MODULE V

THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Lesson 1 Basic Concepts of Crystal

Structure

Lesson 2 Metals

Lesson 3 Polymers

Lesson 4 Engineered Nanomaterials

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MODULE V
THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

 INTRODUCTION

This module presents an introduction to chemistry. It is hoped that you will

learn about the basic concepts of crystal structure, unit cells and crystal defects.
You will also learn about the chemistry of the atmosphere, the chemistry of water
and soil chemistry.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

• classify the different types of unit cells and crystals;

• determine the different properties and characteristics of engineering
materials; and
• cite different uses, advantages and disadvantages of engineering
materials.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

This module contains four lessons. Take time to read and study each
lesson. There would be corresponding exercises/activities for every lesson.
These are designed to gauge your understanding and to gather your learning
discernments from the lessons. Keep your focus and concentration for better
grasp and comprehension.

Activity outputs may be submitted to your instructor. Don’t hesitate to

discuss difficulties or troubles you experienced while working on your module.
You can do this during the scheduled online video conferencing, face-to-face
meeting or you may contact the instructor’s phone number during office
hours.

Break a leg and have fun learning!

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Lesson 1

 BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL

STRUCTURE

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered

arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered
structures occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form
symmetric patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional
space in matter.
The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes this repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely reflects the
symmetry and structure of the entire crystal, which is built up by
repetitive translation of the unit cell along its principal axes. The translation vectors
define the nodes of the Bravais lattice.
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles
between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters or cell
parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept
of space groups. All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-
dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many
physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical
transparency.

Unit Cell

A unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice that shows the three-
dimensional pattern of the entire crystal. A crystal can be thought of as the same
unit cell repeated over and over in three dimensions. The Figure below illustrates
the relationship of a unit cell to the entire crystal lattice.

A unit cell is the smallest repeating portion of a crystal lattice.

Unit cells occur in many different varieties. As one example, the cubic crystal system
is composed of three different types of unit cells: (1) simple cubic, (2) face-

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centered cubic, and (3) body-centered cubic. These are shown in three different
ways in the Figure below.

Three-unit cells of the cubic crystal system. Each sphere represents an atom or an ion. In the simple
cubic system, the atoms or ions are at the corners of the unit cell only. In the face-centered unit
cell, there are also atoms or ions in the center of each of the six faces of the unit cell. In the body-
centered unit cell, there is one atom or ion in the center of the unit cell in addition to the corner
atoms or ions.

Pay special attention to the last diagram for each type of cell. You will notice that
the atoms or ions at the edges of each face or at the corners are not complete
spheres. In the simple cubic cell, each corner atom is shared by 8 different unit
cells. The same situation exists for the edge or corner particles in the face-centered
and body-centered cubic forms. In addition, each of the particles in the center of
the face-centered cubic cell is shared by 2-unit cells. Body-centered cells have an
additional atom in the middle of the cell which is contained entirely in that cell.

Summary:
• A unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice that shows the three-
dimensional pattern of the entire crystal.
• There are three different types of unit cells in the cubic crystal system.

Kinds of Unit Cells

There are seven fundamentally different kinds of unit cells, which differ in the
relative lengths of the edges and the angles between them. Each unit cell has six
sides, and each side is a parallelogram. We focus primarily on the cubic unit cells,
in which all sides have the same length and all angles are 90°, but the concepts that
we introduce also apply to substances whose unit cells are not cubic.

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The General Features of the Seven Basic Unit Cells. The lengths of the edges of the unit cells are
indicated by a, b, and c, and the angles are defined as follows: α, the angle between b and c; β,
the angle between a and c; and γ, the angle between a and b.

If the cubic unit cell consists of eight component atoms, molecules, or ions located
at the corners of the cube, then it is a simple cubic. If the unit cell also contains an
identical component in the center of the cube, then it is body-centered cubic (bcc).
If there are components in the center of each face in addition to those at the corners
of the cube, then the unit cell is face-centered cubic (fcc).

IONIC CRYSTALS

❖ Ions bound together by electrostatic attraction form ionic crystals. Their

arrangement varies depending on the ions’ sizes or the radius ratio (the ratio
of the radii of the positive to the negative ion). A simple cubic crystal lattice
has ions equally spaced in 3D at 90° angles.
❖ Stability of ionic solids depends on lattice energy, which is released in the
form of heat when two ions are brought together to form a solid. Lattice
energy is the sum of all the interactions within the crystal.
❖ The properties of ionic crystals reflect the strong interactions that exist
between the ions. They are very poor conductors of electricity, have strong
absorption of infrared radiation, and are easily cleaved. These solids tend to
be quite hard and have high melting points.

Terms:
• ionic crystal – A class of crystal consisting of a lattice of ions held together by
electrostatic interactions; they exhibit strong absorption of infrared radiation
and have planes along which they cleave easily.
• crystal lattice – A regular three-dimensional geometric arrangement of atoms,
molecules, or ions in a crystal.
• lattice energy – The energy required to separate the ions of an ionic solid
(especially a crystal) to an infinite distance apart.

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The Crystalline Form of Ionic Compounds

An ionic crystal consists of ions bound together by electrostatic attraction. The

arrangement of ions in a regular, geometric structure is called a crystal lattice.
Examples of such crystals are the alkali halides, which include:

• potassium fluoride (KF)

• potassium chloride (KCl)
• potassium bromide (KBr)
• potassium iodide (KI)
• sodium fluoride (NaF)
• other combinations of sodium, cesium, rubidium, or lithium ions with
fluoride, bromide, chloride or iodide ions

These solids tend to be quite hard and have high melting points, reflecting the strong
forces between oppositely-charged ions. The exact arrangement of ions in a lattice
varies according to the size of the ions in the crystal.

COVALENT CRYSTALS

❖ Covalent (or network) solids are extended-lattice compounds, in which each

atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors. Because there are no
delocalized electrons, covalent solids do not conduct electricity.
❖ The rearranging or breaking of covalent bonds requires large amounts of
energy; therefore, covalent solids have high melting points.
❖ Covalent bonds are extremely strong, so covalent solids are very hard.
Generally, covalent solids are insoluble due to the difficulty of solvating very
large molecules.
❖ Diamond is the hardest material known, while cubic boron nitride (BN) is the
second-hardest. Silicon carbide (SiC) is very structurally complex and has at
least 70 crystalline forms.

