Woldia University

Mechanical Engineering Department

Engineering Materials I (MEng2122)

Yiene Molla (MSc)
 COURSE MATERIALS

Required text:

•Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction,

W.D. Callister, Jr. and D.G. Rethwisch, 8th edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc. (2010).

2
Chapter 1 - Introduction
• What is materials science?
• Why should we know about it?

• Materials drive our society

• Stone Age
• Bronze Age
• Iron Age
• Now?
• Silicon Age?
• Polymer Age?

3
 WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCI. & ENG.?

• To be able to select a material for a given use based on

considerations of cost and performance.

• To understand the limits of materials and the change of their

properties with use.

• To be able to create a new material that will have some

desirable properties.

4
MATERIALS SICENCE VS MATERIALS ENG.

On the basis of structure-property correlations:

 Materials science involves investigating the relationship

btw structures & properties of materials.

 Materials Eng. is designing or engineering the structure of

a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.

5
MATERIALS SICENCE VS MATERIALS ENG.

On the basis of functional prospective:

 The role of materials scientist is to develop or synthesize

new materials

 Materials Eng. is called upon to create new products or

systems using existing materials, and/or develop techniques

for processing materials.

6
Materials
 Over 70,000 different kinds and grades of engineering
materials
 This number grows daily
 1,000 different materials make up an automobile
TYPES OF MATERIALS
Most engineering materials can be classified into one of three
basic categories:
1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Polymers
 Their chemistries are different, and their mechanical and
physical properties are different
In addition, there is a fourth category:
4. Composites
-is a nonhomogeneous mixture of the other three types, rather
than a unique category
8
 TYPES OF MATERIALS (con’t)

Source: Fundamentals of Modern

Manufacturing materials: processes and
systems, M.P. Groover, 5th edition, John
Wiley & Sons Inc. (2007).
1
1
 Metals
• Cast Iron
• Steel
• Mild steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel

• Specialty steel
• Stainless (tin plated or galvanized)

• Alloys (two or more pure metals)

• Steel= iron & carbon
• Brass= copper & zinc
• Bronze= copper & tin
 Metals
Metallic bonds
– Strong, ductile, resistant to
fracture
– High thermal & electrical
conductivity
– Opaque, reflective.

Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys

 CERAMICS
Ionic bonding
–Brittle, glassy, elastic
–Non-conducting (insulative to the passage of heat & electricity)
–Transparent, translucent, or opaque
–Some exhibit magnetic behavior (e.g. Fe3O4)

13

Familiar objects that are made of ceramic materials

 Ceramics

• Clay based
• Structural clay-tile, brick
• Porcelain

• Refractories
• Heat resistant (fire bricks)

• Glasses

• Inorganic cements
 POLYMERS/PLASTICS
Covalent bonding - sharing of e’s
 Soft, ductile, low strength, low density
 Thermal & electrical insulators
 Optically translucent or transparent
 Chemically inert and unreactive
 Sensitive to ΔT

Familiar objects that are made of polymeric materials

Polymers

• Natural
• Animal cellulose

• Synthetic-
• Thermoplastics
• Thermosets
 COMPOSITES
– Light, strong, flexible
– High costs

16
Natural Composites

• Hardwood
• Deciduous Trees

• Softwood
• Coniferous
ADVANCED MATERIALS
Materials that are utilized in high-tech applications
•Semiconductors

Have electrical conductivities intermediate between

conductors and insulators
•Biomaterials
Must be compatible with body tissues

18
• Smart materials

Could sense and respond to changes in their environments in

predetermined manners
• Nanomaterials
Have structural features on the order of a nanometer, some of
which may be designed on the atomic/molecular level
Example – Hip Implant
• With age or certain illnesses joints deteriorate. Particularly
those with large loads (such as hip).

Adapted from Fig. 22.25, Callister 7e. 20

 Example – Hip Implant

• Requirements
• mechanical strength
(many cycles)
• good lubricity
• biocompatibility

Adapted from Fig. 22.24, Callister 7e.

21
Example – Hip Implant

Adapted from Fig. 22.26, Callister 7e. 22

Types of Materials (Con’t)

Bar chart of room-temperature density values for various metals, ceramics,

polymers, and composite materials

23
Types of Materials (Con’t)

Bar chart of room-temperature stiffness values for various metals, ceramics,

polymers, and composite materials

24
Types of Materials (Con’t)

Bar chart of room-temperature strength (i.e. tensile strength) values for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials
Types of Materials (Con’t)

Bar chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture for various metals,

ceramics, polymers, and composite materials
The Materials Selection Process
1. Pick Application Determine required Properties
Properties: mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.

2. Properties Identify candidate Material(s)

Material: structure, composition.

