Module 4

Sensors and Instrumentation (Visvesvaraya Technological

University)

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
‘Syllabus:
Digital Multimeter: Digital Frequency Meter and Digital Measurement of Time, Function Generator. Bridges:
Measurement of resistance: Wheatstone's Bridge, AC Bridges - Capacitance and Inductance Comparison bridge,
Wien's bridge. (Text2:refer 6.2,6.3 up to 6.3.2, 6.4 up to 6.4.2, 8.8, 11.2, 11.8 -11.10, 11.14)

Digital Multimeter:

Working Principle : Digital Multimeter employ some kind of analog to digital (A/D) and have a visible readout
display at the converter output.
The basic circuit shown in fugure above.
As seen from diagram, multimeters can read ac and dc – voltage, currents and resistances over several
ranges. Resistance measurement: Resistance is measured by passing a known current, from a constant
current source, through an unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistor is applied to the A/D
converter, thereby producing an indication of the value of the unknown resistance.
Current Measurement:
Alternating Current is converted to voltage.Then; alternating current is converted into dc by employing
rectifiers and filters and given to ADC circuit.
Direct current is converted into voltage –then given to ADC
circuit Voltage Measurement:
Alternating Voltage is passed through attenuator (to prevent damage of circuit if any high value), alternating
voltage is converted into direct voltage by employing rectifiers and filters and given to ADC circuit.
DC voltage is passed through attenuator then given to ADC circuit.

Current to voltage conversion: The current to be measured is applied to the summing junction (Σi) at the
input of the opamp. Since the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero because of the very high
input impedance of the amplifier, the current IR is very nearly equal to Ii, the current IR causes a voltage
drop which is proportional to the current, to be developed across the resistors. This voltage drop is the
input to the A/D converter, thereby providing a reading that is proportional to the unknown current.

Digital Frequency Meter:

Principle of Operation of Digital Frequency Meter – The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted
into a train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal. The number of pulses occurring in a definite
interval of time(STATE 1 of pulse) is then counted by an electronic counter. Since each pulse represents the
cycle of the unknown signal, the number of counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the signal
(unknown).

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency Meter:

The block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter is shown in Fig. 6.5.

The signal may be amplified before being applied to the Schmitt trigger. The Schmitt trigger converts the
input signal into a square wave .The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a START/STOP gate.
When this gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and are fed directly to the electronic
counter, which counts the number of pulses which is equivalent to unknown frequency.
When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the incoming pulses.
Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement:
The basic circuit for frequency measurement is as shown in Fig. 6.6. The output of the unknown frequency
is applied to a Schmitt trigger, producing positive pulses at the output. These pulses present at point A of
the main gate. Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B of the START gate and at
point B of the STOP gate.

Initially the Flip-Flop (F/F-1) is at its logic 1 state. The resulting voltage from output Y is applied to point A of
the STOP gate and enables this gate. The logic 0 stage at the output Y̅ of the F/F-1 is applied to the input A of
the START gate and disables the gate.

As the STOP gate is enabled, the positive pulses from the time base pass through the STOP gate to the Set
(S) input of the F/F-2
So,Y̅=0 of F/F-2 which is applied to terminal B of the main AND gate. Countng is also disabled now.
To start the operation, a positive pulse is applied to (read input) reset input of F/F-1, Now, Y̅ = 1, Y = 0,
STOP gate is disabled and the START gate enabled.
When the next pulse from the time base -passes through the START gate and resets reset F/F-2. Now, Y̅ = 1-is
applied at B input of main gate and is enabled.

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Now the pulses from the unknown frequency source pass through the main gate to the counter and the
counter starts counting. This same pulse from the START gate is applied to the set input of F/F-1,
changing its state from 0 to 1. This disables the START gate and enables the STOP gate. However, till
the main gate is enabled, pulses from the unknown frequency continue to pass through the main gate
to the counter.

The counter counts the number of pulses occurring between two successive pulses from the time base
selector.

Digital Measurement of Time

Principle of Operation of Digital Measurement of Time – The beginning of the time period is the start pulse
originating from input 1, and the end of the time period is the stop pulse coming from input 2.
The oscillator runs continuously, but the oscillator pulses reach the output only during the period when the
control F/F is in the 1 state. The number of output pulses counted is a measure of the time period.

Time Base Selector:

It is clear that in order to know the value of frequency of the input signal, the time interval between the start
and stop of the gate must be accurately known. This is called time base.
The time base consist of a fixed frequency crystal oscillator, called a clock oscillator. The output of this
constant frequency oscillator is fed to a Schmitt trigger, which converts the input sine wave to an output consisting
of a train of pulses at a rate equal to the frequency of the clock oscillator. The train of pulses then passes
through a series of frequency divider decade assemblies connected in cascade. Each decade divider consists
of a decade counter and divides the frequency by ten. Outputs are taken from each decade frequency
divider by means of a selector switch; any output may be selected.

Measurement of resistance: Wheatstone's Bridge

Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by balancing two legs of the bridge
circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown resistanceinvented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and later later popularized
by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843.
The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one unknown resistor and one variable resistor connected in the form of a
bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate measurements.
Wheatstone Bridge Diagram:

A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of four arms, of which two arms consist of known resistances while the
other two arms consist of an unknown resistance and a variable resistance. The circuit also consists of a
galvanometer and an electromotive force source. The emf source is attached between points a and b while the
galvanometer is connected between
points c and d. The current that flows through the galvanometer depends on its potential difference The
galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with a zero centre scale. When there is no current through the
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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
meter, the galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale.

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION

When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e. I1 and I2. The bridge is
balanced when the potential difference at points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the galvanometer
is zero.