Terms:
• Allotrope – A different form of an element in its natural state. For instance,
oxygen is found predominantly in two forms: O2 and O3 (ozone).
• Carbide – A compound composed of carbon and a less electronegative element.
• Diamond – a glimmering glass-like mineral that is an allotrope of carbon, in
which each carbon atom is bonded to four others with a tetrahedral geometry.
• covalent bond – A type of chemical bond where two atoms are connected to
each other by the sharing of two or more electrons.
• covalent network solid – A solid formed when the atoms are bonded covalently
in a continuous, extended network.

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COVALENT NETWORK SOLIDS

A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of pairs of

electrons between atoms. This sharing results in a stable balance of attractive and
repulsive forces between those atoms. Covalent solids are a class of extended-lattice
compounds in which each atom is covalently bonded to its nearest neighbors. This
means that the entire crystal is, in effect, one giant molecule. The extraordinarily
strong binding forces that join all adjacent atoms account for the extreme hardness
of these solids. They cannot be broken or abraded without breaking a large number
of covalent chemical bonds. Similarly, a covalent solid cannot “melt” in the usual
sense, since the entire crystal is one giant molecule. When heated to very high
temperatures, these solids usually decompose into their elements.

Another property of covalent network solids is poor electrical conductivity,

since there are no delocalized electrons. When molten, unlike ionic compounds, the
substance is still unable to conduct electricity, since the macromolecule consists of
uncharged atoms rather than ions. (This is also contrary to most forms of metallic
bonds.)

CRYSTALS WITH MIXED BONDING

In many solids, the bonding between atoms is generally not just of one type;
rather, it is a mixture of bond types. We know that bonding in the silicon crystal is
totally covalent, because the shared electrons in the bonds are equally attracted by
the neighboring positive ion cores and are therefore equally shared. When there is
a covalent-type bond between two different atoms, the electrons become unequally
shared, because the two neighboring ion cores are different and hence have
different electron-attracting abilities. The bond is no longer purely covalent; it has
some ionic character, because the shared electrons spend more time close to one of
the ion cores. Covalent bonds that have an ionic character, due to an unequal sharing
of electrons, are generally called polar bonds.

Ceramic materials are compounds that generally contain metallic and

nonmetallic elements. They are well known for their brittle mechanical properties,
hardness, high melting temperatures, and electrical insulating properties. The type
of bonding in a ceramic material may be covalent, ionic, or a mixture of the two, in
which the bond between the atoms involves some electron sharing and, to some
extent, the partial formation of cations and anions; the shared electrons spend more
time with one type of atom, which then becomes a partial anion while the other
becomes a partial cation. Silicon nitride (Si 3N4), magnesia (MgO), and alumina
(A12O3) are all ceramics, but they have different types of bonding: Si3N4 has
covalent, MgO has ionic, and AI2O3 has a mixture of ionic and covalent bonding. All
three are brittle, have high melting temperatures, and are electrical insulators.

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MOLECULAR CRYSTALS

❖ A molecular solid is composed of molecules held together by van der Waals

forces. Its properties are dictated by the weak nature of these intermolecular
forces. Molecular solids are soft, often volatile, have low melting
temperatures, and are electrical insulators.
❖ Classes of molecular solids include organic compounds composed of carbon
and hydrogen, fullerenes, halogens (F, Cl, etc.), chalcogens (O, S, etc.), and
pnictogens (N, P, etc.).
❖ Larger molecules are less volatile and have higher melting points because
their dispersion forces increase with the larger number of atoms. Decrease in
binding of outer electrons to the nucleus also increases van der Waals-type
interactions of the atom due to its increased polarizability.

Terms:
• Doping – Intentionally introducing impurities into a sample of a substance in
order to change its electrical properties.
• molecular solid – A solid composed of molecules held together by van der Waals
intermolecular forces.
• Van der Waals force – Attractive forces between molecules (or between parts
of the same molecule). These include interactions between partial charges
(hydrogen bonds and dipole-dipole interactions), and weaker London
dispersion forces.
• intermolecular force – Any of the attractive interactions that occur between
atoms or molecules in a sample of a substance.

The Nature of Intermolecular Forces

Recall that a molecule is defined as a discrete aggregate of atoms bound

together sufficiently tightly by directed covalent forces to allow it to retain its
individuality when the substance is dissolved, melted, or vaporized. Covalent
bonding implies that the forces acting between atoms within the molecule
(intramolecular) are much stronger than those acting between molecules
(intermolecular), The directional property of covalent bonding gives each molecule
a distinctive shape which affects a number of its properties.

Liquids and solids composed of molecules are held together by van der Waals
(or intermolecular) forces, and many of their properties reflect this weak binding.
Molecular solids tend to be soft or deformable, have low melting points, and are
often sufficiently volatile to evaporate directly into the gas phase. This latter
property often gives such solids a distinctive odor. Whereas the characteristic
melting point of metals and ionic solids is ~1000 °C, most molecular solids melt well
below ~300 °C. Thus, many corresponding substances are either liquid (water) or
gaseous (oxygen) at room temperature.

Molecular solids also have relatively low density and hardness. The elements
involved are light, and the intermolecular bonds are relatively long and are therefore

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weak. Because of the charge neutrality of the constituent molecules, and because
of the long distance between them, molecular solids are electrical insulators.

Because dispersion forces and the other van der Waals forces increase with
the number of atoms, large molecules are generally less volatile, and have higher
melting points than smaller ones. Also, as one moves down a column in the periodic
table, the outer electrons are more loosely bound to the nucleus, increasing the
polarizability of the atom, and thus its propensity to van der Waals-type
interactions. This effect is particularly apparent in the increase in boiling points of
the successively heavier noble gas elements.

CRYSTAL DEFECTS

Crystal defect, imperfection in the regular geometrical arrangement of the atoms

in a crystalline solid. These imperfections result from deformation of the solid,
rapid cooling from high temperature, or high-energy radiation (X-rays or neutrons)
striking the solid. Located at single points, along lines, or on whole surfaces in the
solid, these defects influence its mechanical, electrical, and optical behavior.

Point defects include the Frenkel type, the Schottky type, and the impurity type.
The Frenkel defect involves a single ion, which is displaced from its normal lattice
point and shifts to a nearby interstice, or space, between atoms in the lattice. In
the Schottky defect, two ions of opposite sign leave the lattice. Impurity
defects are foreign atoms that replace some of the atoms making up the solid or
that squeeze into the interstices; they are important in the electrical behavior of
semiconductors, which are materials used in computer chips and other electronic
devices.