3. Material Identify required Processing

Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.

27
STRUCTURE, PROCESSING, & PROPERTIES
• One aspect of Materials Science is the investigation of
relationships that exist between the processing, structures,
properties, and performance of materials.

• The performance of a material depends on its properties

• Properties depend on structure ex: hardness vs structure of steel
• Processing can change structure
Ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel 22

The four components of the discipline of materials science and engineering and
their interrelationship
STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

• By structure we mean how some internal components of the

material is (are) arranged.

• In terms of dimensionality, structural elements include

subatomic, atomic, microscopic, and macroscopic

23
Structure, Processing, & Properties
• Properties depend on structure
ex: hardness vs structure of steel

(d)
6 00
Hardness (BHN)

30 μm
5 00 (c) Data obtained from Figs. 12.31(a) and
12.32 with 4 wt% C composition, and from
4 00 (b) Fig. 17.8, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(a) Micrographs adapted from (a) Fig. 12.19;
4 μm
3 00 (b) Fig. 11.29; (c) Fig. 12.33; and (d) Fig.
12.21, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Figures
30 μm 12.19, 12.21, & 12.33 copyright 1971 by United
2 00 30 μm States Steel Corporation. Figure 9.30 courtesy
of Republic Steel Corporation.)

100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Cooling Rate (ºC/s)
• Processing can change structure
ex: structure vs cooling rate of steel
30
ELECTRICAL
• Electrical Resistivity of Copper:
6 Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8 adapted
5 from: J.O. Linde, Ann Physik 5, 219
(1932); and C.A. Wert and R.M.
Resistivity, r

Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd

(10-8 Ohm-m)

4 edition, McGraw-Hill Company, New

York, 1970.)

3
2
1
0
-200 -100 0 T (ºC)
• Adding “impurity” atoms to Cu increases resistivity.
• Deforming Cu increases resistivity.
31
 THERMAL
• Space Shuttle Tiles: • Thermal Conductivity
-- Silica fiber insulation of Copper:
offers low heat conduction. -- It decreases when
Adapted from chapter- you add zinc!
opening photograph,
Chapter 17, Callister &

Thermal Conductivity
Rethwisch 3e. (Courtesy 400
of Lockheed
Missiles and Space
300

(W/m-K)
Company, Inc.)

200

100
0
0 10 20 30 40
Composition (wt% Zinc)
Adapted from Adapted from Fig. 19.4, Callister & Rethwisch
Fig. 19.4W, Callister 8e. (Fig. 19.4 is adapted from Metals Handbook:
6e. (Courtesy of Properties and Selection: Nonferrous alloys and
Lockheed Aerospace Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker,
Ceramics Systems, (Managing Editor), American Society for Metals,
Sunnyvale, CA) 1979, p. 315.)
(Note: "W" denotes fig.
100 mm is on CD-ROM.) 32
MAGNETIC
• Magnetic Storage: • Magnetic Permeability
-- Recording medium vs. Composition:
is magnetized by -- Adding 3 atomic % Si
recording head. makes Fe a better
recording medium!

Magnetization
Fe+3%Si

Fe

Magnetic Field
Adapted from C.R. Barrett, W.D. Nix, and
Fig. 20.23, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. A.S. Tetelman, The Principles of
Engineering Materials, Fig. 1-7(a), p. 9,
1973. Electronically reproduced
by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

33
 OPTICAL
• Transmittance:
-- Aluminum oxide may be transparent, translucent, or
opaque depending on the material structure.

polycrystal: polycrystal:
single crystal low porosity high porosity

Adapted from Fig. 1.2,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Specimen preparation,
P.A. Lessing; photo by S.
Tanner.)

34
 DETERIORATIVE
• Stress & Saltwater... • Heat treatment: slows
-- causes cracks! crack speed in salt water!

crack speed (m/s)

10-8 “as-is”
“held at
160ºC for 1 hr
before testing”
10-10 Alloy 7178 tested in
saturated aqueous NaCl
solution at 23ºC

increasing load
Adapted from Fig. 11.20(b), R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials" (4th ed.), p. 505, John
Adapted from chapter-opening photograph, Wiley and Sons, 1996. (Original source: Markus O. Speidel, Brown
Chapter 16, Callister & Rethwisch 3e. Boveri Co.)
(from Marine Corrosion, Causes, and
Prevention, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975.) 4 mm
-- material:
7150-T651 Al "alloy"
(Zn,Cu,Mg,Zr)

Adapted from Fig. 11.26,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Provided courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane
Company.) 35
Example/Demo: Environmental Stress
Cracking

36
 SUMMARY
Course Goals:
• Use the right material for the job.

• Understand the relation between properties,

structure, and processing.

