s was a shift from seeing language proficiency in terms of
knowledge of structures, which could be best assessed using discrete-point
items, to the ability to integrate and use knowledge in performance, which could
be best assessed through the production and comprehension of written texts and
through face-to-face interaction under real time processing conditions
(McNamara & Roover, 2006, pp43-44).

In the latter, more integrative, approach to grammar assessment, grammatical

performance is typically assessed by raters using scales that gauge grammatical
accuracy, complexity, and the range of grammatical structures used. The
judgments are subjective, and because the assessments formats are more open-
ended, they are subject to possible inconsistencies. For this reason, certain
factors, such as rater severity and prompt difficulty, must be examined, usually
accomplished by means of generalizability theory or item-response theory
(Purpura, 2004).

DEVELOPMENTAL ACTIVITIES

Assessing Grammar

88 | P a g e
 a) Grammatical forms or the structure of a language.

Form is both morphology or how words are formed, and syntax, how
words are strung together. Both of them are concerned with the linguistic
accuracy of language.
b) The grammatical meaning of those forms.

Grammatical meaning consists of both the literal and intended message

that is conveyed by the form. It is concerned with the meaningfulness of
the language used.

c) Their pragmatic meaning or use in a given context.

The pragmatic or implied meaning results from the appropriate language

choices a learner makes in a given communicative event/experience.

Designing Assessment Tasks: Selected Response

 Multiple – choice Tasks

The most common selected response task presents a blank or

underlined words in a sentence and the student must choose the
correct response from the options that are given. (Grammatical
form, Grammatical meaning, Grammatical form and meaning)

 Discrimination Tasks

The tasks that ask the student to attend to input that can be either
language or non-language and to respond in the form of a choice
between or among contrasts or opposites, such as true or false.
(Grammatical form and meaning)

 Noticing Tasks or Consciousness-raising Tasks

Students are asked to indicate (underline or circle) that they have

identified a specific feature in the language sample. (grammatical
meaning)

Designing Assessment Tasks: Limited Production

 Gap-filling Tasks

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 The language is presented in the form of sentence, or passage in
which a number of words are deleted. The students must choose
the appropriate response for the deletion or gap based on the
context in which language is presented. (grammatical form,
grammatical form and meaning)

 Short-answer Tasks

The input is presented in the form of a question following reading

passage or oral/visual stimulus. The expected test-taker response
can vary from single word to a sentence or two. (grammatical form
and meaning, testing grammatical form and meaning)

 Dialogue-completion Tasks

The input is presented in the form of a short conversation or

dialogue in which a part of the exchange or t6he entire is left blank
and the expected response meant to be grammatically correct.

Designing Assessment Tasks: Extended Production

Five point scale for assessing syntactic knowledge (Bachman & Palmer,1996)

 Information Gap Tasks

Presents the input in terms of incomplete information. That is, one

test-taker is given half- or some – of the information and another is
given complementary information. Both test-takers then have
question for each other to get all the information. (grammatical
form, meaning, and pragmatic use)

 Role-play or Simulation Tasks

The input presents test-takers with a language or non-language

prompt that asks them to take on a role or stimulate a situation to
solve a problem, make decision, or perform some transaction
collaboratively. (grammatical form, meaning, and pragmatic use)

CLOSURE ACTIVITIES

Four of the students (volunteers) are asked to summarize the topics of this
chapter.

90 | P a g e
 SYNTHESIS / GENERALIZATION

In terms of assessment, grammar is central to language description and test

taker performance. Today the knowledge of grammar is evaluated by its correct
use in communication through listening, speaking, reading, and writing in second
language.

EVALUATION

1. Construct at least 3 items to illustrate the three designs of grammar

assessment tasks.

ASSIGNMENT / REINFORCEMENT

1. Construct items of the following test formats - recognition (multiple-

choice; error recognition; items True/false; pairing and matching items)
and for production (completion items; paraphrase; editing; sentence
transformation) - The time allotment for this activity will be one week.

REFERENCES

Borg, S. (2001) Self-perception and practice in teaching grammar. ELT Journal,

p. 273-281

Brown, H. D. (2007)Teaching by principles an interactive approach to language

pedagogy. 3rd ed. NY. Pearson Education ed.

Go, M.B. & Posecion O.T. (2010) Language and literature assessment : a
comprehensive guide: Quezon City, Phils. Lorimar Publishing House.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2009). Teaching and Testing Grammar. P 518-536

McNamara, T. & Roever, C. (2006) Language testing: The social dimension.

Language learning 56, Supplement 2

Porpura, J. E. (2004) Assessing Grammar, Cambridge University Press.

Cambridge

Richards, J. C. & Rodgers, T. S. (1994) . Approaches and methods in language

teaching. Great
Britain Cambridge University Press

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language. 3rd ed. Cambridge New York.
Cambridge University Press

91 | P a g e
THREE MEETINGS WILL ALSO BE ALLOTTED FOR GROUP
DEMONSTRATION TEACHING…This will be before the final examinations!

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