Line defects, or dislocations, are lines along which whole rows of atoms in a solid
are arranged anomalously. The resulting irregularity in spacing is most severe along
a line called the line of dislocation. Line defects can weaken or strengthen solids.

Surface defects may arise at the boundary between two grains, or small crystals,
within a larger crystal. The rows of atoms in two different grains may run in slightly
different directions, leading to a mismatch across the grain boundary. The actual
external surface of a crystal is also a surface defect because the atoms on the
surface adjust their positions to accommodate for the absence of neighboring atoms
outside the surface.

A crystal is never perfect; a variety of imperfections can mar the ordering. A defect
is a small imperfection affecting a few atoms. The simplest type of defect is a
missing atom and is called a vacancy. Since all atoms occupy space, extra atoms
cannot be located at the lattice sites of other atoms, but they can be found between
them; such atoms are called interstitials. Thermal vibrations may cause an atom to
leave its original crystal site and move into a nearby interstitial site, creating a
vacancy-interstitial pair. Vacancies and interstitials are the types of defects found
in a pure crystal. In another defect, called an impurity, an atom is present that is

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different from the host crystal atoms. Impurities may either occupy interstitial
spaces or substitute for a host atom in its lattice site.

There is no sharp distinction between an alloy and a crystal with many impurities.
An alloy results when a sufficient number of impurities are added that are soluble
in the host metal. However, most elements are not soluble in most crystals. Crystals
generally can tolerate a few impurities per million host atoms. If too many impurities
of the insoluble variety are added, they coalesce to form their own small crystallite.
These inclusions are called precipitates and constitute a large defect.

Germanium is a common impurity in silicon. It prefers the same tetrahedral bonding

as silicon and readily substitutes for silicon atoms. Similarly, silicon is a common
impurity in germanium. No large crystal can be made without impurities; the purest
large crystal ever grown was made of germanium. It had about 10 10 impurities in
each cubic centimeter of material, which is less than one impurity for each trillion
atoms.

Impurities often make crystals more useful. In the absence of impurities, α-

alumina is colorless. Iron and titanium impurities impart to it a blue color, and the
resulting gem-quality mineral is known as sapphire. Chromium impurities are
responsible for the red color characteristic of rubies, the other gem of α-alumina.
Pure semiconductors rarely conduct electricity well at room temperatures. Their
ability to conduct electricity is caused by impurities. Such impurities are
deliberately added to silicon in the manufacture of integrated circuits.
In fluorescent lamps the visible light is emitted by impurities in the phosphors
(luminescent materials).

Other imperfections in crystals involve many atoms. Twinning is a special type of

grain boundary defect, in which a crystal is joined to its mirror image. Another kind
of imperfection is a dislocation, which is a line defect that may run the length of
the crystal. One of the many types of dislocations is due to an extra plane of atoms
that is inserted somewhere in the crystal structure. Another type, called an edge
dislocation, is shown in the figure. This line defect occurs when there is a missing
row of atoms. In the figure the crystal arrangement is perfect on the top and on the
bottom. The defect is the row of atoms missing from region b. This mistake runs in
a line that is perpendicular to the page and places a strain on region a.

Dislocations are formed when a crystal is grown, and great care must be taken to
produce a crystal free of them. Dislocations are stable and will exist for years. They
relieve mechanical stress. If one presses on a crystal, it will accommodate the
induced stress by growing dislocations at the surface, which gradually move inward.
Dislocations make a crystal mechanically harder. When a metal bar is cold-worked
by rolling or hammering, dislocations and grain boundaries are introduced; this
causes the hardening.

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Crystalline lattice defect. An edge dislocation occurs when there is a missing row of atoms as shown
in region b. Region a is strained.

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Lesson 2

 METALS

Hard, shiny, and tough—metals are the macho poster boys of the material
world. Learning how to extract these substances from the Earth and turn them into
all kinds of useful materials was one of the most important developments in human
civilization, spawning tools, jewelry, engines, machines, and giant static
constructions like bridges and skyscrapers. Having said that, "metal" is an almost
impossibly broad term that takes in everything from lead (a super-heavy metal)
and aluminum (a super-light one) to mercury (a metal that's normally a liquid) and
sodium (a metal soft enough to cut like cheese that, fused with chlorine, you can
sprinkle on your food—as salt!). What exactly are metals and what makes them so
useful?

PROPERTIES OF METALS
An element is a substance made up of one kind of atom; it cannot be separated
into simpler parts. For example, the element helium (think hot-air balloons) is
made up exclusively of helium atoms. Elements are generally classified
as metals or nonmetals (although some elements have characteristics of both;
these are called metalloids).
Three properties of metals are:
• Luster: Metals are shiny when cut, scratched, or polished.
• Malleability: Metals are strong but malleable, which means that they can be
easily bent or shaped. For centuries, smiths have been able to shape metal
objects by heating metal and pounding it with a hammer. If they tried this
with nonmetals, the material would shatter! Most metals are also ductile,
which means they can be drawn out to make wire.
• Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat.
Because they are also ductile, they are ideal for electrical wiring.

Additional Properties of Metals

High melting point: Most metals have high melting points and
all except mercury are solid at room temperature.
Sonorous: Metals often make a ringing sound when hit.
Reactivity: Some metals will undergo a chemical change
(reaction), by themselves or with other elements, and release
energy. These metals are never found in a pure form, and are
difficult to separate from the minerals they are found in.
Potassium and sodium are the most reactive metals. They react
violently with air and water; potassium will ignite on contact
with water!

Other metals don’t react at all with other metals. This means
they can be found in a pure form (examples are gold and

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platinum). Because copper is relatively inexpensive and has a

low reactivity, it’s useful for making pipes and wiring.

Five groups of metals:

✓ Noble Metals are found as pure metals because they are nonreactive and
don’t combine with other elements to form compounds. Because they are so
nonreactive, they don’t corrode easily. This makes them ideal for jewelry and
coins. Noble metals include copper, palladium, silver, platinum, and gold.
✓ Alkali Metals are very reactive. They have low melting points and are soft
enough to be cut with a knife. Potassium and sodium are two alkali metals.
✓ Alkaline Earth Metals are found in compounds with many different minerals.
They are less reactive than alkali metals, as well as harder, and have higher
melting points. This group includes calcium, magnesium, and barium.
✓ Transition Metals are what we usually think of when we think of metals. They
are hard and shiny, strong, and easy to shape. They are used for many
industrial purposes. This group includes iron, gold, silver, chromium, nickel,
and copper, some of which are also noble metals.
✓ Poor Metals are fairly soft, and most are not used very much by themselves.
They become very useful when added to other substances, though. Poor
metals include aluminum, gallium, tin, thallium, antimony, and bismuth.