• Recognize new design opportunities offered

by materials selection.

37
Chapter 2: The Structure of Crystalline Solids

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?

• How does the density of a material depend on

its structure?

• When do material properties vary with the

sample (i.e., part) orientation?

39
 Energy and Packing
• Non dense, random packing
Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

• Dense, ordered packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have

lower energies.
40
 Materials and Packing
Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

41
Metallic Crystal Structures
• How can we stack metal atoms to minimize empty
space?
2-dimensions

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

42
 Metallic Crystal Structures

• Tend to be densely packed.

• Reasons for dense packing:
- Typically, only one element is present, so all atomic
radii are the same.
- Metallic bonding is not directional.
- Nearest neighbor distances tend to be small in
order to lower bond energy.
- Electron cloud shields cores from each other
• Have the simplest crystal structures.

We will examine three such structures...

43
 Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

Click once on image to start animation

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

44
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a) 3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.24,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 45
 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Click once on image to start animation Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8
46
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
a
atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 p ( 3a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell 47
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
• Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.
--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

• Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Click once on image to start animation
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

48
 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & atoms volume
Rethwisch 8e. 4
unit cell 4 p ( 2a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
49
 FCC Stacking Sequence
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

50
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure (HCP)

• ABAB... Stacking Sequence

• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c
B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74 ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn
• c/a = 1.633 51
Theoretical Density, r
Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell
Density = r =
Total Volume of Unit Cell

nA
r =
VC NA

where n = number of atoms/unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic
NA = Avogadro’s number
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

52
 Theoretical Density, r

• Ex: Cr (BCC)
A = 52.00 g/mol
R = 0.125 nm
n = 2 atoms/unit cell

R
Adapted from
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
a a = 4R/ 3 = 0.2887 nm
Rethwisch 8e.
atoms
g
unit cell 2 52.00 rtheoretical = 7.18 g/cm3
mol
r= ractual = 7.19 g/cm3
a3 6.022 x 1023
volume atoms
unit cell mol 53
 Densities of Material Classes
In general Graphite/
rmetals > rceramics > rpolymers
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
30
Why? Platinum
B ased on data in Table B1, Callister
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
20 Gold, W
Metals have... Tantalum Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
Epoxy composites (values based on
• close-packing 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
10 Silver, Mo in an epoxy matrix).
(metallic bonding) Cu,Ni
Steels
• often large atomic masses Tin, Zinc
Zirconia

r (g/cm3 )
5
Ceramics have... 4
Titanium
Al oxide
• less dense packing 3
Diamond
Si nitride
Aluminum Glass -soda
• often lighter elements Concrete
Silicon PTFE
Glass fibers
GFRE*
2 Carbon fibers
Polymers have... Magnesium G raphite
Silicone CFRE *
A ramid fibers
PVC
• low packing density PET
PC
AFRE *
1 HDPE, PS
(often amorphous) PP, LDPE
• lighter elements (C,H,O)
0.5
Composites have... 0.4
Wood

• intermediate values 0.3

Data from Table B.1, Callister & Rethwisch, 8e.
54
Crystals as Building Blocks
• Some engineering applications require single crystals:
-- diamond single -- turbine blades
crystals for abrasives Fig. 8.33(c), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 8.33(c)
(Courtesy Martin Deakins,
courtesy of Pratt and
GE Superabrasives,
Whitney).
Worthington, OH. Used with
permission.)

• Properties of crystalline materials

often related to crystal structure.
-- Ex: Quartz fractures more easily
along some crystal planes than
others.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

55
Polycrystals Anisotropic
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

Adapted from Fig. K,

color inset pages of
Callister 5e.
(Fig. K is courtesy of
Paul E. Danielson,
Teledyne Wah Chang
Albany)
1 mm

• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld. Isotropic

• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
(i.e., from a few to millions of atomic layers).
56
 Single vs Polycrystals
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
Data from Table 3.3,
-Properties vary with Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Source of data is
direction: anisotropic. R.W. Hertzberg,
Deformation and
-Example: the modulus Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials,
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron: 3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1989.)

E (edge) = 125 GPa

• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not 200 mm Adapted from Fig.
4.14(b), Callister &
vary with direction. Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 4.14(b) is courtesy
-If grains are randomly of L.C. Smith and C.
Brady, the National
oriented: isotropic. Bureau of Standards,
Washington, DC [now
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa) the National Institute of
Standards and
-If grains are textured, Technology,
anisotropic. Gaithersburg, MD].)

57
Polymorphism
• Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same
material (allotropy/polymorphism)
iron system
titanium
, -Ti liquid
1538ºC
carbon BCC -Fe
diamond, graphite 1394ºC
FCC -Fe
912ºC
BCC -Fe

58
Crystal Systems

Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which

contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.