To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11.1.

For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

Substituting in Eq. (11.1)

This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance normally connected
at R4. Hence

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Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge:

To determine the amount of deflection that would result for a particular degree of unbalance, general circuit
analysis can be applied, but we shall use Thevenin’s theorem.

Now. Thevenin’s equivalent is to be find out. This is done by short circuiting voltage source and open
circuiting current source.

Step1:open-circuit current source and find voltage between terminals a and b.

Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined as follows

Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the difference between Ea and Eb, which represents Thevenin’s
equivalent
voltage.

Therefore

Step 2:Short circuit voltage source and find Thevenin’s equivalent resistance

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e. R1//R3 + R2//R4.

Therefore, Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 11.4.

If a galvanometer is connected across the terminals a and b -there will be the same deflection at the output
of the bridge.

Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone’s Bridge:

If three of the four resistor in a bridge are equal to R and the fourth differs by 5% or less, we can develop an
approximate but
accurate expression for Thevenin’s equivalent voltage and resistance.

Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7.

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The voltage at point a is

The voltage at point b is

Thevenin’s equivalent voltage between a and b is the difference between these

voltages. Therefore

If Δ r is 5% of R or less, Δ r in the denominator can be neglected without introducing appreciable error.

Therefore, Thevenin’s voltage is

The equivalent resistance can be calculated by replacing the voltage source with its internal impedance (for
all practical purpose short-circuit). The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance is given by

Again, if Δr is small compared to R, Δ r can be neglected. Therefore,

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Application of Wheatstone’s Bridge:

A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the dc resistance of various types of wire, either for the
purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used. For example, the
resistance of motor windings, transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be measured. Wheatstone Bridge
diagram is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable faults. Limitations of
Wheatstone’s Bridge:

In the case of high resistance measurements in mega ohms, the Wheatstone’s bridge cannot be used.

AC Wheatstone Bridge:

Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means of an ac Wheatstone bridge. The diagram of an ac

bridge is given in Fig. 11.17.

Comparison Bridge:
There are two types of Comparison Bridge, Namely
1. Capacitance Comparison Bridge 2. Inductance Comparison Bridge
Capacitance Comparison Bridge:

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𝐳 𝐳 = 𝐳
𝐳
(𝑅 −
𝑅 ) = (𝑅 −
𝑅 𝑅 ) , 𝑖. 𝑒, =
𝑅𝑅
− −
𝑗 𝑗
𝑗𝑅2
𝑅
Condition for balance:
𝑗𝑅1
,i.e,

𝟏 𝐱 𝟐 1 2 3 1 𝑋 2 3
𝟑
Ɯ𝐶3
𝑋 𝑋
Ɯ𝐶 Ɯ𝐶
Ɯ𝐶3 𝑋

Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary terms are equal. Therefore,

i.e., 𝑅 𝑅 =
𝑅 , AND =
𝑅1 𝑅2

1 𝑋 2
3
Ɯ𝐶𝑋 Ɯ𝐶3

=>𝑹𝑿 𝑹𝟐𝑹
𝑪𝑿
𝑪𝟑𝑹𝟏

= 𝑹𝟐
=
𝟑
𝑹𝟏

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
2. Inductance Comparison Bridge:

From above diagram, 𝒁𝟏 = 𝑹𝟏, 𝒁𝟐 = 𝑹𝟐 , 𝒁𝟑 = (𝐑𝟑 + 𝐣Ɯ𝐋𝟑), 𝒁𝑿 = (𝐑𝐗 + 𝐣Ɯ𝐋𝐗)

𝐳𝟏𝐳𝐱 = 𝐳𝟐𝐳𝟑, i.e,𝐑 (𝐑 𝟏 𝐗 + 𝐣Ɯ𝐋𝐗) = 𝐑𝟐(𝐑𝟑 + 𝐣Ɯ𝐋𝟑), 𝐢. 𝐞, 𝐑𝟏𝐑𝐗 + 𝐣𝐑𝟏Ɯ𝐋𝐗

= 𝐑𝟐𝐑𝟑 + 𝐣𝐑𝟐Ɯ𝐋𝟑
Condition for balance:

Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary terms are

equal. Therefore, i.e., 𝑅1𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅2𝑅3, AND R1LX = R2L3

=>𝑹𝑿 𝑹𝟐𝑹 𝐋𝐗
𝐑 𝟐𝐋 𝟑

=
𝑹𝟏
=
𝟑
𝑹𝟏

Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram:

The Wien Bridge Circuit Diagram shown in Fig. below has a series RC combination in one arm and a parallel
combination in the adjoining arm. Wien’s bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure frequency. It can also be
used for the measurement of an unknown capacitor with great accuracy

The impedance of one arm is

The admittance of the parallel arm is

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Using the bridge balance

equation, we have

Therefore,

Equating the real and imaginary terms we have

Therefore

and

as

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 MODULE- 4 DEPT OF ECE, MITK SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTATION
The two conditions for bridge balance, (11.21) and (11.23), result in an expression determining the required
R2/ resistance ratio and
R4
another expression determining the frequency of the applied voltage.

If we satisfy Eq. (11.21) and also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. (11.23), the bridge will

be balanced. In most Wien Bridge Circuit, R1 = R3 = R and C1 = C3 = C.

Equation (11.21) therefore reduces to

R2/R4 = 2
Eq. (11.23) to f = ½πRC, which is the equation for the frequency of the bridge

circuit. Applications:

The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. The audio range is normally divided into 20 – 200 –
2 k – 20InkHz
thisranges.
case, the resistances can be used for range changing and capacitors C1 and C3 for fine frequency
range. control within the

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