Alloys: Strong Combinations

The properties of these different metals can be combined by mixing two or

more of them together. The resulting substance is called an alloy. Some of our most
useful building materials are actually alloys. Steel, for example, is a mixture of iron
and small amounts of carbon and other elements; a combination that is both strong
and easy to use. (Add chromium and you get stainless steel. Check your kitchen pots
and pans to see how many are made from stainless steel!)

Other alloys like brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin) are easy
to shape and beautiful to look at. Bronze is also used frequently in ship-building
because it is resistant to corrosion from sea water.

Titanium is much lighter and less dense than steel, but as strong; and
although heavier than aluminum, it’s also twice as strong. It’s also very resistant to
corrosion. All these factors make it an excellent alloy material. Titanium alloys are
used in aircraft, ships, and spacecraft, as well as paints, bicycles, and even laptop
computers!

Gold, as a pure metal, is so soft that it is always mixed with another metal
(usually silver, copper, or zinc) when it’s made into jewelry. The purity of gold is
measured in karats. The purest you can get in jewelry is 24 karats, which is about
99.7% pure gold. Gold can also be mixed with other metals to change its color; white
gold, which is popular for jewelry, is an alloy of gold and platinum or palladium.

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Metals as Coloring Agents

Different metals burn in different colors; for example, if a copper compound

is lit, its flame will be a blue-green color. Calcium burns red-colored and potassium
burns purple. In fireworks, metals are combined to create different colors.

When the star compounds inside a firework are heated, the excited atoms
give off light energy. This light falls into two categories: incandescence and
luminescence. Incandescence is light produced from heat: in fireworks, reactive
metals like aluminum and magnesium cause a burst of very bright light when they
get hot — sometimes at temperatures over 5000 ° F!

Compounds that are less reactive don’t get as hot, resulting in dimmer
sparks. Luminescence, on the other hand, is produced from other sources and can
occur even at cold temperatures. The electrons in the compound absorb energy,
making them “excited.” The electrons can’t maintain this high level, though, so they
jump back to a lower level, releasing light energy (photons) in the process.

Barium chloride is a chemical compound that gives fireworks a luminescent

green color, and copper chloride makes a blue color. For either kind of light, it’s
important to use pure ingredients since traces of other compounds will obscure the
color.

METAL HARDNESS
Metal hardness is a characteristic that determines the surface wear and
abrasive resistance. The ability of a material to resist denting from impact is related
to hardness as well as a material's ductility. Various degrees of hardness may be
achieved in many metals by tempering, a heat treatment process used in cold rolled
and cold worked metals.
As the grain structure of the metal undergoes cold forming, the grains are
stretched and altered. The surface becomes harder, resisting deformation from
contact. Tempering heats the worked metal to temperatures at which the grains
begin to dissolve.
There are series of standard tempers available. These tempers and their
availability in a particular alloy vary, depending on the nature of the grains as they
recrystallize. The temper designation is actually determined by this grain size,
rather than the yield strength of the metal.

Processes to Increase Metal Hardness

There are a number of ways to harden architectural metal, through the mill, or
during the fabrication process. Each of the hardening mechanisms are introducing
crystal lattice irregularities into the metal crystal structure, causing dislocation of
the metal's structure to become more difficult. The result is a harder, less ductile
metal surface.

❖ Work hardening refers to the straining or cold-hardening of a metal surface.

As metal is bent or strained repeated, the plasticity of the metal reduces,
becoming work-hardened and less ductile. Usually refers to strain-hardening

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behavior of the metal as it is worked at room temperature. Certain metals

alloys such as nickel-titanium do not undergo strain hardening but actually
has a characteristic of strain relieving as it returns to the original shape.

❖ Solid Solution Strengthening refers to a metal in the alloying process, in

which an alloying constituent is inserted into a solid material. One or more
elemental constituents are able to enter into a heated but solid solution. The
metal is then rapidly quenched to capture the element in solid solution.

❖ Age hardening is a process which occurs rapidly in the first few days after
casting, then much slower over the next several weeks. This process is often
referred to as "natural age-hardening". Another artificial version of this
process can be used by heating the metal for a short period of time at a high
temperature. The result is that it will stabilize the properties, further
strengthening the alloy. This process is known as "artificial age-hardening,"
or precipitation hardening.

❖ Anodization, a process specific to aluminum, has a hardening effect. The

final step in creating anodized aluminum is to harden and seal the surface by
use of deionized boiling water or metal salt sealers. Sealing is required to
close the pores of the oxide film and provide uniformity to the exception of
the alloying constituents.

❖ Case hardening refers to a surface heat treatment process used to produce a

hard, wear-resistant surface on metal. Methods of case-hardening include
carburization, cyaniding, nitriding, flame hardening, and electro-induction
hardening.

❖ Tempering is a heat treatment process used in cold rolled and cold worked
metals. As the grain structure of a metal undergoes cold forming, the grains
are stretched and altered. The surface becomes harder, resisting deformation
from contact. Tempering heats the cold worked metal to temperatures at
which the grains begin to dissolve into one another. There are series of
standard tempers available. These tempers and their availability in a
particular alloy vary, depending on the nature of the grains as they
recrystallize. The temper designation is actually determined by this grain
size, rather than the yield strength of the metal.

❖ Back-blasting a metal surface is a way of flattening metal, which also tends

to greatly increases the surface hardness. It is advised to back-blast a material
after forming operations, because the material will become harder to work
and form after blasting the surface.

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ELECTRICAL AND HEAT CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS

Electrical conductivity in metals is a result of the movement of electrically charged

particles. The atoms of metal elements are characterized by the presence of valence
electrons, which are electrons in the outer shell of an atom that are free to move
about. It is these "free electrons" that allow metals to conduct an electric current.

Because valence electrons are free to move, they can travel through the lattice that
forms the physical structure of a metal. Under an electric field, free electrons move
through the metal much like billiard balls knocking against each other, passing an
electric charge as they move.

Thermal conductivity measures a materials ability to allow heat to pass through it

via conductance. The thermal conductivity of a material is highly dependent on
composition and structure. Generally speaking, dense materials such as metals and
stone are good conductors of heat, while low density substances such as gas and
porous insulation are poor conductors of heat.

