Fusion and Pressure welding.

Fusion welding and pressure welding is most widely used classification as it covers all
processes in both the categories irrespective of heat source and welding with or without filler
material. In fusion welding all those processes are included where molten metal solidifies freely
while in pressure welding molten metal if any is retained in confined space under pressure (as
may be in case of resistance spot welding) solidifies under pressure.

Classification of Fusion Welding Process

ARC WELDING
Arc welding is a method of joining metals with heat produced by an electrical arc. In this
process the heat necessary to melt the edges of the metal to be joined is obtained from an electric
are struck between the electrode (filler rod) and the work, producing a temperature of 4000
the welding zone. The heat of the arc melts the base metal or edges of the parts fusing them
together. Filler metal, usually added melts and mixes with molten
metal. The weld metal cools and solidifies to form the weld. In most cases, the composition of
the filler material, known as welding rod, needed to provide extra metal to the weld, is same as
that of the material being welded.
A typical arc welding setup is shown in Figure
1. An arc welding circuit consists of a power supply to furnish electric power.
2. An electrode to conduct the electricity to the arc.
3. Cables which connect the power supply to the electrode and workpiece
welding circuit.
4. The arc itself provides the heat for welding.
5. The workpiece to weld is kept on a metallic table.
The arc must be shielded because; as it hardens the molten metal combines with oxygen
and nitrogen to form impurities that weaken the weld. Shielding can be obtained by adding a
paste, powder or fibrous flux to the arc. The electrodes are usually coated with a flux. This
coating forms a gaseous cloud that shields the molten metal from the atmosphe
also forms a protective slag. The slag floats on the molten pool and hardensas the weld cools.
This keeps impurities out of the weld. The process is shown in Figure

Advantages:
1. As a manual process it is applicable to an infinite variety of work and can be executed in
any position.
2. There is less buckling and warping of the work.
3. It produces strong sound and ductile welds.
4. Satisfactory welds can be produced in heavy as well as in light sections.
5. Low cost process.
6. Excellent joint properties can be obtained in mild, low alloy and stainless steels, nickel
and copper-base alloys.
7. Low accuracy in setting up required.
Disadvantages:
1. Basically a manual process requiring adequate operator skill for good results.
2. Electrodes require frequent changing.
3. Multi run welds necessary on thick plate-slag chipping necessary after each run.
4. The principal disadvantage has been the high heat of the metal arc which makes it
unsuitable for use on materials less than 1.55 mm thick.
5. High initial cost of welding equipment.
Arc welding is the most widely used fabrication process at present. This pre-eminence will
be maintained in initial fabrication, repair work and maintenance.

UNDERSTAND TERM NEUTRAL FLAME AND PROPERTIES, NEAT SKETCH,:

In an oxidizing flame excess of oxygen is present. The flame is similar to the neutral
flame with the exception that the inner white cone is somewhat small, giving rise to higher tip
temperatures. Excess of oxygen in the oxidizing flame causes the metal to burn or oxidize
quickly. Oxidizing flame is useful for welding some nonferrous alloys such as copper and zinc
base alloys.

WHAT DO YOU UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENT TYPE OF CASTING DEFECTS? EXPLAIN ANY
FOUR OF THEM?

CASTING DEFECTS AND THERE REMEDIES

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings.
Gas defects
Shrinkage cavities
Molding material defects
Pouring metal defects
Mold shift
Gas Defects:-A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten
metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category
can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated
cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to
the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.
Causes:-The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting,
lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is
caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive
moisture present in the mold.
Metal contains gas
Mold is too hot
Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities:-These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification
of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason
risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not
attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues
to avoid shrinkage cavities.
Cut and washes:-These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by
erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having
enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of
by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the
gating system.
Metal penetration:-When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result.

is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied
on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.
Fusion:-This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a
brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the
sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Swell:-Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a
swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions:-Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped
in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the
pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.
Misruns :-A misrun is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely
and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A misrun results when the metal is too cold to flow to the
extremities of the mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and
should be avoided in casting design.
Cold shut:-A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not
fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is
poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow
together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow
together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be
prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the
casting design.
The misrun and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when
the section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the
composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
Mold Shift:-The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not
been properly aligned.
Fig 4.5:

What do you understand by different types of casting defects? explain any

four of them

Casting defects are imperfections or irregularities in the final casting that detract from its
quality or performance. These defects can occur due to various factors during the casting
process, including material properties, mold design, pouring conditions, and cooling rates.
Understanding different types of casting defects is essential for identifying their root causes
and implementing corrective measures. Here are four common casting defects:
1. **Porosity**:
- Porosity refers to the presence of small voids or gas pockets within the casting. These
voids can vary in size and shape and may be distributed throughout the casting or
concentrated in specific areas. Porosity occurs when gas (such as air or steam) becomes
trapped in the molten metal during solidification or when gases are released from the mold
material.
- Causes of porosity include inadequate venting of mold cavity, improper gating and riser
design, high pouring temperatures, and presence of volatile elements in the metal.
- Effects of porosity include reduced mechanical properties, decreased structural integrity,
and potential leakage or failure in pressure-containing components.

2. **Shrinkage**:
- Shrinkage defects occur when the casting undergoes volume reduction during
solidification, leading to localized depressions or cavities in the final part. Shrinkage defects
are particularly common in thicker sections of the casting where cooling rates are slower,
causing uneven solidification and internal stresses.
- Types of shrinkage defects include shrinkage cavities (internal voids) and shrinkage
porosity (localized pockets of porosity).
- Causes of shrinkage defects include inadequate riser design, improper gating system,
insufficient feeding of molten metal to compensate for shrinkage, and improper alloy
selection.
- Effects of shrinkage defects include reduced mechanical properties, dimensional
inaccuracies, and potential for cracking or failure under load.

3. **Inclusions**:
- Inclusions are foreign materials or particles embedded within the casting, such as oxides,
slag, sand, or refractory materials from the mold. Inclusions can vary in size and shape and
may be distributed throughout the casting or concentrated in specific regions.
- Causes of inclusions include contamination of molten metal by mold materials, inadequate
filtering or degassing of the metal, and poor pouring and gating practices.
- Effects of inclusions include decreased mechanical properties, reduced surface finish, and
increased susceptibility to cracking or fracture.
4. **Surface Defects (e.g., Cold Shut, Surface Blowholes)**:
- Surface defects are irregularities or imperfections that occur on the external surface of the
casting. These defects may affect the appearance, surface finish, and dimensional accuracy of
the final part.
- Cold shut is a defect caused by incomplete fusion of molten metal during mold filling,
resulting in a discontinuity or seam on the surface of the casting.
- Surface blowholes are small cavities or voids that form on the surface of the casting due to
entrapment of gas during solidification.
- Causes of surface defects include improper gating and pouring practices, inadequate mold
preparation, and insufficient venting of the mold cavity.
- Effects of surface defects include decreased aesthetic appeal, reduced surface finish
quality, and potential for localized stress concentrations.

These are just a few examples of casting defects encountered in foundry practice. Proper
understanding of casting defects, their causes, and preventive measures is essential for
achieving high-quality castings with desired properties and performance.