7 crystal systems

14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Fig. 3.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

59
Point Coordinates
z
111 Point coordinates for unit cell
c center are
a/2, b/2, c/2 ½½½

000
y
a b
x Point coordinates for unit cell
 corner are 111
z 2c


 
Translation: integer multiple of
y lattice constants  identical
b position in another unit cell
b
60
 Crystallographic Directions
z pt. 2
Example 2:
head
pt. 1 x1 = a, y1 = b/2, z1 = 0
pt. 2 x2 = -a, y2 = b, z2 = c

y
pt. 1:
x tail => -2, 1/2, 1

Multiplying by 2 to eliminate the fraction

-4, 1, 2 => [ 412 ] where the overbar represents a

negative index

families of directions <uvw>

61
 Crystallographic Directions
z Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

x [uvw]

ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]

-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a
negative index
families of directions <uvw>
62
 Linear Density
Number of atoms
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD = Unit length of direction vector

[110]
ex: linear density of Al in [110]
direction
a = 0.405 nm

# atoms
a 2
LD = = 3.5 nm-1
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
length 2a
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

63
Crystallographic Planes
• Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial
intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have same
Miller indices.

• Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

64
Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (100) a b
x
65
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3  y

3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices (634) x

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

66
Crystallographic Planes
• We want to examine the atomic packing of
crystallographic planes
• Iron foil can be used as a catalyst. The atomic
packing of the exposed planes is important.
a) Draw (100) and (111) crystallographic planes
for Fe.
b) Calculate the planar density for each of these planes.

67
 Virtual Materials Science & Engineering (VMSE)
• VMSE is a tool to visualize materials science topics such as
crystallography and polymer structures in three dimensions

• Available in Student Companion Site at www.wiley.com/college/callister

68
and in WileyPLUS
VMSE: Metallic Crystal Structures & Crystallography
Module
• VMSE allows you to view crystal structures, directions, planes,
etc. and manipulate them in three dimensions

69
 Unit Cells for Metals

• VMSE allows you to view the unit cells and manipulate

them in three dimensions

• Below are examples of actual VMSE screen shots

FCC Structure HCP Structure

70
 Planar Density of (100) Iron
Solution: At T < 912ºC iron has the BCC structure.
2D repeat unit

(100) 4 3
a= R
3

Adapted from Fig. 3.2(c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Radius of iron R = 0.1241 nm
atoms
2D repeat unit 1
1 atoms atoms
19
Planar Density = = 2 = 12.1 = 1.2 x 10
area a2 4 3 nm 2 m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
71
 Planar Density of (111) Iron
Solution (cont): (111) plane 1 atom in plane/ unit surface cell

2a atoms in plane
atoms above plane
atoms below plane

3
h= a
2
2
 4 3  16 3 2
area = 2 ah = 3 a = 3 
2
R  = R
atoms  3  3
2D repeat unit 1
atoms = atoms
Planar Density = = 7.0 0.70 x 1019
nm 2 m2
area 16 3 2
R
2D repeat unit 3
72
 VMSE Planar Atomic Arrangements
• VMSE allows you to view planar arrangements and rotate
them in 3 dimensions

BCC (110) Plane

73
X-Ray Diffraction

• Diffraction gratings must have spacings comparable to the

wavelength of diffracted radiation.
• Can’t resolve spacings  
• Spacing is the distance between parallel planes of atoms.
74
 X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure
• Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal planes.

reflections must
be in phase for
a detectable signal
extra  Adapted from Fig. 3.20,
q q
distance
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
travelled
by wave “2” spacing
d between
planes

Measurement of X-ray
n
critical angle, qc, intensity d=
(from 2 sin qc
allows computation of
detector)
planar spacing, d.
q
qc
75
 X-Ray Diffraction Pattern
z z z
c c c

y (110) y y
a b a b a b
Intensity (relative)

x x x (211)

(200)

Diffraction angle 2q

Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline -iron (BCC)

Adapted from Fig. 3.22, Callister 8e.

76
SUMMARY
• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or
amorphous structures.
• Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and
HCP. Coordination number and atomic packing factor
are the same for both FCC and HCP crystal structures.
• We can predict the density of a material, provided we
know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal
geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC, HCP).
• Crystallographic points, directions and planes are
specified in terms of indexing schemes.
Crystallographic directions and planes are related
to atomic linear densities and planar densities.

77
SUMMARY
• Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline.
Material properties generally vary with single crystal
orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally
non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals
with randomly oriented grains.
• Some materials can have more than one crystal
structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or
allotropy).
• X-ray diffraction is used for crystal structure and
interplanar spacing determinations.

78