Thermal Conductivity is a term analogous to electrical conductivity with a

difference that it concerns with the flow of heat unlike current in the case of the
latter. It points to the ability of a material to transport heat from one point to
another without movement of the material as a whole, the more is the thermal
conductivity the better it conducts the heat.

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Lesson 3

 POLYMERS

Many materials found in nature are polymers. In fact, the basic molecular
structure of all plant and animal life is similar to that of a synthetic polymer. Natural
polymers include such materials as silk, shellac, bitumen, rubber, and cellulose.
However, the majority of polymers or plastics used for engineering design are
synthetic and often they are specifically formulated or “designed” by chemists or
chemical engineers to serve a specific purpose. Other engineers (mechanical, civil,
electrical, etc.) typically design engineering components from the available
materials or, sometimes, work directly with chemists or chemical engineers to
synthesize a polymer with particular characteristics.

The simplest definition of a polymer is a useful chemical made of many

repeating units. A polymer can be a three-dimensional network (think of the
repeating units linked together left and right, front and back, up and down) or two-
dimensional network (think of the repeating units linked together left, right, up,
and down in a sheet) or a one-dimensional network (think of the repeating units
linked left and right in a chain). Each repeating unit is the “-mer” or basic unit with
“poly-mer” meaning many repeating units. Repeating units are often made of carbon
and hydrogen and sometimes oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine, fluorine,
phosphorous, and silicon. To make the chain, many links or “-mers” are chemically
hooked or polymerized together. Linking countless strips of construction paper
together to make paper garlands or hooking together hundreds of paper clips to form
chains, or stringing beads helps visualize polymers. Polymers occur in nature and can
be made to serve specific needs.

CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF POLYMERS

The majority of manufactured polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that once the
polymer is formed it can be heated and reformed over and over again. This property
allows for easy processing and facilitates recycling. The other group, the
thermosets, cannot be remelted. Once these polymers are formed, reheating will
cause the material to ultimately degrade, but not melt.

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following general attributes:

1. Polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Consider all the cleaning fluids
in your home that are packaged in plastic. Reading the warning labels that
describe what happens when the chemical comes in contact with skin or eyes
or is ingested will emphasize the need for chemical resistance in the plastic
packaging. While solvents easily dissolve some plastics, other plastics provide
safe, non-breakable packages for aggressive solvents.

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2. Polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your
house will reinforce this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords,
electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered with polymeric
materials. Thermal resistance is evident in the kitchen with pot and pan
handles made of polymers, the coffee pot handles, the foam core of
refrigerators and freezers, insulated cups, coolers, and microwave cookware.
The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and
the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester.

3. Generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of

strength. Consider the range of applications, from toys to the frame structure
of space stations, or from delicate nylon fiber in pantyhose to Kevlar, which
is used in bulletproof vests. Some polymers float in water while others
sink. But, compared to the density of stone, concrete, steel, copper, or
aluminum, all plastics are lightweight materials.

4. Polymers can be processed in various ways. Extrusion produces thin fibers

or heavy pipes or films or food bottles. Injection molding can produce very
intricate parts or large car body panels. Plastics can be molded into drums or
be mixed with solvents to become adhesives or paints. Elastomers and some
plastics stretch and are very flexible. Some plastics are stretched in
processing to hold their shape, such as soft drink bottles. Other polymers can
be foamed like polystyrene (Styrofoam™), polyurethane and polyethylene.

5. Polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics

and colors. Polymers have many inherent properties that can be further
enhanced by a wide range of additives to broaden their uses and
applications. Polymers can be made to mimic cotton, silk, and wool fibers;
porcelain and marble; and aluminum and zinc. Polymers can also make
possible products that do not readily come from the natural world, such as
clear sheets and flexible films.

6. Polymers are usually made of petroleum, but not always. Many polymers
are made of repeat units derived from natural gas or coal or crude oil. But
building block repeat units can sometimes be made from renewable materials
such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters. Some
plastics have always been made from renewable materials such as cellulose
acetate used for screwdriver handles and gift ribbon. When the building
blocks can be made more economically from renewable materials than from
fossil fuels, either old plastics find new raw materials or new plastics are
introduced.

7. Polymers can be used to make items that have no alternatives from other
materials. Polymers can be made into clear, waterproof films. PVC is used
to make medical tubing and blood bags that extend the shelf life of blood and
blood products. PVC safely delivers flammable oxygen in non-burning flexible
tubing. And anti-thrombogenic material, such as heparin, can be
incorporated into flexible PVC catheters for open heart surgery, dialysis, and

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blood collection. Many medical devices rely on polymers to permit effective

functioning.

The following variables can be controlled when producing a polymer:

• The monomer polymerized or the monomers copolymerized.
• The reagent used to initiate the polymerization reaction.
• The identity and amount of the reagent used to crosslink the polymer chains.
• The temperature and pressure at which the polymerization occurs.
• The solvent in which the monomer is polymerized.
• The way the polymer is collected, which can produce either a more or less
random alignment of the polymer chains or a fabric in which the chains are
aligned in one direction.

Changing one or more of these parameters can affect the linearity of the
polymer, its average molecular weight, the tacticity of side chains on the polymer
backbone, and the density of the product.

It is also possible to change the properties of a polymer by adding either

stabilizers or plasticizers. Stabilizers are used to increase the ability of a plastic to
resist oxidation, to make it less sensitive to either heat or light, or as flame
retardants. Plasticizers increase the flexibility of a plastic by acting as a lubricant,
decreasing the friction between molecules as one polymer chain moves past another.
They also increase the amount of empty space the so-called free
volume within the polymer by opening up space between the polymer chains to
increase the ease with which the chain ends, the side chains, and the main chain
can move.

The result of all of these manipulations can be a polymer as strong as Kevlar,

which is used to make bullet-proof vests, or a material as easy to rip as a piece of
paper. It can be as hard as a bowling ball or as soft as a piece of tissue paper. It can
be as brittle as the disposable polystyrene glasses used at parties or as elastic as a
Styrofoam coffee cup.

THE FOLLOWING LIST DESCRIBES SOME OF THE IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF A

POLYMER:

1. Heat capacity/ Heat conductivity The extent to which the plastic or

polymer acts as an effective insulator against the flow of heat. (The
polystyrene in disposable plastic glasses isn't a very good insulator. However,
blowing air through styrene while it is being polymerized gives the Styrofoam
used for disposable coffee cups, which is a much better insulator.)

2. Thermal expansion The extent to which the polymer expands or contracts

when heated or cooled. (Silicone is often used to seal glass windows to their
frames because it has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion.) Thermal
expansion is also concerned with the question of whether the polymer
expands or contracts by the same amount in all directions. (Polymers are
usually anisotropic. They contain strong covalent bonds along the polymer

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chain and much weaker dispersive forces between the polymer chains. As a
result, polymers can expand by differing amounts in different directions.)
3. Crystallinity The extent to which the polymer chains are arranged in a
regular structure instead of a random fashion. (Some polymers, such as Silly
Putty and Play Dough, are too amorphous and lack the rigidity needed to make
a useful product. Polymers that are too crystalline often are also too brittle.)
4. Permeability The tendency of a polymer to pass extraneous materials.
(Polyethylene is used to wrap foods because it is 4000 times less permeable
to oxygen then polystyrene.)
5. Elastic modulus The force it takes to stretch the plastic in one direction.
6. Tensile strength The strength of the plastic. (The force that must be
applied in one direction to stretch the plastic until it breaks.)
7. Resilience The ability of the plastic to resist abrasion and wear.
8. Refractive index The extent to which the plastic affects light as it passes
through the polymer. (Does it pass light the way PMMA does, or does it absorb
light like PVC?)
9. Resistance to electric current Is the material an insulator, like most
polymers, or does it conduct an electric current? (There is a growing interest
in conducting polymers, which can be charged and discharged, and
photoconducting polymers that can pick up an electric charge when exposed
to light.)

POLYMERIZATION

Polymerization is any process in which relatively small molecules,

called monomers, combine chemically to produce a very large chainlike or network
molecule, called a polymer. The monomer molecules may be all alike, or they may
represent two, three, or more different compounds. Usually at least 100 monomer
molecules must be combined to make a product that has certain unique physical
properties—such as elasticity, high tensile strength, or the ability to form fibers—
that differentiate polymers from substances composed of smaller and simpler
molecules; often, many thousands of monomer units are incorporated in a single
molecule of a polymer. The formation of stable covalent chemical bonds between
the monomers sets polymerization apart from other processes, such as
crystallization, in which large numbers of molecules aggregate under the influence
of weak intermolecular forces.

Types of Polymerization Reactions

• Addition Polymerization
This is also called as chain growth polymerization. In this, small monomer
units joined to form a giant polymer. In each step length of chain increases.
For example, Polymerization of ethane in the presence of Peroxides.

• Condensation Polymerization
In this type small molecules like H2O, CO, NH3 are eliminated during
polymerization (step growth polymerization). Generally, organic compounds
containing bifunctional groups such as idols, -dials, diamines, dicarboxylic

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acids undergo this type of polymerization reaction. For example, Preparation

of nylon -6, 6.

What is Copolymerization?
In this process, two different monomers joined to form a polymer. Synthetic rubbers
are prepared by this polymerization. For example, BUNA – S.

PLASTICS
Plastics is the term commonly used to describe a wide range of synthetic or semi-
synthetic materials that are used in a huge and growing range of applications.
Everywhere you look, you will find plastics. We use plastic products to help make
our lives cleaner, easier, safer and more enjoyable. We find plastics in the clothes
we wear, the houses we live in, and the cars we travel in. The toys we play with,
the televisions we watch, the computers we use and the DVDs we watch all contain
plastics.

Plastics are organic materials, just like wood, paper or wool. The raw materials used
to produce plastics are natural products such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt
and, of course, crude oil. Plastics have become the modern material of choice
because they make it possible to balance today’s needs with environmental
concerns.

The term ‘’plastic’’ is derived from the Greek word ''plastikos'', meaning fit for
molding. This refers to the material’s malleability, or plasticity during manufacture,
which allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes - such as
films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.

Types of Plastics
There are many different plastics, so we need ways of making sense of them all by
grouping similar ones together. Here are a few ways we can do that:
• We can split them into natural (ones easily obtained from plants and animals)
and synthetic (ones artificially made by complex chemical processes in a
factory or lab). Cellulose is a natural polymer used for making sticky tape
(among other things), whereas nylon is a synthetic polymer made in a factory.

• We can group them according to the structure of the monomers that their
polymers are made from. That's why we talk about polyesters, polyethenes,
polyurethanes and so on—because they're different polymers made by
repeating different monomers.

• When it comes to recycling, we need to separate plastics into different kinds

that can be processed together without causing contamination. That depends
on their chemical properties, physical properties, and the polymer types
from which they're made, and gives us seven main kinds. (You've probably
noticed seven different recycling symbols numbered 1-6 and "null" on plastic
packaging, if you've looked carefully.)

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• We can group by what they're made from (say bioplastics—artificially made

from natural ingredients) or how they behave when they're buried in landfills
(biodegradable, photodegradable, and so on).

• We can split them into two broad kinds according to how they behave when
they're heated: thermoplastics (which soften when they're heated)
and thermosets (thermosetting plastics, which never soften after they're
initially molded).

USES OF PLASTICS
Plastics are extremely versatile materials and are ideal for a wide range of
consumer and industrial applications. The relatively low density of most plastics
gives plastic products the advantages of light weight. And, although most have
excellent thermal and electrical insulation properties, some plastics can be made
to conduct electricity when required. They are corrosion resistant to many
substances which attack other materials, making them durable and suitable for use
in harsh environments. Some are transparent, making optical devices possible.
They can easily be molded into complex shapes, allowing other materials to be
integrated into plastic products, and making them ideal for a wide range of
functions. Furthermore, if the physical properties of a given plastic do not quite
meet the specified requirements, its balance of properties can be modified with
the addition of reinforcing fillers, colors, foaming agents, flame retardants,
plasticizers, etc., to meet the demands of the specific application.

In principle, plastics can be developed with virtually any combination of properties

to accommodate almost any application you can think of.

As a result of these attractive properties, plastics are increasingly being used in

the following applications:

Packaging Building & Mobility & Electronics

Construction Transport

Agriculture Healthcare Sport &

Leisures Energy

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Lesson 4

 ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS

Engineered nanomaterials are chemical substances or materials that are

engineered with particle sizes between 1 to 100 nanometers in at least one
dimension. It is well established that engineered nanomaterials derive many
functional advantages from their unique physical and chemical properties.

These novel properties have spurred tremendous interest in innovations

across many industrial, commercial and medical sectors. However, many of the same
properties for which nanomaterials are engineered and exploited – such as particle
size, surface area and surface reactivity – also influence their inherent hazard and
potentially threaten the health of workers, communities and the environment. In
general, engineered nanomaterials should not be considered a safer substitute to
toxic chemicals.

PROPERTIES OF NANOPARTICLES

A commonly accepted definition of a nanomaterial (NM) is a material with at

least one dimension between 1 and 100 nanometers (nm) long. This definition allows
for the inclusion of thin plate-like (one nano dimension) and long fibrous (two nano
dimensions) microscopic materials. NM’s occupy the smallest size range of colloidal
materials, generally defined as sub-micron-size particulate matter. The choice of
100 nm as the upper limit for the definition of NMs is somewhat arbitrary, and it
may be more accurate to define NMs by the size at which their chemical and physical
properties start to differ significantly from their bulk counterparts. For example,
NMs have high specific surface area and a high fraction of surface atoms, leading to
increased reactivity and in some cases a size dependent change in their optical,
electrical, and magnetic properties (i.e., a “nano-effect”). Nano-effects for metal
and metal oxide particles tend to be most pronounced below about 10–20 nm.

Any material having the appropriate dimensions can be classified as an NM,

but only certain nanoscale materials exhibit the properties (e.g., solubility,
reactivity, conductivity, optical properties) desired for engineering applications. NM
composition may be simple (e.g., nano-Ag) or quite complex (e.g.,
CdSe/ZnS/polymer core shell materials) and is generally well defined and free of
major impurities. Natural NMs, on the other hand, tend to be chemically impure.
Such differences in chemical purity might suggest new analytical approaches for ENP
detection. However, chemical transformations in the environment may significantly
alter ENPs’ chemical compositions, thereby reducing the potential for using
composition as a distinguishing characteristic.

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Size distribution is an important property routinely assessed when

characterizing nanoparticles. Size distributions can be number-based or mass-based.
Metrics may also be based on instrument measurements such as intensity or on
physicochemical properties such as surface area. Minimum characterization of size
distribution can include the mean size, the mode size, and the polydispersity index.

Nanotechnology relies on properties that scale with size, and thus ENPs are
designed and synthesized to be physically uniform (in addition to chemically pure)
because they best exhibit their nanoscale properties (e.g., photonic, catalytic) when
the particles have a narrow size distribution (i.e., are monodisperse). Although
synthesis often aims to produce monodisperse particles, it should be noted that
production of nanomaterials intended for large scale use (e.g., nanoscale zerovalent
iron for in situ remediation) often results in heterogeneous polydisperse materials
as well because it can be challenging to carefully control ENP properties when
producing ENPs on a large scale.

Natural nanoparticles generally display a broader range of sizes

(polydispersity), although there can be notable exceptions (e.g., biogenic
nanoparticles). This difference in particle polydispersity between ENPs and naturally
occurring nanoparticles may be useful for distinguishing between engineered and
natural particles. In environmental samples, however, transformation processes will
tend to alter the size distribution of engineered nanoparticles, likely eliminating
narrow size distributions as a possible distinguishing property.

Highly engineered surface coatings are a key component of engineered

nanoparticles and help to control properties such as solubility and reactivity.
Common coatings range from organic proteins (i.e. protein coronas) and polymers
(e.g. polyvinyl pyrrolidine) to inorganic ligands and surfactants (e.g., cysteine,
citrate, carbonate). These coatings generally serve to limit aggregation of the NMs
and can act via electrostatic and/or steric stabilization. Electrostatic stabilizers use
charge repulsion to prevent particle aggregation, while steric stabilizers, because of
their large size, physically prevent aggregation. These highly specialized coatings
can be unique macromolecules and may provide a means for detecting ENPs (through
mass-spectrometry) and perhaps differentiating them from ambient nanoparticles
with natural organic macromolecular coatings. Upon entry into the environment,
however, surface coatings may be altered, over-coated, or replaced by natural
organic matter such as organic acids and humic substances. Changes in coatings and
the associated surface properties of NMs are an ongoing area of study with
implications for the effects, fate, and transport of NMs in the environment and, for
this discussion, ENP identification.

Due to the ubiquity of natural nanoparticles and their role in several

important geochemical and biological chemical processes, it is thought that
organisms have adapted to their potential toxic effects. However, the release of
ENPs into the environment introduces a new class of potentially toxic contaminants
with a vast range of physiochemical properties, the impacts of which are not yet
fully understood. Furthermore, differentiation and comparison between natural and
engineered nanoparticles may help in understanding the environmental behavior of
ENPs because the natural and engineered particles share some stability and

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transport properties. For example, in addition to their own potential toxicity, ENPs
may have the potential to serve as vectors for the transport of other contaminants,
much as natural colloids are known to do. These concerns provide motivation to
develop nanometrology that can both differentiate ENPs from the natural
nanoparticle background and quantify ENP concentrations.

Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) can undergo changes throughout their

manufacture, use, and subsequent entry into and passage through the environment,
and the resulting changes may affect their chemical and physical forms, reactivity,
potential mobility, detectability, and toxicity. Physicochemical properties (e.g.,
size, charge, elemental composition, shape, coating) need to be examined. For
these properties, robust characterization and quantification metrologies do exist,
but their application outside the laboratory, and for other than simple ENMs, remains
underdeveloped. The aspects of ENM use, and subsequent release, most relevant to
nanometrology relate to analysis of ENPs in natural systems. ENPs are incorporated
into nano-enabled products, and pristine ENPs may be modified for incorporation
into these products. Furthermore, ENPs can be altered during normal product use.
To enter the environment, ENMs and ENPs must be released from the product
through weathering, after which further transformations can occur. Therefore, the
ENM in an environmental sample may bear little resemblance to the pristine ENP
that was incorporated into the product.

Advances in the life cycle assessment of NMs provide predictions of where

these materials will flow during their production, use, disposal, and eventual
introduction into the environment. For example, LCA has demonstrated that
wastewater treatment, in particular the production of treatment residuals (i.e.,
biosolids), is a major pathway to the environment for ENMs released from consumer
products. Predicted environmental concentrations (PECs) are important as they
relate to nanometrology sensitivity requirements. Most assessments suggest very low
ENM mass concentrations (< µg/L) are likely. However, current data on the
prevalence of ENP use and the release of ENPs into the environment is limited. This
lack of data poses a significant hurdle to accurate risk assessment for NMs.

To illustrate some of the analytical challenges unique to ENPs, it is useful to

compare the case of other trace contaminants in wastewater. Although ENMs and
pharmaceuticals are both released into the environment via wastewater treatment
residuals, pharmaceuticals are much more easily detected and characterized due to
the use of established, highly sensitive, and selective analytical techniques. They
also have a defined molecular structure, making them amenable to treatment as
chemicals, not materials. Methods such as liquid chromatography-tandem mass
spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and gas chromatography- mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
respond directly to the compound of concern, so pharmaceuticals analysis has much
less interference from background constituents. Furthermore, these techniques are
highly sensitive and such compounds can be detected and quantified at
environmentally relevant and extremely low (parts per quadrillion [ppq] or parts per
trillion [ppt]) levels in environmental samples.

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USES OF ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS

There is considerable interest in developing ENMs because their properties

differ in fundamental and valuable ways from those of individual atoms, molecules,
and bulk matter. Nanoscale products and materials are increasingly being used in
optoelectronic, electronic (e.g., computer hard drives), magnetic, medical imaging,
drug delivery, cosmetic and sunscreen, catalytic, stain resistant fabric, dental
bonding, corrosion-resistance, and coating applications.

Major future applications are expected to be in motor vehicles, electronics,

personal care products and cosmetics, and household and home improvement. These
applications capitalize on their electromagnetic, catalytic, pharmacokinetic, and
physico-chemical properties, including strength, stiffness, weight reduction,
stability, anti-fogging, and scratch resistance. Current products contain various
ENMs including nanotubes, metal oxides, and quantum dots (semiconductors
developed as bright, photostable fluorescent dyes and imaging agents).

Nanowerk identified 2500 commercial nanomaterials, including 27% metal

oxides, 24% CNTs, 18% elements, 7% quantum dots, and 5% fullerenes. There are >
1000 consumer products available that contain ENMs. They are primarily composed
of silver, carbon, zinc, silica, titanium and gold. The main application is in health
and fitness products. Three to four new nanotechnology-containing consumer
products are introduced weekly into the market, according to The Project on
Emerging Nanotechnologies.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Understanding, shaping and combining matter at the atomic and molecular

scale is called nanotechnology. Nanotechnology encompasses science, medicine,
engineering, computing and robotics at this scale, called the nanoscale.
Nanotechnology offers the potential for new and faster kinds of computers, more
efficient power sources and life-saving medical treatments. Potential disadvantages
include economic disruption and possible threats to security, privacy, health and the
environment.

Manufacturing Advantages
Nanotechnology is already making new materials available that could
revolutionize many areas of manufacturing. For example, nanotubes and nano
particles, which are tubes and particles only a few atoms across, and aerogels,
materials composed of very light and strong materials with remarkable insulating
properties, could pave the way for new techniques and superior products. In
addition, robots that are only a few nanometers in length, called nanobots, and
nanofactories could help construct novel materials and objects.

Energy Advantages
Nanotechnology may transform the ways in which we obtain and use energy.
In particular, it's likely that nanotechnology will make solar power more economical
by reducing the cost of constructing solar panels and related equipment. Energy

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storage devices will become more efficient as a result. Nanotechnology will also
open up new methods of generating and storing energy.

Advantages in Electronics and Computing

The field of electronics is set to be revolutionized by nanotechnology.
Quantum dots, for example, are tiny light-producing cells that could be used for
illumination or for purposes such as display screens. Silicon chips can already contain
millions of components, but the technology is reaching its limit; at a certain point,
circuits become so small that if a molecule is out of place the circuit won't work
properly. Nanotechnology will allow circuits to be constructed very accurately on an
atomic level.

Medical Advantages
Nanotechnology has the potential to bring major advances in medicine.
Nanobots could be sent into a patient's arteries to clear away blockages. Surgeries
could become much faster and more accurate. Injuries could be repaired cell-by-
cell. It may even become possible to heal genetic conditions by fixing the damaged
genes. Nanotechnology could also be used to refine drug production, tailoring drugs
at a molecular level to make them more effective and reduce side effects.

Environmental Effects
Some of the more extravagant negative future scenarios have been debunked
by experts in nanotechnology. For example: the so-called "gray goo" scenario, where
self-replicating nanobots consume everything around them to make copies of
themselves, was once widely discussed but is no longer considered to be a credible
threat. It is possible, however, that there will be some negative effects on the
environment as potential new toxins and pollutants may be created by
nanotechnology.

Economic Upheaval
It is likely that nanotechnology, like other technologies before it, will cause
major changes in many economic areas. Although products made possible by
nanotechnology will initially be expensive luxury or specialist items, once
availability increases, more and more markets will feel the impact. Some
technologies and materials may become obsolete, leading to companies specializing
in those areas going out of business. Changes in manufacturing processes brought
about by nanotechnology may result in job losses.

Privacy and Security

Nanotechnology raises the possibility of microscopic recording devices, which would
be virtually undetectable. More seriously, it is possible that nanotechnology could
be weaponized. Atomic weapons would be easier to create and novel weapons might
also be developed. One possibility is the so-called "smart bullet," a computerized
bullet that could be controlled and aimed very accurately. These developments may
prove a boon for the military; but if they fell into the wrong hands, the consequences
would be dire.

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 REFERENCES

1. Jerome Rosenberg, Lawrence Epstein, Peter Krieger. College Chemistry,

Tenth Edition. United States of America: McGraw-Hill Education, 2013.

2. Mark S. Cracolice, Edward I. Peters. Introductory Chemistry: An Active

Learning Approach, Fifth Edition. United States of America: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning, 2013.

3. Nivaldo J. Tro. Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Second Edition. New

Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011.

4. Ryan Manuel D. Guido, Rizaldy E. Garcia, Julius L. Meneses, Alexander B.

Quilang, Noel D. Binag. Fundamentals of Environmental Science.
Mandaluyong City: Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2015.

5. Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene LeMay, Bruce E. Bursten, Catherine Murphy,

Patrick Woodward, Matthew E. Stoltzfus. Chemistry: The Central Science,
Fourteenth Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2017.

6. Daniel D. Chiras. Environmental Science, Tenth Edition. Massachusetts:

Ascend Learning Company, 2016.

7. G. Tyler Miller, Scott E. Spoolman. Living in the Environment, Twentieth

Edition. Boston: Cengage Learning Inc., 2018.

ONLINE SOURCES:

1. https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry

2. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry

3. https://www.coursera.org/learn/general-chemistry

4. https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/index.php

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